Fizyolojik Psikoloji Colouring Book

SUZANNE HIGGS
ALISON COOPER
JON"ATHAN LEE ($)
2
1.1 THE PERIPHERAL AND CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
Although the brain is the key part of the nervous system for determining human behaviour, before we
can consider the function/dysfunction of the brain we need to have some understanding of how the
whole human nervous system is mganised and the role that the rest of the nervous system plays in both
providing the brain with information and also carrying out actions determined by it. Traditionally, the
nervous system is divided into two major parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS). The central nervous system comprises the brain and spinal cord, and everything
else is considered the peripheral nervous system. This terminology arose from centuries of anatomical
studies where observation suggested that the brain and spinal cord gave rise to thin string-like projections
which went all over the body.
COLOURING NOTES 1.1

Label and colour:
D Brain
D Spinal cord
D Nerves
D Central nervous system (yellow)
D Peripheral nervous system (red)
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1.2 ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS

INTRODUCTION
Table 1.1 shows the terms used to indicate the relative positions of the organs and parts of the body. The
body can be divided by three lines:
• Horizontal: into superior (upper/above) and inferior (lower/below)

• Sagittal: into right and left halves either side of the median line
• Coronal: into anterior (front half) and posterior (back half)
The same terminology is also often applied to the brain.
Ventral/ Front of the Dorsal/ Back of the

anterior body posterior body
Superior Above Inferior .Below

(A)
Medial Towards the Lateral Away from
mldline the midline
Proximal Closer to Dis ta I Further from

point of origin point of origin
or body or body
Superficial Closer to Deep Further from

body surface body surface
(8)
_ _ _ _ (E)
(C) _ __
COLOURING NOTES 1.2

Using the arrows, correctly label the following:
D Inferior D Superior
D Lateral D Medial
D Distal D Proximal
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1.3 TERMS USED TO INDICATE DIRECTION AND 1.4 KEY FEATURES OF THE HUMAN BRAIN
ORIENTATION IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM INTRODUCTION
The brain is the largest structure in the human body to be almost entirely encased in a hard, bony struc-
INTRODUCTION ture, the skull, which indicates a critical need to protect it from damage. Visual inspection of the intact
human brain shows that it consists of three distinct parts: (1) a stalk which joins the brain to the spinal
The terms used to specify location in the central nervous system are the same as those used for the gross
cord, known as the brainstem; (2) a large domed structure of uniform appearance (if folded) known as
anatomical description of the rest of the body, e.g. anterior and posterior (or rostral and caudal) indicate
the cerebrum; and (3) a smaller version of the cerebrum, found at the back and tucked in underneath the
front and back; superior versus inferior (or dorsal and ventral), top and bottom; and medial and lateral,
cerebrum, known as the cerebellum. When viewed from above we can see that the cerebrum consists of
the midline or away from the midline. The assignment of these anatomica l axes then dictates the stand-
two mirror-image halves known as hemispheres. If a cut is made along the midline of the hemispheres
ard planes for histological sections or images used to study the brain anatomy. Horizontal sections are
and the cut surface viewed, it is clear that each hemisphere consists of the folded outer surface, known
taken parallel to the superior/inferior axis of the brain. Sections taken in the midlin e plane are sagittal
as the cerebral cortex, but also a collection of structures beneath the cortex which are not visible in the
sections and coronal sections are taken perpendicularly to the line that runs from front to back.
intact brain; these structures are collectively known as subcortical regions.
- - COLOURING NOTES 1.3 - - COLOURING NOTES 1.4

Label: Label and colour:
D Coronal section D Posterior D Brainstem (green)

D Sag ittal section D Superior inferior D Cerebellum (purple)
D Horizontal section arrow D Right and left cerebral hemispheres (ora nge)
D Anterior
Note, one of these labels applies to both images.
(C) _ _ _ _ __ BACK
(A) _ _ __
MIDSAGITTAL
(E) _ _ _ _ __ (F) _ _ _ _ __ (G) _ _ _ __ _
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1.5 THE LOBES OF THE BRAIN 1.6 THE BRAINSTEM

INTRODUCnON
INTRODUCTION The brainstem joins the brain to the spinal cord. It consists of the medulla oblongata and pons, which
Observation of a large number of human brains resulted in the finding that some of the fissures, known make up the hindbrain, and the midbrain.
as sulci (singular: sulcus), that result from the folding of the cerebrum, can be identified readily in the
brains from many individuals. It followed that the cerebral cortex could be subdivided into regions based
on their location relative to these sulci. These regions are known as lobes and this terminology is often COLOURING NOTES 1.6
used in relation to particular functions.
Label and colour:
D Midbrain (pink)
COLOURING NOTES 1.5 D Hindbrain
D Pons (purple)
Label and colour: D Medulla (blue)
D Temporal lobe (grey) D Parietal lobe (yellow)
D Brainstem (orange) D Frontal lobe (blue)
D Spinal cord (brown) D Central sulcus
D Cerebellum (pink) D Lateral fissure
D Occipital lobe (green)
(A) _ _ __
(I) _ _ _ __
(A) _ _ _ _ __
(D) _ _ _ __
(H) _ _ _ __
(G} _ _ __
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LICE OF THE SPINAL CORD WITH SPINAL NERVES 1.8 THE VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN
INTRODUCTION
The spinal cord is a tube-shaped structure that runs from the base of the brain down through a series of INTRODUCTION
bony rings known as vertebrae. Spinal nerves leave the spin al cord and ex it via gaps between the verte- The ventricles of the brain are four cavities that contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that supplies nutrients
brae . The spinal nerves are collections of individual neuronal cells bundled together and as they travel to the brain. The two lateral ventricles are found in the cerebral hemisphe res (on e in each hemisphere).
away from th e CNS they give ri se to the ext ens ive network of neura l cells that travel to the extremities, They are connected to the third ventricle which is a narrow cavity that run s along the midline of
a llow ing the CNS to communicate w ith the various organs and tissues all over the body. This information the brain. The third ventricle is connected to the fourth ventricle via the cere bral aqueduct. The fourth
flows in both directions, that is, both towards and away from the CNS. As a general rule, wh ere informa- ventricle connects with the central canal of the spinal cord.
tion is flowing towards the CNS, we term this afferent or sensory activity. Where information is flowing
away from t h e CNS, we term this efferent or secretomotor activity.
COLOURING NOTES 1.8
COLOURING NOTES 1.7 Label and colour:
Label and colour: D Lateral ve ntricles (green)

D Third ventricle (blue)
D So ma of sensory neuron (blue) D Fourth ventricle (purple)
D Soma of motor neuron (r ed) D Cerebral aqueduct (red)
D Wh ite matter D Central canal of the spinal cord (yellow)
D Grey matter (g rey)
D Dorsal root (pa le blu e)
D Ve ntral root (pink)
D Spinal ne rve (green)
D Efferent
D Afferent
(E) _ _ _ __
(D) _ _ __ _
(A) _ _ _ __
(I) _ _ _ __
Ada ptati o n ba~ed 0 11 Dr Jenn ifer Tob in 's illu stration for th e Acce lerated C ure Pro jec t a t www.accele ratedcure.org/
m s resources/n e u roa n a tom y
(D) _ _ __
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2.1 TRADITIONAL REPRESENTATION OF ANEURON 2.2 OLIGODENDROCYTES (GLIAL CELLS)

