CET 206

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING

Hima S
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Trinity College of Engineering
MODULE - 3
Traffic Engineering
Definition:
• Institute of Traffic Engineers, USA defines ‘Traffic Engineering is that phase
of engineering which deals with planning and geometric design of streets,
highways, abutting lands and with traffic operation there on, as their use is
related to the safe, convenient and economic transportation of persons and
goods’.
Scope of Traffic Engineering:
Study may be divided into six major sections.
1. Traffic characteristics
2. Traffic studies and analysis
3. Traffic operation – control & regulation
4. Planning and analysis
5. Geometric design
6. Administration and management
 Traffic Characteristics
Traffic Characteristics

Road users characteristics Vehicular characteristics

Physical characteristics Static characteristics

Mental characteristics Dynamic characteristics

Psychological factors

Environmental factors
Road user characteristics
• Human beings are the road users as pedestrians, cyclists or motorists.
The mental, physical and psychological characteristics of road users
affect their ability to be a safe pedestrian or motorists.

Physical characteristics

1. Temporary characteristics: Fatigue, consumption of alcohol or drugs

and illness which reduce alertness and increase the reaction time and
also affects the ability to judge.
2. Permanent characteristics: Vision, hearing, strength and general
reaction to traffic situations.
Vision
Most important factor that affects highway design and safety.
1. Acute or clear vision cone: Field of clearest and acute vision is within the cone whose
angle is 3° about the centre line of retina.
• Helps for distant vision.
2. Fairly clear vision cone: Vision is satisfactory when angle of cone is 10° to 12° around
the line of sight.
• Colour and shape can be identified in this field.
• Important for locating traffic signs and signals.
3. Peripheral vision: Total visual field for two eyes.
• Vision is possible but without clear details and colour.
• Angle of peripheral vision.
➢160° in horizontal direction
➢115° in vertical direction
• Hearing helps drivers in a way, though it is more important for pedestrians
and cyclists.
• Though strength is not an important factor in general, lack of strength may
make parking difficult, particularly for heavy vehicles.

Mental characteristics

Knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience and literacy can affect the road user
characteristics knowledge of vehicle characteristics, traffic behaviour, driving
practice, rules of roads and psychology of road users will be useful for safe
traffic operations. Experience helps in reacting to certain situations.
Understanding traffic regulation, timely action for special instructions depends
on intelligence and literacy.
Road user characteristics
Psychological factors
• These factors affect the reaction time to traffic situation of road users.
Emotional factors such as attentiveness, fear, anger, superstition,
impatience, general attitude towards traffic and regulation also comes
under this.
Environmental Factors
• Various environmental factors include traffic stream characteristics,
facilities to traffic, atmospheric conditions and locality. The purpose of
trip such as educational, shopping, official or recreational purpose will
also affect the behaviour of the user.
Vehicular characteristics
• Vehicular characteristics are important for the design of road. The basic
criteria for design is that it should cater for needs of existing and
anticipated traffic. Geometric standards and thickness of pavement
cannot be increased from time to time to meet the needs of emerging
vehicles.
• Various vehicular characteristics may be divided into two:

1. Static characteristics
2. Dynamic characteristics
Vehicular characteristics
1. Static characteristics: Static characteristics affecting road design
are dimensions, weight and maximum turning angle. Height of vehicle
affects the clearance of overhead structure. Width of vehicles affects
width of lanes. Height of driver seats affects the visibility distance and
height of head light affects the headlight sight distance. The visibility
of driver is also affected by the design of wind shield, front body of
the vehicle etc.
2. Dynamic characteristics: Dynamic characteristics affecting
design are speed, acceleration and braking characteristics. Speed
affects sight distance, superelevation. Length of curve, design gradient
etc. Braking characteristics also affects sight distance and spacing
between vehicles. Stability of vehicle is affected by width of wheel
base and height of centre of gravity. Riding comfort depends on
suspension system of vehicles.
Traffic Capacity
➢Traffic volume: It is the number of vehicles moving in a direction in a given lane during
unit time.
➢Traffic density: It is the number of vehicles occupying unit length of roadway.
➢Traffic capacity: It is the ability to accommodate traffic volume. It is the maximum
number of vehicle in a lane or road that can pass a given point in unit time.
➢Basic capacity: It is the maximum number of passenger cars that can pass a point on a
lane or roadway during one hour under most ideal conditions of roadway and traffic.
➢Possible capacity: It is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a
lane or roadway during one hour under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
➢Practical capacity: It is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on
a lane or roadway during one hour, without traffic density being so great as to cause
unreasonable delay, hazard or restriction to driver. This is also called design capacity.
Level of Service LOS
➢LOS is defined as a qualitative measure describing operational condition
within a traffic stream and their perception by drivers/passengers.
➢Factors for determining LOS are speed, travel time, freedom to maneuver,
traffic interruptions, comfort, convenience and safety.
➢6 LOS are commonly recognized:
Traffic surveys
1. Classified volume counts
2. Investigations for predicting traffic growth
3. Axle load surveys
4. Speed and delay surveys
5. Origin-Destination surveys
Traffic surveys
1. Classified volume counts
• The most common data needed for highway design is the volume of traffic.
• Volume or flow is expressed in vehicles per hour or vehicles per day.
• The traffic counts are taken by noting the number of vehicles of various classes
that pass the count point in each direction during periodic time intervals.
• Traffic census is taken regularly on the NH network twice year, for seven
consecutive days in each round.
• One round covers the peak season and the other the lean season.
• The average of the seven days traffic is known as ADT(Average daily traffic).
• If traffic count is taken continuously for all the days in the year, the average
traffic so obtained is known as the AADT(Annual Average Daily Traffic).
• Counting of traffic volume: Mechanical counters, Manual counters
Traffic surveys
2. Traffic growth rate
• The estimate of future traffic is important for geometric design, pavement design and
economic analysis. The rate of growth is one of the most difficult elements to be
determined.
• Some of the methods for its estimation are:
a) Trend analysis: The past trend of traffic growth is analyzed and the rate
established by fitting a regression curve of the following type.
Tn = T0 (1 + r)n
Where, n = number of years(0,1,2,…,n)
T0 = Initial Traffic
Tn = Traffic in the year ‘n’
r = rate of growth in decimals
The future rate of growth can then be fixed equal to, higher than or lesser than the past
rate based on the perception of the highway engineer.
Traffic surveys
2. Traffic growth rate
b) Economical model: The historic data on selected economic
indicators is obtained along with the historic traffic census data. A
regression equation of the following form is fitted:
Log e T= A + B Log e (GNP)
Where, T = Traffic
A = constant
B = Coefficient which is known as the elasticity
GNP = Gross National Product
In the above equation, B gives the measure of the elasticity of traffic
w.r.t GNP. If its value is 2, it signifies that for every one percent increase
in GNP there is a growth of 2 percent in traffic.
Traffic surveys
3. Axle load surveys
• Axle load surveys are needed for designing pavements.
• Since commercial vehicles tend to be overloaded in India, they cause much
heavier damage than a standard axle load does.
4. Speed and delay surveys
• Speed and delay surveys on the existing road system are needed for assessing
the losses caused by the congested conditions.
• The survey is conveniently done by the moving observer method.
• A car is driven along the road, noting its travel time, number of vehicles met
with in the opposite direction and the number of vehicles overtaken.
• About six runs are needed to average out.
• The survey gives the journey speed and volume.
Traffic surveys
5. Origin and destination surveys
• The OD survey is carried out for assessing the by passable traffic
at towns and for planning of new facilities like Expressways.
• It is done by many methods like the registration number matching,
road side interview and post card questionnaire.
Types of Road Intersections

• Intersections may be broadly classified as

1. Intersection at grade
2. Grade separated intersection
• Intersection at grade, all roads meet at the
same level. All traffic maneuvers – merging,
diverging and crossing involved.
• In grade separated intersection, roads are
separated by difference in level.
Types of Road Intersections
Intersection at grade
➢All roads meeting at the same level with all traffic maneuvers including
merging, diverging and crossing is called at grade intersection.
➢Basic requirements are:
i. Area of conflict should be small.
ii. Relative speed and angle of approach of vehicle should be small.
iii. Adequate visibility should be available.
iv. Sudden change of path should be avoided.
v. Features like turning radius and width of pavement should be adequately
provided.
vi. Proper signs should be provided to warn the drivers.
vii. Good lighting at night is desirable.
viii. Separate facility for pedestrian and cyclists should be provided if their volume
is high.
Various forms of intersections at grade