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
In common with most cell types, neurons contain the DNA of the individual, enveloped in a nucleus. The Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells are the glial cells that have a critical role in enabling axons to trans-
region of neurons where the nucleus is found is known as the cell body or soma. Projecting from the soma mit electrical signals. Oligodendrocytes perform this role in the central nervous system and Schwann
are a variable number of thin processes known as dendrites and axons. The result of the computational cells perform this role in the peripheral nervous system. It is these cells that produce the myelin that
activity in the soma in response to the incoming information from the dendrites leaves the soma via the gives white matter its colour. The oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells wrap themselves around the axon,
axon as an electrical signal. Axons, although extremely small in cross-sectional area, can be very long. resulting in the myelin sheath which is formed of multiple layers of cell membrane. A single oligoden-
Many of the axons of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) are wrapped in a pale-coloured lipid substance drocyte provides myelin for multiple segments of the axon and a Schwann cell covers one segment of
called myelin which is produced by a type of glial cell called Schwann cells. At the ends of the axons an axon. Because the neuronal cell membrane is made of lipid and as such is electrically insulating, the
are the appropriately named synaptic terminals - once the electrical signals reach here, they can trigger electrical signals that travel down the axons are forced to jump between regions of axons which are not
the release of chemical substances known as neurotransmitters. These allow one neuron to communicate ensheathed by myelin, known as nodes of Ranvier, which increases the speed that the electrical signals
with other neurons to form a network. can travel along the axon. Oligodendrocyte dysfunction and demyelination have been linked to condi-
tions such as multiple sclerosis.
COLOURING NOTES 2.1
Label and colour:
COLOURING NOTES 2.2
Label:
D Dendrites (purple)
D Cell body (purple) D Node of Ranvier
D Nucleus (green) D Myelin sheath
D Axon (blue)
D Myelin sheath (yellow) Label and colour:
0 Schwann cell nucleus (pink)
D Axon terminals (red) D Axon (yellow) N.B. this will need to be labelled twice on the diagram so make sure you find both places it appears!
D Schwann cell (purple)
D Oligodendrocyte (orange)
(A) _ _ _ __
(C) _ _ _ __
Adapted image based on: Quasar Jarosz/Wikimedia Commons. Shared under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license.
(F) (E) _ _ _ __
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2.3 CROSS SECTION OF THE CELL MEMBRANE 2.4 AREPRESENTATION OF THE NEURONAL
OF ANEURON CELL MEMBRANE WITH AK+ CHANNEL
INTRODUCTION
AND THE NA+K+-ATPASE
To understand how neurons are able to transmit signals we need to know something about their structure.
Neurons are bounded by a structure known as a cell membrane formed of various lipid-like substanc~s INTRODUCTION
and, for this reason, often described as the phospholipid bilayer. A consequence of this arrangement is
that the phospholipid bilayer forms a physical barrier to the movement of substances in and out ~f the The properties of the neuronal membrane mean that large proteins, which act as anions as they carry a
cell. The passage of these substances requires the presence of specific proteins which span the bilayer. negative electrical charge, are 'trapped' within the intracellular fluid (cytosol). This has ~~ysiological ~on
One type of these proteins, called transporters, bind to substances and physically move them across the sequences because both the extracellular fluid and the cytosol contain other charged entitles, namely 10ns
membrane. The other type is known as channels, which form pores allowing continuous contact between such as Na+, K+, and Cl-. However, the concentrations of these ions differ between the extra- and intracel-
the extra- and intracellular environments. These channels and transporters play an important role in lular environments because of the continuous activity of the transporters. The most important transporter
neuronal communication. in this case is the Na+K+-ATPase, the activity of which produces a higher concentration of Na+ outside cells
than in and the opposite situation for K+. This concentration difference means that these ions will tend
to move down their concentration gradients through ion channels which are highly permeable to K+ and
COLOURING NOTES 2.3 somewhat permeable to Na+. Another force that comes into play is the electrical attraction between the
positively charged ions and the negatively charged proteins inside the cell. Eventually a point is reached
Label: whereby all these forces are balanced out and the resting membrane potential is reached.
D Extracellular fluid (outside neuron)

D Intracellular fluid (inside neuron) COLOURING NOTES 2.4
Label and colour: Label:
D Phospholipids (yellow) D Outside neuron D Inside neuron

D Protein channels (green)
Label and colour:
D Na+ ions (red) D Phosolipids (yellow)

D Cl ions (light green) D K+ ion channel (green)
(C) _ _ _ _ __ D K+ ions (blue) D Na+K+-ATPase transporter (orange)
D Anions (purple)
Note on labelling and colouring ions: colour ions labelled with an 'x' using the ion movement through the c~annel/
transporter as a clue to the identity of the ion. For the other ions, consider the distribution and balance of ions
(B) _ _ _ _ __
between the inside and outside of the neuron and use this to guide your answers.
(0) _ _ __
(A) _ _ __
O 0 oO
000
0 0
(0) (C)
Garrett, B. (2011 ). Brain and Behavior: An introduction to biological p.{}ychology. Sage Publications, Inc.
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2.7 THE KEY STRUCTURES OF THE SYNAPSE 2.8 EXOCYTOSIS

If we study the structure of synapses, we see that they have some reproducible features. Within each of The process of releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft involves a process called exocytosis.
the terminals a large number of membrane-bound sacs, known as vesicles, can be seen and, under certain Exocytosis involves the vesicles fusing with the neuronal membrane and releasing its contents into the
circumstances, these vesicles appear to fuse with the main plasma membrane. We now know that these synaptic cleft.
vesicles contain chemical substances which can be released into the extracellular environment when
vesicle fusion with the cell membrane occurs. The chemical substances that can be released in this way
are chemically rather diverse and so are collectively known as neurotransmitters to reflect their function. COLOURING NOTES 2.8
Label:
COLOURING NOTES 2.7 O The vesicle
D The synaptic cleft
Label and colour:
Label and colour:
D Axon (orange)
D Synaptic vesicle (green) D Neurotransmitter molecules (orange)
D Synaptic cleft O Cytoplasm (blue)
D Dendrite (yellow)
D Neurotransmitter (green) Draw an arrow to show the direction of movement between different stages in each image
(A) _ _ _ _ __
0 0 0 (D)._ _ __
oo oo
00 0
OoO 0
~(C) _ _ __
~(BJ _ _
(D) _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(E) - - - - - - - - -
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2.9 POSTSYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION 2.10 THE TRIPARTITE SYNAPSE

Release of the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft is of little consequence unless the postsynaptic Recent evidence suggests that glia play a role in determining synaptic levels of neurotransmitters. There
cell can detect the presence of the neurotransmitter and initiate appropriate responses within the cell. is evidence that they can both take up and release transmitter substances, thus modulating the degree
Furthermore, the existence of multiple neurotransmitters suggests a degree of specificity; that is, that the of synaptic transmission between the pre- and postsynaptic neurons. This research has resulted in the
postsynaptic cell should only respond to particular messages. This specificity is brought about by the proposal of the concept of the tripartite synapse, composed of the presynaptic terminal, the postsynaptic
existence of receptors on the postsynaptic cell which are highly specific to a particular neurotransmitter. dendrite and glial cells, specifically astrocytes. One of the emerging findings from these studies is that
Receptors are large protein molecules which are usually embedded within the phospholipid bilayer. These glial dysfunction may result in inappropriate neurotransmission.
proteins have a highly developed structure which means that they can only interact with neurotransmit-
ters of a particular shape. As a consequence, postsynaptic cells are only affected by the neurotransmitters
for which they have the relevant receptors. One way in which neurotransmitters are removed from the COLOURING NOTES 2.10
synapse is via proteins that are embedded in the presynaptic neuron and transport neurotransmitters
Label:
back into the presynaptic cell - a process known as reuptake.
D Presynaptic terminal
D Synaptic cleft
COLOURING NOTES 2.9 D Postsynaptic terminal
Label: Label and colour:
D Axon terminal D Synaptic vesicle (red)

D Synaptic cleft D Receptors (pink)
D Dendrite D Neurotransmitter (blue)
D Synaptic vesicle D Astrocyte (green)
Label and colour:
D Postsynaptic receptor (green)

D Neurotransmitter (blue)
D Neurotransmitter transporter (pink)
(A)_ __
(C) _ __
(E)_ _ _ __
(A)_ _ _ __
{D)_ _ _ __
(G) _ __
J (F) _ _ __
n
}G)_____ SUBSTANCE _
RELEASE ~
~ CALCIUM
(F) _ __ u- RISE
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3.1 TIME COURSE OF ACTION OF DRUGS ACCORDING TO 3.2 DOSE RESPONSE CURVE ILLUSTRATING ACTION OF AN
ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION AGONIST, ANTAGONIST AND INVERSE AGONIST
The time taken for a drug to bring about its effects on behaviour is determined in part by the route The extent to which a drug activates a receptor is known as its efficacy. Antagonists have no efficacy
of administration. Some routes of administration are associated with faster drug onset than others. An because they do not induce a response in the receptor, whereas full agonists induce a response that
important factor is whether a drug is administered directly into the bloodstream or whether it has to cross is maximal relative to the effects of the neurotransmitter, and full inverse agonists induce a maximal
biological membranes to be absorbed. response in the opposite direction. In between there are partial agonists and inverse agonists. These
compounds activate receptors but even at very high doses the maximal response is not achieved.
COLOURING NOTES 3.1

COLOURING NOTES 3.2
Draw and label the relationship between brain concentration and time after drug administration for the following routes
of administration: Colour and label the following:
D Inhalation in red D Agonist: colour the markers red

D Injection in blue D Antagonist: colour the markers green
D Snorting/sniffing In orange D Partial inverse agonist: colour the markers blue
D Ingestion in green
100
z
~
al
~
50
~
:J ~
a: w
0 en
u. z
0
z ~
0 ffia: 0
~
!z
w
()
z
8 -50
-11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3
TIME AFTER DRUG ADMINISTRATION
LOG,J[DOSE](G)
-0-(A) _ _ __ -0-(B) _ _ __ --f:r- (C)_ _ _ __

Reproduced from Lambert, D.G. (2004). 'Drugs and receptors', Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care & Pain,
4(6):181-184. With permission from Elsevier.
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26 27
3.3 THE THERAPEUTIC INDEX 3.4 CHANGE IN DOSE RESPONSE CURVE WITH
INTRODUCTION TOLERANCE AND SENSITISATION
The concept of therapeutic index refers to the relationship between a toxic and therapeutic dose. The
therapeutic index determines the safety of a drug. Drugs with a large therapeutic index are preferred (a INTRODUCTION
large difference between the toxic and clinical dose) because there is less likelihood of a person being able
The acute effects of taking a psychoactive drug are often different from the effects that are experienced
to overdose or experience toxic effects if they accidentally take too much of the drug.
after a drug has been taken repeatedly. Neuronal systems adapt to drug-induced changes in neurotrans-
mission. An adaptive response might be that numbers of receptors are down-regulated in response to
COLOURING NOTES 3.3 increases in activation by drugs. This can lead to tolerance, whereby with repeated administration of
drugs a higher dose is required to achieve the same effects. In other cases, the adaptive response is an
Colour and label the following: Label the following: increase in receptor numbers. This is known as sensitisation, meaning that the same dose of a drug elicits
a greater response after repeated administration.
D Dose response curve for the therapeutic D Therapeutic index
effect: colour it red
D Dose response curve for the toxic effect: colour it blue COLOURING NOTES 3.4
D Relative to the acute dose response curve shown in the figure, identify and draw a dose response curve showing
tolerance: draw it in purple
D Relative to the acute dose response curve shown in the figure, identify and draw a dose response curve showing
sensitisation: draw it in green
(C) _ _ _ _ _ __
~
lt
w
LL
0
w
N
(jj
b
w
LL
LL
LU
w
>
~
w
a:
DRUG DOSE
DOSE
Adapted from Brunton, L. and Hilal-Dandan, R. (2014). Goodman and Gilman's Manual o( Pharmacology and Therapeutics,
second edition. New York: McGraw-Hlll Education.
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3.5 DOSE RESPONSE EFFECTS FOR ALCOHOL 3.6 IONOTROPIC AND METABOTROPIC RECEPTORS
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION COLOURING NOTES 3.6
The effect of a drug depends upon the amount that is available at receptor sites. This is an important prin- Drugs can affect neurotransmission by affect- Label the following across 3.6 (Part A) and 3.6 (Part 8):
ciple of drug action: drug effects are related to the dose of the drug. For example, very different effects of ing the function of postsynaptic ionotropic and
alcohol are experienced according to the dose administered. metabotropic receptors. Ionotropic receptors are D lonotropic receptor
membrane-bound receptor proteins that respond D Metabotropic receptor
to ligand binding by opening an ion channel and D Ion (and colour red)
COLOURING NOTES 3.5 allowing ions to flow into the cell, either increasing D Closed ion channel
D Neurotransmitter (and colour blue)
or decreasing the likelihood that an action poten- D G-protein
On the dose response curve for alcohol in the figure, label the following behavioral effects along it:
tial will fire. Drug action at metabotropic receptors D G-protein gated ion channel
D Sleep activates G-proteins, which then dissociate from
D No effect the receptor and interact directly with ion channels
O Death or bind to other proteins that make intracellular
o Laboured breathing messengers that open or close ion channels.
D Giddy
D Unconscious Part A
(A) _ __
(B) _ _ __ 0
0
(F) _ __
i
w
en
z
0
0..
(f)
w
er
(C) _ __
Part B
(A) _ __
DOSE II
Adapted from Marczewski, A.E. and Kamrin, M. (1991) Toxicology for the Citizen, second edition. East Lansing, Mich:
Michigan State University, Center for Integrative Toxicology. p.5.
(C) _ _
Part A adapted from original creation by Hrejsa/Body Scientific Intl. for SAGE Publishing
Part B adapted from original creation by Tomasikiewicz/Body Scientific Intl. for SAGE Publishing
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30 31
3.7 THE GABA-A RECEPTOR COMPLEX 3.8 EFFECTS OF COCAINE ON DOPAMINE

INTRODUCTION
NEUROTRANSMISSION
Many drugs bring about their effects by acting at the GABA-A receptor complex, which is an ionotropic
receptor. Some bind to a receptor site on the GABA-A receptor complex and directly increase the flow of INTRODUCTION
Cl- ions through the ion channel. Others bind to different receptor sites and have the effect of increasing
Cocaine is a stimulant drug that when taken has short-term effects including increased alertness and
the response to GABA binding at its site on the GABA-A receptor complex. These drugs are known as
a desire for further drug taking. Cocaine inhibits the reuptake of dopamine, serotonin and noradrena-
allosteric modulators.
line by binding to presynaptic transporter proteins, thus enhancing monoamine neurotransmission. The
reinforcing effects of cocaine are likely mediated by its action to increase serotonin and dopamine trans-
COLOURING NOTES 3.7 mission in reward pathways in the brain.
D Identify three types of drug that interact with the GABA-A receptor and label each at a different receptor site on the
GABA-A receptor complex COLOURING NOTES 3.8
D Label and colour the GABA receptor site red
D Colour the Cl ions blue Label and colour the following:
D Label and colour the neural membrane yellow
D Dopamine (red)
D Presynaptic transporter protein (blue)
D Cocaine (orange)
(B) _ _ __ (C} _ _ __
0
(A) _ __ SENDING NEURON SENDING NEURON
(E) _ _ __
(B) _ _ __
(A) _ _ __
Adapted from original created by Carolina Hrejsa/Body Scientific Intl. for Sage Publishing. RECEIVING NEURON RECEIVING NEURON
Adapted trom original creation by Tomasikiewicz/Body Scientific Intl. for SAGE Publishing
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3.9 EFFECTS OF MORPHINE ON OPIOID I 3.10 THE ACTION OF NICOTINE IN THE BRAIN
NEUROTRANSMISSION INTRODUCTION
Nicotine is the drug found in cigarettes and other tobacco products such as chewing tobacco and snuff.
INTRODUCTION Nicotine is an acetylcholine agonist and it binds to specific receptors called nicotinic acetylcholine recep-
tors or nAChRs.
Opiates come from the poppy flower Papaver somniferum. Two opiates contained in poppy sap are mor-
phine and codeine. The brain contains opioid receptors that bind opiate drugs and naturally occurring
brain chemicals known as endogenous opioids. Opioid agonists such as morphine bring about similar
effects to the endogenous opioids by binding to the endogenous opioid receptors.
l:
1
COLOURING NOTES 3.10
II Colour and label the following:
COLOURING NOTES 3.9 D Acetylcholine (green)