Tee Cross Staggered Skewed

Skewed Staggered Wye Multiple

Skewed Cross
Intersection at grade may be further
classified as:
i. Unchannelized intersection
ii. Channelized intersection
iii. Rotary intersection

Unchannelized intersection
In this type there is no restriction to vehicle to use any
part of intersection area. They are the lowest class of
intersection with maximum conflict. When no additional
width is provided for turning movement, it is called
plain intersection. When pavement is widened at
intersection area, it is called flared intersection.
Channelized intersection
In channelized intersection, islands are introduced at intersectional area, thus
reducing the conflicts. Islands help to channelize turning traffic, to control their
speed and angle of approach and to decrease the conflict area. Channelization
may be either partial or complete with divisional and directional islands and
medians.
Advantages:
• Vehicles can be confined to definite paths.
• Angle of merging can be made flat.
• Major and minor conflicts can be reduced.
• Speed control can be established.
• Refuge islands can be provided for pedestrians.
• Channelizing island provide space for installation of
traffic signals.
Rotary intersection
• A rotary intersection or traffic rotary is an enlarged road
intersection where all converging vehicles are forced to move
around large control island in one direction before they weave
out of flow into their respective direction.
• These islands eliminate conflicts.
• Design factors to be considered are design speed, shape of
central island, radius of rotary, weaving angle, width of
rotary, radius of entrance and exit curves, channelizing
islands, camber and super elevation, grade, lighting and
signs.
 Advantages of Rotary Intersection
• Crossing maneuvers is converted
into weaving or merging and
diverging operations.
• All traffic including those going
right or straight have equal
opportunities as that of left traffic.
• Variable cost of operation of
vehicles reduces as they don’t have
to stop and proceed as incase of
signals.
• No necessity of traffic police or
signals.
• Reduction in number of accidents.
Limitations of Rotary Intersection
• Area required is more.
• Where pedestrians is high, police is
required.
• When distance between intersections
on highway is less, rotaries become
troublesome.
• When there are large number of cycles
and animal drawn vehicles, they may
violate regulation.
• When traffic volume is less,
construction of rotary is not justified.
Grade separated intersections
➢Grade separation is generally achieved by means
of a vertical level.
➢For example, if two roads are intersecting at one
point on a ground level, then grade separation is
achieved by raising or lowering the profile of one
of the roads with respect to ground level. So, the
traffic from both roads will never meet and safety
aspect stays intact.
➢The grade separated intersections as:
1. Over pass
2. Under pass
➢When major highway is taken above the general
ground level, it is an over pass.
➢If highway is taken below the ground level by
means of under bridge, it is an under pass.
 Over pass
Advantages
• Drainage problems may be
reduced.
• When wider road is taken above
the bridge of smaller span,
construction cost is less.
• Aesthetic preference to main
through traffic.
• No feeling of confinement as in
the case of under pass.
• Future expansion possible.
Disadvantages
• In rolling terrain, if major road is
taken above, the vertical profile
will also have rolling grade line.
• If highway is taken over high
embankment by providing steep
gradients, grader existence will
cause reduction in speeds.
 Under pass
Advantages Disadvantages

• Warning is given to traffic in • Drainage problem may occur.

advance due to presence of under • Water may have to be pumped
pass. out.
• Vehicles can accelerate while • Overhead structure may restrict
descending the ramp. vertical SD.
• Feeling of restriction occur.
• No possibility of stage
construction.
 Grade separated intersections
➢Grade separation eliminates intersection of traffic flow at junctions but it is incomplete
without provision for interchanges.
➢ Interchanges facilitates the change of direction of traffic from one highway to another
highway at intersections.
➢Interchange ramps at grade separations can be provided in three different types and they are :
1. Direct interchange ramp involves diverging to right side and merging from right.
2. Semi-direct interchange ramp allows diverging to left but merging is from right side.
3. Indirect interchange ramp, a simple diverging to left and merging from left side are
involved.
Grade separated intersections
➢Different types of interchanges at grade separated intersections are as follows :
1. Diamond Interchange
2. Trumpet Interchange
3. Rotary Interchange
4. Partial Cloverleaf Interchange
5. Cloverleaf Interchange
Diamond Interchange
Diamond interchanges are used where two highways cross with each other. It
contains 4 legs of direct interchange ramps in 4 quadrants of the junctions as
shown in the image.
Grade separated intersections
Trumpet Interchange