D Nicotine (pink)
Colour and label the following: D Acetylcholine receptors (blue)
D Axon terminal
D Endogenous opiolds (green)
D Postsynaptic opioid receptor (orange)
D Morphine (yellow)
SENDING NEURON SENDING NEURON
(B) _ _ _ _ _ __
~~~---(.C) _ _ _ _ _ __
(A) _ _ __
RECEIVING NEURON RECEIVING NEURON
Adapted from original creation by Tomasikiewlcz/Body Scientific Intl. for SAGE Publishing
Tltc /llol'syclu1Joxr C:olm1rl11g Book, published 2021 by SAGE Publishing.© Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 Thl' /Jiol'.~;-dmlo,~y Co/011r/1~11 /look, published 2021 by SAGE Publishing. I[) Suzanne Higgs. Alison Cooper un~ Jonathan Lee. 2021
34
3.11 CAFFEINE BINDING TO ADENOSINE RECEPTORS

INTRODUCTION
Caffeine binds t o adenosine receptors that are distributed throughout the body, includin g the brain. It
4
is an adenosine antagonist. Generally speaking, the physiological effects of caffeine are the opposite to
those of adenosine. For example, adenosine promotes sleep. When caffeine binds to adenosine receptors
it prevents adenosine from binding and so has the effect of reducing sleep. DEVELOPMENT AND
COLOURING NOTES 3.11 DEGENERATION IN THE
Colour and label the following:
NERVOUS SYSTEM
0 Caffeine (pink)
0 Adenosine (green)
INTRODUCTION
0 0 0
Th e adult nervous system is composed of billions of cells, classified into two types: Neurons and glia. Yet
0 Oo O 0 a ll humans start out life as a single cell. Therefore, to build a functioning brain, there n eeds to be a com-
0 0 0 0 plex and highly regulated process during development. This requires production of many billions of new
0 0 0
Q (A)
cells and, for each one, the turn ing on and off of genes in th e right sequence so that fully mature cells
are produced in the right part of the brain and with the right complement of proteins to enable them to
Q (B)
carry out their specialised function s. For neurons this means that they can form the synaptic connections
with other neurons to form functional circuits known as networks. As for all biological tissues, cells can
a lso di e . When the level of neuron d eath is high this leads to degeneration of the nervous system
and disruption to normal function. The consequence of thi s can be seen in human neurodegenerative
d iso rd ers su ch as Parkinson's disease or Alzheime r's disease . Unfortunately, the natural capacity
fo r n e urons to be repaired or replaced is very limited. However, for some conditions, such as Parkinson's
ASLEEP d isease, therapeutic drugs can be used to make up for the impaired neuron function. Remember to review
Chapter 4 of Biological Psychology.
Answers to the labelli11g exercises can be found at the back of the book.
I Ill' /Jiol'~ ~dw/11,\')' <nl1111rl11x /look, published 2021 by SAGE Publishin g. e SuzanHc Higgs. Alison Cooper and Jonatha n Lee, 202 J 35
34 36 37
4.1 THE STRUCTURE OF DNA 4.2 MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS

Mammalian DNA is described as double-stranded and the two strands twist around each other to fortnl~ Meiosis occurs in relation to reproduction and is the division that occurs to form the gametes - sperm
double helix shape. Each strand is made up of a sequence of nucleotides that comprise a sugar-phospha~ or ova - in preparation for fertilisation and formation of the zygote which develops into the foetus. The
backbone attached to one of four bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). 'Ft\' gamete from each parent normally contains half the full number of chromosomes (i.e. 23:22 autosomes
bases are described as complementary as they only combine in particular configurations: A with T artdlQ and one sex chromosome).
with G. The sequence of the bases is important as it forms the genetic code which determines the prot~
produced by cells. ·
COLOURING NOTES 4.2
COLOURING NOTES 4.1 4.2(A)
Label: Colour: Label:

Colour:
0 The chromosomes (orange) D Sisters separate
D The sugar-phosphate backbone D The left sugar-phosphate backbone light (grey)
D Where the sister chromatids separate (red) O DNA replication recombination
D The complementary bases of the right D The right sugar-phosphate backbone (dark grey)
D The gametes (blue) D Chromosome segregation (meiosis I)
hand strand D The base adenine base (yellow)
0 The sister chromatids (yellow) O Homologues separate, sisters remain attached
D The base cytosine base (green)
0 Where the homologues separate O Homologous chromosome
D The base guanine base (red)
(sisters remain attached) (green) D Sister chromatids
D The base thymine base (blue)
D Gametes
D Chromosome segregation (meiosis II)
(H) _ __
(A) _ _ _ __
(E) _ __
(A) _ _ __ (B) _ _ __
Mitosis is when a cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells. Continued cell division
occurs as the body develops through various stages. It also enables tissue repair.
Tire llloP.iyclwloKY Co/011rt11g /look, published 2021 by SAGF. Publishing.© Suza1me Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 rlrt• lllohydw/r~\'}' Lolr111rl11s l!rHik, published 2021 bv SAliE Publishing. @ Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan l.ee, 2021
· - cai
38 39
Mitosis consists of five main stages (but not in this order):

4.3 NEURULATION
• Telophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase INTRODUCTION
• Interphase
In early development, the fertilised egg undergoes a period of massive cell proliferation where repeated
• Pro phase
cell division results in a rapid increase in cell numbers within the embryo. Initially these cells appear to be
virtually identical but in humans, by about week 3 after fertilisation, the uniform ball of cells has begun
to take on shape and a layer of cells that are destined to produce the nervous system, called the ectoderm,
can be identified; a process known as gastrulation. During the gastrulation phase the combination of
4.2(8) differential gene expression and cell-to-cell interactions results in a process known as neural induction
whereby a region of the ectoderm transforms into a structure known as the neural plate; as the name
D Label the five phases of mitosis correctly on the diagram
suggests this is the first sign that a nervous system will ultimately be formed. The embryo then enters
D Colour the chromatids in the prophase and metaphase stages red
D Identify in which step the chromatids separate and colour them yellow
the neurulation phase which begins with the embryo elongating and the formation of the neural plate
D Colour the chromosomes in the telophase stage green from which the whole of the central nervous system arises.
D Colour the homologous chromosomes in the interphase stage orange
COLOURING NOTES 4.3

Label: Colour:
(E) _ __
D The neural plate D The non-neural ectoderm (blue)
0 The non-neural ectoderm 0 The regions of the ectoderm that will form the neural
D The neural groove tube (beige)
(C) _ __ (D) _ __ 0 The neural tube
(A) _ _ __ (B) _ __
Adapted with permission from Liu, A. et al. (2005). 'Bone morphogenetic protein signalling and vertebrate nervous system
development', Nature Reviews Neuroscience. Copyright Clearance Centre: Springer Nature.
Tiie• /lioP~rc:hology C:o/1111rl11x /look, published 2021 by SAGE Publishing. r<; Suzanne Biggs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 fire• flloP.~}'dwlogy Colmir/1{i; /look, published 2021 by SAGE PubllshJng. @Suzanne Higgs. Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee. 2021
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42 43
4.5 MIGRATION OF NEURONS DURING FORMATION 4a6 ANEURON MIGRATES ALONG GLIAL SCAFFOLDING
OF THE FOETAL BRAIN INTRODUCT~ON
Inside-out layering involves immature neurons migrating away from their place of birth in the ventricu-
INTRODUCTION lar zone to their final destination within the cortical plate. To do this they migrate along a scaffolding-like
network of specialised glial cells known as radial glia.
Throughout early development there is a significant amount of proliferation of cells to enable enough
neurons to be produced to form the brain. These newly produced neurons have to migrate from their
place of production to the correct location within the forming brain. This migration process is particularly
clear in the formation of the highly organised human neocortex which, when fully formed, is organised
COLOURING NOTES 4.6
into layers of neurons with each layer containing neurons with slightly different shapes and connectivity Label: Draw and colour:
to other neurons. Neurons are produced in the ventricular zone, a region that lines the fluid-filled space
in the middle of the neural tube. They then need to migrate across the region that will ultimately form D The ventricular zone D Colour the radial glia (dark green)
the full depth of the neortex, known as the cortical plate, towards the outer surface. This occurs in a very D The outer layer of the brain D Draw and colour a circle representing a first-formed
precise pattern whereby the first immature neurons migrate the shortest distance from the ventricular D The migration zone neuron (yellow)
D Radial glial fibres D Draw and colour later-formed neuron (pink)
zone and subsequently produced immature neurons migrate further, a process termed inside-out layering.
D Migrating neurons
D Outer layer of the brain (where the oldest neurons are)
D Ventricular zone (where the youngest neurons are)
COLOURING NOTES 4.5
Label: Colour:
D The fluid-filled ventricle D The first-formed cortical neurons (yellow) (B) _ _ _ _ __
D The surface of the brain D Later formed neurons (pink)
Colour and label:
D The ventricular zone (brown)

D The cortical plate (pale blue)
D The radial glia (dark green)
(D) _ _ _ _ __
(C) _ _ _ __
(A) _ _ _ _ __
(D) _ _ _ _ __
(B) _ _ _ _ __
}-<A) (C) _ _ _ __
(E) _ _ __
Adapted from illustration by Lydia Kibiuk, © 1995.
Tlrr nloPsyclwloxy Colourlnx /look, publbhed 2021 by SAGF. Publishing.© Suzanne Hlggs. Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 Tlw 11/oP.\yrltolo,~· Lolmirlnx Hook. published 2021 by SAGE Publi~hing. •:' Su1.<mne Hlgg~. Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee. 2021
44 45
4.7 AXON GUIDANCE 4.8 APOPTOSIS

Fully differentiated neurons are characterised by having long extensions from their cell bodies, known Apoptosis occurs in the brain during development and also occurs as part of some neurodegenerative dis-
as axons, which can allow an individual cell to communicate with other cells some distance away. Once ease in the adult brain. It is one of the two main processes by which cell death occurs, the other is called
immature neurons have been produced and have made it to the appropriate location within the develop- necrosis. Necrosis happens when cells are exposed to any form of accidental damage such as trauma or
ing brain they next need to extend their axons in the right direction to find their intended target neurons. toxins. Apoptosis is a more controlled process involving proteins produced by the dying cells themselves
The process by which axons extend in the right direction is known as axon guidance and appears to 1
in response to specific signals. For this reason it is sometimes known as programmed cell death. When a
involve the growing tip of the axon, known as a growth cone, 'tasting' the environment it is travelling cell is undergoing apoptosis it passes through a number of stages with characteristic features.
through using receptor molecules which it expresses on its surface. The growth cone must also be highly
mobile compared to the axon behind it and this difference is reflected in the proteins that form the
cytoskeleton that acts as a kind of scaffolding within the neuron. 1\vo of the components of the cytoskeleton are COLOURING NOTES 4.8
actin and microtubules.
Match these descriptions and label the correct diagram:
D Nuclear collapse
!
COLOURING NOTES 4.7 i
I
D
D
Cell damage
Cell parts phagocytosed
Colour and label: D Cell shrinks developing buds or blebs
D Cell breaks into apoptotic bodies
D The cell body (green) D Normal cell
D The axon (blue)
D The growth cone (red) D Colour the cytoplasm blue, the nucleus yellow, other cell organelles green
(A) _ _ __ (B) _ _ __
(C) _ _ __
•••
::.·
(E) _ _ __
(D) _ _ __ (F) _ _ _ __
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46 47
4.9 NEUROPATHOLOGY OF PARKINSON'S DISEASE 4.10 BRAIN WITH HUNTINGTON'S DISEASE

Parkinson's disease is associated with characteristic neurodegeneration in a specific part of the brain called Huntington 's disease is associated with characteristic neurodegeneration of specific parts of the brain
the substantia nigra pars compacta. It is called this because it has a black appearance due to the presence called the caudate and putamen. The n eurodegeneration occurs because of a mutation in a single gen e
of m elanin. The neurons in this region send their axons towards the caudate and putamen, collectively called huntin gton.
known as the striatum. This nigrostriatal pathway normally releases d opamine and this is important in
regulating the activity in a brain circuit that controls normal movement.
COLOURING NOTES 4.9 Label:
Label:
D The healthy brain
D The healthy bra in D The brain with Huntington's disease
D The brain in Parkinson's disease 0 The caudate and putamen in the healthy brain
Label and colour:
D The caudate and puta men (blue)

D The substantia nigra pars compacta (black)
Dra w in:
(C)_ _ __ (D)_ _ __
D The nigrostriatal pathway in the health y brain (solid red line)
D The nigrostriatal pathway of the bra in with Parkinson's disease (a dashed red line)
(A)_ _ __
(C)' - - - - - - - (D)_ _ _ __
(B) _ _ __
Adapted from Dauer & Przeclborski (2003), ' Parkinson's Disease mechanisms and models', Neuron, 39(6 ): 88C)-909. With
permission from Elsevier.
1he ll/111'1)"dW/1i¥Y r ol1111rl11~ /Jook. published 2021 hy SAGE Publish ing. c< Su?a111w Higgs. Alison Cooper aml Jouathan Lee. 202 1 rtw /Jio/'\)'< l111 tox1 · <o/111iri11x /h111k, puhll;hcd 2021 by ~AGh Publishing. "' Su1a1111e Higgs. Alison Cooµer and Jonathan Lee. 2021
48 49
4.11 TREATMENT FOR PARKINSON'S DISEASE: L-DOPA 4.12 GENES WITH NEUROTRANSMISSION
INTRODUCTION RELATED FUNCTIONS IMPACTED
Parkinson's disease is associated with degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons. The most common
treatment seeks to replace the lost dopamine. In the body dopamine is made from L-DOPA which is made
IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
from tyrosine that is obtained from the diet. People with Parkinson's disease cannot take dopamine as it
cannot cross the blood brain barrier. However, L-DOPA can cross the blood brain barrier and enter neu-
rons where it is metabolised into dopamine that can be packaged for release from presynaptic terminals. INTRODUCTION
This then restores better dopamine neurotransmission between the neurons of the substantia nigra and Understanding the cause of human conditions that affect the brain and its functions has been a long-
'i
those of the caudate putamen and so movement is improved. '. ! term goal. It is now clear that most conditions are complex, involving the interaction of environmental
factors with the complement of genes that a person possesses. For such a complex condition as schizo-
phrenia, detailed studies of the genes and the proteins that they produce have demonstrated that a large
COLOURING NOTES 4.11 number of genes might be linked with the condition. For any one individual the precise versions, known
as alleles, of a subset of the genes may predispose them to develop schizophrenia, especially if they have
Colour and label: particular life experiences. Many of the genes that have been implicated for schizophrenia produce
proteins that are important for normal neuronal function.
D The presynaptic neuron (blue)
D The postsynaptic neuron (green)
D Vesicles containing dopamine (yellow) COLOURING NOTES 4.12
D The synaptic cleft (no colour)
D Dopamine receptors (orange) D Colour the labelled boxes red
D For the 'receptors' box: Identify three types of neurotransmitter receptors implicated in schizophrenia. Colour the
D Place these substances in the boxes in the order of synthesis: Dopamine, L-DOPA, tyrosine boxes green
D For the neurotransmitter levels box: Identify three processes that can be affected to alter the level of
neurotransmitter. Colour the boxes red
D For each of the processes that alter neurotransmitter levels, identify at least one gene that has been linked to this