Trumpet interchanges are constructed where one highway terminates at another

highway as shown in the figure. It contains three legs at the end, two of them are
direct interchange ramps and another one is loop ramp which is a combination of
semi-direct and indirect interchange ramps. This is also called as a three-leg
interchange.
 Grade separated intersections
Cloverleaf Interchange

Cloverleaf interchanges contain 4–legs and eight ramps. In each quadrant, one
direct interchange ramp and one indirect interchange ramp is provided as shown in
the figure. This type of interchange fulfills all the requirements for complete
separation of traffic. Cloverleaf interchanges are used at intersections where two
major highways cross each other.
Grade separated intersections
Partial Cloverleaf Interchange

Partial cloverleaf interchange is the modification of cloverleaf interchange. It also

contains 4 legs but with fewer loop ramps than cloverleaf interchange as shown
below.
Grade separated intersections
Rotary Interchange

Rotary interchange is provided at circular junctions where traffic is permitted to

flow in one direction around Central Island and one road axis is raised above the
rotary intersection to allow grade separation.
 Grade Separation Intersection
Advantages
• Grade separation eliminates the
stopping of vehicles while crossing
the roads.
• It provides safety and reduces the
risk of accidents.
• Speed-limits for grade-separated
roads are generally higher hence,
high speeds can be maintained at
intersections which results in
saving of travel time.
• Grade separation can be provide for
all likely angles of any two
intersecting roads.
Disadvantages
• Grade separation and interchange
construction require a lot of money
and land.
• Construction and design of grade
separations and interchanges is
complicated and requires skilled
professionals.
• Cloverleaf interchange types may
tender confusion for road users
while interchanging roads. Hence,
the driver should know the
direction of each interchange ramp.
 Traffic control devices
➢Various aids and devices used to control, regulate and guide traffic may be
called traffic control devices. Most common devices are:

1. Signs
2. Signals
3. Markings
4. Islands
 Traffic control devices
1. Traffic Signs
• Traffic signs should be backed by law. The should be placed such that they
could be seen and recognized by road users easily and in time.
• Signs should be kept 0.6m away from edge for pavements with kerbs and
should be kept 2 to 3m away from pavements without raised kerbs.
• Signs should be mounted on sign posts.
• Types of signs:
a) Regulatory signs
b) Warning signs
c) Informatory signs
 Traffic control devices
1. Traffic Signs
a) Regulatory signs
i. Stop and give way signs
Stop sign is intended to stop the vehicles on a roadway. It is octagonal in
shape and red in colour with white border. Give way sign is used to control
the vehicles on a road so as to give right of way to traffic on other roadways.
Give way sign is triangular in shape with apex downwards. It is white in
colour with red border.
ii. Prohibitory signs
Prohibitory signs are meant to prohibit certain traffic movements, use of
horns, entry of certain vehicle class etc. These signs are circular in shape and
white in colour with red border.
iii. No parking and no stopping signs
No parking sign is meant to prohibit vehicle parking. No parking sign is
circular in shape with a blue background, a red border and an oblique red bar
at an angle of 45°. No stopping sign is meant to prohibit stopping of vehicles
at a place. It is circular in shape with blue background, red border two
oblique red borders at 45°.
 Traffic control devices
iv. Speed limit
Speed limit signs are meant to restrict the speed of all
or certain classes of vehicles. These signs are circular
in shape and have white background, red border and
black numerals.
v. Restriction ends sign
Restriction end signs are also circular with white
background and diagonal black band at 45°.
vi. Compulsory direction control and other signs
Compulsory direction control signs indicate by arrows,
the appropriate directions in which vehicles are
obliged to proceed. These signs are circular in shape
with blue background and white direction arrows.
 Traffic control devices
1. Traffic Signs
b) Warning signs
• Warning signs are used to warn the road users of hazardous conditions that
exists on or adjacent to roadway.
• Shape is of equilateral triangle with apex upwards, white background, red
border and black symbol.
 Traffic control devices
1. Traffic Signs
c) Informatory signs
• These signs are used to guide the road users along routes,
inform them of destination and distance and provide with
information to make travel easier, safe and pleasant.
• These signs include direction and place identification
signs, facility information signs, parking signs etc.
Direction and place identification signs are rectangular
with white background, black border and black arrows
and letters.
 Traffic control devices
2. Traffic Signals
• Traffic signals are control devices which could alternately direct the traffic to stop and proceed at
intersections using red, yellow(amber) and green traffic light signals automatically.
• Main requirement is to draw attention, provide meaning and time to respond and to have minimum waste of
time.
Advantages:
• Provide orderly movement and increase capacity of intersection.
• Reduce certain types of accidents.
• Pedestrians can cross road safely.
• If properly coordinated speed can be increased.
• Provide chances for minor road vehicles to cross the intersection.
• Automatic control will be economical than manual.
• Quality of flow is improved.
Disadvantages:
• Rear end collision may increase.
• Improper design and location may lead to violation of law.
• Failure of signal to electric power failure may cause confusion.
 Traffic control devices
3. Traffic Markings
• Traffic markings are made of lines, patterns, words, symbols or
reflectors. They are provided to warn guide or regulate traffic.
Markings are made using paints in contrast with colour and
brightness of pavement or other background. Light reflecting
paints are usually used.
• Markings are classified as:
i. Pavement markings: Pavement markings are made of white
paint. Yellow colour is used to indicate parking restrictions
and for continuous centreline and barrierline markings.
ii. Kerb markings: These markings indicate regulations like
parking regulations. Markings on kerbs and islands with black
and white colour increases their visibility.
iii. Object markings: Physical obstructions on or near roadway are
hazardous and hence they are properly marked.
 Traffic control devices
4. Traffic Islands
• Traffic islands include:
a) Divisional Islands: They are intended to separate opposing flow of traffic
on a highway with four or more lanes. Head on collisions can be avoided
by the provision of divisional islands. They should be large enough to avoid
glare during night and should be high enough to prevent vehicles entering
on it.
b) Channelizing island
c) Rotary island
d) Pedestrian loading island
 Introduction

▪ Traffic signals are one of the most effective and

flexible active control of traffic and is widely used in
several cities world wide.
▪ The conflicts arising from movements of traffic in
different directions is addressed by time sharing
principle.
 Types of Signals
▪ Fixed time signals: Green periods and cycle ▪ Delay is minimized to attain maximum
lengths are pre-determined with fixed capacity.
duration. ▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Advantages: 1. Require costly equipments such as
1. Simple construction detectors.
2. Inexpensive ▪ Semi actuated signals: Detectors are
▪ Disadvantages: located only on the main roads.
1. Inflexible ▪ Advantages:
2. Cause avoidable delay 1. Useful for junctions of a low traffic
▪ Vehicle actuated signals: Green periods vary volume.
and are related to actual demands made by ▪ Disadvantages:
traffic. 1. High traffic accidents at times of light
▪ Advantages: traffic.
1. Flexible to adjust according to traffic
demand.
 Definitions of terms used in traffic signal design
• Signal Cycle: The period of time required for
one complete sequence of signal indications.

• Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in

seconds that it takes a signal to complete one
full indications. It indicates the time interval
between the starting of green for one approach
till the next time the green starts. It is denoted
by C.
• Interval: It indicates the change from one stage to another.

• Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set

of movements and is denoted by Gi . This is the actual duration the green
light of a traffic signal is turned on.
• Red Interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of
movements and is denoted by R i . This is the actual duration the red light of
a traffic signal is turned on.
• Change interval: It is also called the yellow time indicates the interval
between the green and red signal indications for an approach.
• Clearance interval: It is also called the red time and is provided after each
yellow interval indicating a period during which all signal faces show red
and is used for clearing off the vehicles in the intersection.
• Signal Phase: A signal phase is the green interval plus the change and
clearance intervals that follow it. It allows a set of movements to flow
and safely halt the flow before the phase of another set of movements
start.
• Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not
effectively utilized for any movement. For example, when the signal for
an approach turns red to green, driver of the vehicle which is in the front
of the queue, will take some time to perceive the signal (usually called
as reaction time) and some time will be lost before vehicle actually
moves and gains speed.
Lost time per cycle = Lost time per phase x number of phase
• Saturation Flow (s): The maximum rate of flow of vehicles that can
pass through the intersection per unit time of effective green expressed
in PCU/hr.
• Observed Volume(q): The normal number of vehicles on a lane per unit time.
• Critical Flow Ratio (y): It is the ratio of observed volume to saturation flow.
For 2 phase, we get 𝑦1 , 𝑦2
For 4 phase, we get 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 , 𝑦4
• Optimum Cycle Time, 𝐂𝐨 (By Webster’s method)
𝟏.𝟓𝐋+𝟓
𝐂𝐨 =
𝟏−𝐘
Where, L = Total lost time per cycle in seconds
L = l n +R
l is lost time per phase and is usually taken as 2 seconds.
Therefore, L = 2n +R
𝐲
n = number of phase Green time, 𝐆𝐢 = 𝐘𝐢 (𝐂𝐨 - L)
R = all red time Red time, 𝐑 𝐢 = 𝐂𝐨 - 𝐆𝐢 - 2 x A
A = Amber time = 2s
Y = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3 +…..+ 𝑦𝑛
𝑞1
𝑦1 =
𝑠1
Problem 1
An isolated three phase traffic signal is designed by websters method. The critical flow ratios are 0.2, 0.3, 0.25
respectively. Lost time per phase is 4sec. Determine
i. Optimum cycle length
ii. Green interval

Given, 1.5 x 12 +5
𝑦1 = 0.2 Co = = 92s
1−0.75
𝐲𝐢
𝑦2 = 0.3 𝐆𝐢 = (𝐂𝐨 - L)
𝐘
𝑦3 = 0.25 y1 0.2
G1 = (Co - L) = (92- 12) = 21.33s
Y 0.75
l = 4s y2 0.3
n=3 G2 = (Co - L) = (92- 12) = 32s
Y 0.75
𝟏.𝟓𝐋+𝟓 y2 0.25
𝐂𝐨 = G3 = (Co - L) = (92- 12) = 26.67s
𝟏−𝐘 Y 0.75
L = l n +R = 4 x 3 = 12s
Y = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3 = 0.2+0.3+0.25 = 0.75
Problem 2
The average normal flow of traffic on cross roads A and B during design period are 540and 420PCU/hr. The saturation
flow values on the roads A and B are estimated as 1400 and 1180 PCU/hr respectively. The all red time required for
pedestrian crossing is 12s. Design 2 phase traffic signal by webster’s method?

𝟏.𝟓𝐋+𝟓
Given, 𝐂𝐨 =
𝟏−𝐘
𝑞1 = 540 PCU/hr L = l n +R = 2x2 + 12= 16s
Y = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 0.386+0.356 = 0.742
𝑞2 = 420PCU/hr
𝑠1 = 1400PCU/hr 1.5 x 16 +5
Co = =112s
𝑠2 = 1180PCU/hr 1−0.742
𝑞 540
𝑦1 = 1 = = 0.386 𝐆𝐢 =
𝐲𝐢
(𝐂𝐨 - L)
𝑠1 1400 𝐘
𝑞2 420 y 0.386
𝑦2 = = = 0.356 G1 = 1 (Co - L) = (112- 16) = 50s
𝑠2 1180 Y 0.742
R = 12s 𝐑 𝐢 = 𝐂𝐨 - 𝐆𝐢 - 2 x A
R1 = 112 – 50 -2x2 = 58s
l=2
n=2 y
G2 = 2 (Co - L) =
0.356
(112- 16) = 46s
Y 0.742
R 2 = 112 – 46 -2x2 = 62s
Phase Diagram Signal Timing Diagram
B
Phase 1
Phase 1
2s 50s 2s 58s
A

Phase 2

62s 2s 46s 2s
B

Phase 2
A
Thank You !!!