process. Colour the boxes green
{F)_ _ __
(D)._ __
(H) _ _ __
(G)
Adapted from Moussa B.H. Youdim et al. (2006). 'The therapeutic potential of monoamine oxidase inhibitors', Nature
Reviews Neuroscience. Copyright Clearance Centre: Springer Nature.
T11c JlioP.~yr:l111loKY Colr111rt11,rt Hook, published 202 I by SAGI'. Pul>ltshlng. ©Suzanne Higgs, Altson Cooper aud Jonathan Lee. 2021 Tlrt' HloP~yclwln,\'}' <.olo11rl11.11 IJ011k, published 2021 hy SAGF. Publishing.@ Suzanne Uiggs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan l.ee, 2021
52 53
5.1 SINGLE VS DOUBLE DISSOCIATIONS 5.2 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF HOW MEMORY

INTRODUCTION STRENGTH AND PREDICTION ERROR PROGRESS
The use of dissociations in experimental evidence is important for determining whether functions rely on
different areas of the brain. However, it is only a double dissociation that allows the conclusion that two
DURING LEARNING
functions are separable within the brain.
INTRODUCTION
COLOURING NOTES 5.1 The Rescorla-Wagner rule of learning describes the amount that is learned on each learning as being
Panel A. For each image, colour:
11 related to (i) the amount that has already been learned [the existing memory strength] and (ii) the
I
]'
prediction error.
D The screen in blue
D The computer (i.e. part that houses the processor) in red
COLOURING NOTES 5.2
Panel B. In this scenario, the power to the screen is turned off. Indicate the elements that are powered on by colouring
them in using the colours Indicated in (A) above. Draw lines on the graph as follows starting from the marker plotted on the graph:
Panel c. In this scenario, the power to the computer (processor) is turned off. Indicate the elements that are powered on D Orange for the memory strength at the start of each trial
by colouring them in using the colours indicated in {A). D Red for the prediction error on each trial
D Blue for the amount learned on each trial
Circle together:
(a) The two images that represent a double dissociation in green

(b) The two images that represent a single dissociation in yellow
120
100 0
CJ D
A
00
.,...
LL. BO
0
0 ODD DD
DODOO ~
2 Q.
I ) 4 ....J 60
w
>
w
....J
w
> 40 ~
~
D
8
CJ
w
cc
20
0 CJD CJ DD
DODOO
2 0
I \ 4
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
lRIAL NUMBER
D (A) !:::. (B) Q(C)

c
CJ 0
D
CJ CJ ODD
00000
2 I \ 4
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54 55
5.3 PROGRESSION OF MEMORY-RELATED PROPERTIES IN 5.4 CONVERSION OF SHORT-TERM MEMORY INTO

THE VENTRAL VISUAL PATHWAY LONG-TERM MEMORY
Neurons in the ventral visual pathway of the brain differ in their memory-related (mnemonic) properties. i Recently acquired memories can exist in short-term and long-term forms, both of which can support
In some areas, the neurons are active only when a visual stimulus is present (perceptual neurons). In other memory expression. Short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) differ in their dependence
areas, the neurons continue responding, even after the visual stimulus disappears, showing memory for on the synthesis of new proteins.
the recent presentation (mnemonic neurons).
COLOURING NOTES 5.4

COLOURING NOTES 5.3
Draw and label lines that represent STM and LTM ability to support memory expression:
Label and colour:
D STM in red
D The occipital lobe (green) D LTM in blue
D The temporal lobe (blue)
D Label which areas have more mnemonic or more perceptual neurons Colour the areas of the graph that show when memory expression is supported by:
D Draw a red arrow to represent the development of more mnemonic properties through the ventral visual pathway
D STM in yellow
D LTM in orange
z
0
Ci.i
en
w
a:
a.
~
>
a:
~
w
~
TIME
STM
ACQUISITION
LTM
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56 57
5.5 ASSOCIATIVE LTP 5.6 INCREASING OUTPUT VIA LTP

Long-term potentiation can exist in non-associative and associative forms. Associative LTP involves two LTP increases the strength of a synapse. This intuitively can lead to the increase of the output of a network
input pathways being active at the same time; one strong and one weaker. in response to the same input.
In this schematic, the output neuron is on the right (A), with the main input neuron bottom left (B).
The top left neuron is an inhibitory interneuron (C).
COLOURING NOTES 5.5
Label: COLOURING NOTES 5.6
D The output neuron Identify, label and colour:
D The input neurons
D The output neuron (blue)
Colour: D The input neuronal cell body (yellow)
D The interneuron (pink)
D One of the input neurons in red to denote the strong input pathway
D One of the Input neurons in blue to denote the weaker input pathway D Draw the axonal projection from the input neuron to the output neuron (yellow line)
D The output neuron in green D You can draw in the projections to and from the interneuron as well, if you like (yellow)
D Colour excitatory synapses in green
D Colour inhibitory synapse in red
D Label the synapse(s) that are strengthened by LTP to increase activity in the output neuron
(B) _ _ __
(C)
(C)
(A)
~ 1-{)
2()
(A)
~
(8)
3()
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58 59
5.7 INCREASING OUTPUT VIA LTD 5.8 THE HIPPOCAMPUS

LTD decreases the strength of a synapse. This can, rather counterintuitively, also lead to the increase of The hippocampus is often the area of the brain most readily associated with memory, particularly epi-
the output of a network in response to the same input. Again, in this schematic, the output neuron is on sodic memory and spatial memory. Hippocampal damage not only impairs the acquisition of new spatial/
the right, with the main input neuron bottom left. The top left neuron is an interneuron. episodic memories, but also impairs some previously acquired memories. HM was a famous neuropsycho-
logical patient who had his entire medial temporal lobe (which includes the hippocampus) removed on
both sides of the brain, resulting in an inability to form new conscious memories.
COLOURING NOTES 5.7
Label and colour: Colour: COLOURING NOTES 5.8
D The output neuron (blue) D Excitatory synapses in green D Identify and colour the hippocampus orange
D The input neuronal cell body (yellow) D Inhibitory synapses in red
D The interneuron (pink)
Label:
Draw:
D The synapse(s) that are weakened by LTD to increase
D The axonal projection from the input neuron activity in the output neuron
to the output neuron in yellow D Any neurons whose activity is reduced at the same
D The axonal projection from the input neuron time as the ouput neuron being more active
to the interneuron in yellow
D The axonal projection from the interneuron
to the output neuron in orange
(C)
:w 2()
(A)
(B)
--0 3<b Adapted from original creation by Hrejsa/Body Scientific Intl. for SAGE Publishing
Tiie Olol'.~yclwloK)' Colo11rl11g /look, published 2021 by SAGE Publishing. © Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 file lllol'~rd111/11g)· <.o/011rl11g /look, puhll5l1ed 2021 by SAGE l'ubllshlng. @ Sunnne Higgs. Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021
BO 61
5.9 SYSTEMS CONSOLIDATION 5.10 MULTIPLE TRACE THEORY

Systems consolidation seeks to explain the observation that damage to the hippocampus impairs recent Multiple trace theory suggests that episodic memories always rely upon the hippocampus for their
episodic memories more than older remote memories. The explanation for this temporally graded retro- retrieval. However, it is argued that this theory can still account for temporally-graded retrograde amnesia,
grade amnesia centres upon the different rates of learning in the hippocampus and cortex. while also explaining the occurrence of 'flat' gradients of retrograde amnesia.
COLOURING NOTES 5.9 COLOURING NOTES 5.10

Panel A. This shows the network at baseline, before learning. Colour: Panel A. This shows the network at baseline, before Panel c. This shows the network long after learning
learning. (i.e. after multiple rounds of retrieval).
D Cortical units in yellow
D Hippocampal units in blue Colour: D Draw/colour green lines between units to show
the plasticity that underpins the memory
Panel B. This shows the network soon after learning. D Cortical units in yellow D Colour the units that are integral to the memory in purple
D Hippocampal units in blue D Colour the remaining units as in (A)
D Draw/colour red lines between units to show the plasticity that underpins the memory
D Colour the units that are integral to the memory in orange Panel B. This shows the network soon after Panel D. This shows the effect of a partial hippocampal
D Colour the remaining units as in (A) learning. lesion long after learning.
Panel C. This shows the network long after learning (i.e. after systems consolidation is complete). D Draw/colour red lines between units to show D Colour one hippocampal unit in black
the plasticity that underpins the memory D Draw/colour green lines between the remaining units
D Draw/colour green lines between units to show the plasticity that underpins the memory D Colour the units that are integral to the replicating what you have done in (C)
D Colour the units that are integral to the memory in purple memory in orange D Colour the units that are integral to the preserved
D Colour the remaining units as in (A) D Colour the remaining units as in (A) memory in purple
~~TEX
c::> c::> 9 \ I
I I
\ I I I
\ I I I '
\ I I I \
I
HIPPOCAMPUS
I I
c::> c::>
(C)
~~//ooATEX
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62 63
5.11 NEURAL CIRCUITRY OF MEMORY EXTINCTION BEFORE EXTINCTION
INTRODUCTION EXTINCTION
MEMORY
Memory extinction involves the inhibition of the originally learned memory, and is not unlearning.
Importantly, the extinction memory is more linked to the context of extinction learning than is the orig-
inal learning to its context. This gives rise to the phenomenon of 'renewal', in which the original memory
recovers when tested outside the extinction context.

Before extinction:
D Label each circle with the appropriate anatomical area

D Colour the CS in red
D Colour the infralimbic cortex in yellow
D Colour the amygdala in orange
D Colour the hippocampus in green
AFTER EXTINCTION - IN THE EXTINCTION CONTEXT
D Draw blue arrow(s) to show which brain areas are activated by the CS
D Draw an arrow by 'Fear response' to show whether the response is activated or inhibited
After extinction - in the extinction context:
D Label and colour the image as above

D Draw and label relevant lines between the brain areas to show how the fear response is modulated
After extinction - in a different context:
D Label and colour the image as above

D Draw and label relevant lines between the brain areas to show how the fear response is modulated
AFTER EXTINCTION - IN A DIFFERENT CONTEXT
FEAR RESPONSE
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66 67
6.1 COMPONENTS OF THE EYE 6.2THE EYE CAPTURES LIGHT

The eye is a sphere about 2.5 cm in diameter and five sixths of it is concealed within the orbit, with one The first step in seeing is to measure the amount of light at each point in the image. The eye captures
sixth visible. It has three principal components: some of the light that is reflected from surfaces and objects and forms it into an image. This process takes
place in the retina.
1 The three-layered wall
2 The optical components that focus light and regulate its entry to the eye
3 Neurological components that convert light to electrochemical energy to generate images
COLOURING NOTES 6.2
Label:
COLOURING NOTES 6.1 D Cornea
Co lour and label the fol lowing: 0 Iris
0 Light
D Cornea (blue) 0 Fixation point
D Iri s (purple) D Lens
D Lens D Retina
D Optic nerve (red) 0 Pupi l
D Pupil 0 Optic nerve
D Retina (orange) 0 In black, colour in the three lines from the fixation point though the lens onto the retina
(C)
(B)
(A)
(0 )
(C)
(8)
(A)
(F)
(G)
(H)
Adap ted fro m Gar re tt, Bra in a11d Behavior (2020). Sage; and Figure 26- 1 in Ka n de l, E.R., Schwartz, J .H., Jessel!, T.M,
Siegelba um , S.A., Hudspeth, A.J. and Mack, S. (20 12) . Principles ofNeuml Science, 5th edition . McGraw Hill Ed ucation.
rite /11111'1>t'l 11JluX}' c 11/0111i11x llo<ik. publlslwd 202 1 by SAGF Puhllshl11g. "- ~u1an 11e I llgg~. Ali so11 Cooper a11CI Jona th an Lee, 2021 rltl' lllol'\)'l'lw/11,1?' c olmir/11s Hook , pul>lbhed 202 1 by ~,\GF Publlslttng ~ SuLa1111c Higgs. Alison Cooper a11d Jonathan Lee, 2021
BB 69
(D)._ _ __
8.3 THE RETINA
(E) _ _ __
INTRODUCTION
The retina consists of a network of receptors, interneurons, ganglion cells and blood vessels. Light has to
pass through these layers before it reaches the photoreceptors (rods and cones), which respond to light.
(A)
COLOURING NOTES 6.3
(B)
Colour and label: Label:
D Amacrine cell (red) 0 Cornea (H)

(C)
D Bipolar cell (blue) D Fovea
D Cone (green) 0 Horizontal cell
0 Ganglion cell (orange) 0 Iris
0 Rod (purple) 0 Lens
0 Ma cu la
0 Optic nerve
D Pupil
0 Retina
D Vitreous gel
(K). _ _ __
(J) _ _ __
(L) _ _ __ (O) _ _ __ (M) _ _ __ (N) _ _ _ __
The HfoVwcholoxr <:ol<mr/11,i: Book, published 2021 hy SAGE Publishing. ©Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 Tl1C' /fl1J/l.\yd1olo,ir,· Co/1111rl11x /look, published 2021 bv SAGE l'ubllshlng. © Suza1me Higgs. Allson Cooper and Jonathan Lee. 2021
70 TI
6.4 CONE AND ROD RECEPTORS 6a5 RETINAL GANGLION RECEPTIVE FIELDS
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTHJN
Both rods and cones are composed of synaptic terminals, inner segments that contain the cell bodies and Ganglion cells are the output stage of the retina. The axons of retinal ganglion cells form the optic nerve.
outer segments of membranous discs that contain photo pigments. Each retinal ganglion cell responds to light in a small region of the retina, called the cell's receptive field.
Ganglion cell receptive fields are typically circular and consist of two distinct subregions - one exciting
the cell, the other inhibiting it, as shown below. This 'centre-surround' arrangement ensures that retinal
COLOURING NOTES 6.4 ganglion cells do not respond to the uniform regions that make up much of the image, so that the neural
image provided by the photoreceptors is reduced to a kind of 'neural line-drawing' at the retinal ganglion
cells, which carry the output from the retina. The+ and - symbols represent each subregion's response
D Rod photoreceptors (red) to light. In a + 'on' subregion, light increases the ganglion cell's response while darkness decreases it. In
D Cone photoreceptors (blue) a - 'off' subregion, the reverse is true. There are roughly equal numbers of on-centre and off-centre cells.
Label:
COLOURING NOTES 6.5
D Synaptic terminals
D Inner segments D Label the on responses and off responses of the receptive fields
D Cell bodies D Colour the centre blue and the surround pink
D Outer segments
D Membranous discs containing photo pigments
(A) RESPONSES
- - } - (D) _ _ _ __
- + +
(E) + + +
+ +
+ +
+
0 0 +
--
+: +
+ + ++ + ++
+ -t+ ++ +
(B) + +
++
(F)
(C) OFF-CENTRE
ON-CENTRE
RECEPTIVE FIELD RECEPTIVE FIELD
(G)
----------------------
Adapted from original creation by Scheuerman/Body Scientific Intl. for SAGE Publishing
Tile flloP.~yr:ltolosy <.olmtrl11x IJook. puhll~hed 2021 hy 5AGE Publishing. Q,: Suzanne Mlgg~. All~on Cooper aml Jonathan Lee. 2021 Tile• H111P~ycl10lq\T <:11lo11ri11,i; /lcmJ... publl~hed 2021 by SAGE t>ubllshlng. @Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee. 2021
72 73
6.6 THE VISUAL PATHWAY 6.7 THE VENTRAL AND DORSAL VISUAL PATHWAYS
The optic nerve projects to the optic chiasma, where half the fibres from each retina cross over in an Visual perception includes ventral and dorsal stream processes. The 'what' stream originating in the par-
arrangement that ensures that the two images of an object - one in each eye - are processed in the same vocellular layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus projects ventrally to the temporal and inferotemporal
place; objects to our left project to the right hemisphere, and vice versa. cortex, whereas the magnocellular 'where' stream projects dorsally to the parietal cortex.

Label: Label:
D Lateral geniculate nucleus D lnferotemporal cortex

D Left visual field 0 Parietal cortex
D Nasal
D Optic chiasma Colour and label:
D Optic radiation
D Primary visual cortex D Dorsal stream (blue)
D Right visual field D Ventral stream (pink)
D Superior colliculus
D Temporal
O Colour the connection from the temporal half of the retina green and the connection from the nasal half of the
retina red
(C) _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(D) _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(B) _ _ _ _ _ __
(H) _ __
Adapted from original creation by Carolina Hrejsa/Body Scientific Intl. for Sage Publishing.
Adapted from Varian, H.R. (1992). Microeconomic analysis (3rd ed.). New York, NY: W.W. Norton
The Jll111'.1ycl111/o.I()' (.<1/mirlnx /1011k, published 2021 by SA<if Publishing. ©Suzanne J-llggs, Alison cooper and fo11atha11 Lee, 2021 The l!lol'.\f«l1t1/11xr <.olo11rl11,11 llooA. published 2021 bv Si\Gf. Publishing. © Suza1me Higgs, All son Cooper and Jonathan Lee. 2021
74 75
6.8 THE AUDITORY SYSTEM 6.9 THE COCHLEA

Sou n d s are caused by movements in the external world creating waves of pressure variation in t he air t hat Each pu lse of the oval window causes a pulse to travel along th e basilar membrane of the cochlea. Each
are picked up by the tympanic membran e, or ear drum, in each of our ears. Periodic stim uli cause the ear point on th e basilar membrane moves up and down as the pulse travels past it and this mechanically
dru m to vibrate at the same frequen cy as the stimulus and these vibrations are t ransmitted by ti n y bon es, distorts t h e cil ia of the inne r hair cells that are arrayed along the membrane and act as the auditory recep-
or ossicles, in the middle ear to the oval window of the cochlea. tors. The distortion causes graded receptor potentials in the inner hair cells which in turn cause action
poten t ia ls in t h e fibres of the auditory nerve innervating the basilar membrane.
COLOURING NOTES 6.8

Label :
0
0
Anvi l
Aud itor y ne rve
0 Ham mer
0 Inner ear
COLOURING NOTES 6.9
0 Cochlea D Midd le ear Colour and label (note, one label appears twice): Label:
0 Ear canal 0 Outer ear
0 Ear drum D Pin na 0 Inner hair cel ls (red) D Auditory nerve
0 Eustachian tube 0 Sti rru p 0 Outer ha ir cells (red) D Tectorial membrane
0 Bas ilar membrane (grey)
(A) _ _ _ __
(K) _ _ _ __
(H) _ _ _ __
Adapted from Barnes, ] . (2013). Essential Biological Psychology. London: Sage.
ll1r lll1ll'~)'dU1/os)' r olmir/1111 /look p uhlished 2021 hy ..,A(.F. l'uhlishl11g. 4.> ~u tan 11 c lllggs, Alison Cooper anclJ011atha11 Lee, 2021 Tire /llol'~)"c/11 1 /rwr < olmiri11s /1011k . puhli,lwd 202 1 by ~;\(;f i'uhlishlng. "') Sma11nt I llggs. Alison Cooper and Jonatlrnn Lee 202 l
78 77
6.10 DIAGRAM OF THE AUDITORY PATHWAY

INTRODUCTION
The first stage in the auditory pathway receiving input from both ears is the superior olivary complex.
Leaving this relay, a third neuron carries information up to the inferior colliculus. A last relay, before the
cortex, occurs in the medial geniculate body. The final neuron of the primary auditory pathway links the
medial geniculate body to the auditory cortex.

Label:
(F)_ _ _ _ __
D Cochlea
D Superior olivary nucleus
D Medial geniculate body
D Inferior colliculus
D Primary auditory cortex (Al)
D Auditory nerve
Colour:
D Cochlea (yellow)
(A)_ _ _ _ __
D The link between the cochlea and the superior olivary nucleus (red)
D The link between the superior olivary nucleus and the inferior colliculus (blue)
D The link between the inferior colliculus and the medial geniculate nucleus (green)
D The link between the medial geniculate nucleus and Al (purple)
(B)_ _ _ _ _ __
(A) _ _ __
(B) _ _ __
{E)-----
Adapted from Barnes, J. (2013). Essential Bio/om 1p

6'ca sychology. London: Sage.
(F) _ _ __
(E} _ _ __
Adapted from Barnes, J. (2013). Essential Biological Psychology. London: Sage.
TllC' /lloP~yclu1foX}' <.olo11rl11x llcx1k, publhhed 2021 by SAGE Publishing. ©Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 202 l The 11/ol'' }1 lwll~~r r o/011rl11s /look, publl~lwd Z021 hy SA( 1E Publishing. & Suzanne Higgs. Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021
78 79
6.11 THE VESTIBULAR SYSTEM 6m12 THE UTRICLE AND SACCULE

INTRODUCTION INTRODUClHJN
The vestibular system is primarily concerned with maintaining balance by detecting movements of the In the utricle and saccule, hair cells project into a gelatinous membrane incorporating small, relatively
head. It consists of three semicircular canals and two small organs, the utricle and saccule, that, together heavy calcium carbonate crystals (otoliths). These hair cells signal linear acceleration; the heavy gelati-
with the cochlea, form the inner ear. nous membrane lags behind during acceleration and overshoots during deceleration, distorting the hair
cells and causing a graded response of the appropriate polarity. The cilia in the utricle and saccule are
arranged in different directions so that, between them, they detect movement in any direction.
Label: COLOURING NOTES 6.12
D Semicircular canals Colour and label the following:
D Utricle
D Saccule D otoliths (purple)
D Cochlea D Hair cells (blue)
D Gelatinous membrane (pink)
D Neurons (yellow)
(A)_ _ _ __
(A) _ _ _ _ __
(B)
(D) _ _ _ __
Adapted from Garrett, Brain and Behavior (2020). Sage. Based on Martini (1988). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology,
fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Tile 11/oP.~yclwla,zy r:u/011rl11x Rook, published 2021 by SAGE Publishing.© Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 The f/111/'.w<lwlog)· c t1/011ri11s /look, puhlhlwd 2021 by SAGE Publishing. 8 Suzanm.> Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan L~. 2021
80 81
6.13 THE MAIN TYPES OF TOUCH RECEPTOR IN THE SKIN 6.14 THE DORSAL COLUMN-MEDIAL
INTRODUCTION LEMNISCAL (DCML) PATHWAY
Touch receptors are modified ends of myelinated sensory nerves. They are specialised to detect different
aspects of the stimulus, such as pressure or stretching of the skin, by different m echanical structures INTRODUCTION
surrounding the nerve ending. In addition to unmodified nerve endings, there are fo ur distinct types of
touch receptor: Merkel's discs, Meissner's corpuscles, Ruffini endings a nd Pacinian corpuscles. The dorsal column-media l lemniscal (DCML) pathway deals with touch sensations from the body. Touch-
sensitive fibres enter the spinal cord and ascend directly in the dorsal columns through the medulla.
Medullary neurons cross the midline a nd project in the medial lemniscus to the ventral posterior nucleus
COLOURING NOTES 6.13 (VPN) of the thalamus. VPN cells project to the primary somatosensory cortex (Sl) on the post-central
gyrus. Sl pro ject s to many sensory and motor cortical areas.
Colour and labe l the following:
O Free nerve endings (purple) 0 Meissner's corpuscle (bl ue) COLOURING NOTES 6.14
0 Hair (brown) 0 Ruffini endings (pink)
D Merkel's disc (black) 0 Pacinian corpuscle (g re en) Label the fol lowing (note that one label appears twice):
D Spinal cord
D Medulla
D Pons
0 Midbra in
0 Cerebral cortex
0 Primary somatose nsory cortex (51)
0 Dorsal root ga nglion cell s
D Dorsa l colum n nu clei
0 Med ial lem niscus
D Ventra l poste ri or nucleus
(A),_ _ _ __ (B)._ _ __ (C)_ _ __ (D) _ __ _ (E) _ _ __
Adapted from Open Un iversity Course SD329: Sensation and Perception (2003). © T he Open University.
fir<' /ll11/'\yclmln,'<)• c.(J/011rl1w /Jook, published 202 1 by SAGE l'uhlish lng. ©Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 20 2 1 /'lw /1/11/''!'' lw/11,\') < 11/1111ri11s ll<Hlk , pu hli, hed 202 1 ll\' ~AliE P11b lishlng. ··•Suzan ne Higgs. ,\llson Cooper and Jon athan L~~. 202 1
82 83
6a15 THE DESCENDING PAIN INHIBITION CIRCUIT

LEFT
INTRODUCTION
(K) _ _ _ __ _ Fibres concerned w ith pain project downwards from the prefrontal cortex and h ypothalamus, via the
periaqueductal grey (PAG) in the midbrain, to 'gates' in the spinal co rd. This tract makes use of endoge-
nous op io ids, which a re neuromodulators acting upon specific opioid receptors, and which are known to
be involved in pain relief.

(A) _ _ __ _ __
Label :
0 Periaqueductal grey area

0 Midbrain
(I) _ _ _ _ __
D Pons
D Medulla
D Spinal cord
0 Endogenous opioids
Colour:
(B) _ _ __ _ _
0 The descendi ng path way (blue)
0 The ascending pathway (red)
(C)_ _ __ _ _
(F)._ _ __ _ _
(J)- - -
MESSAGE
FROM PAIN
(D) _ _ _ _ __ RECEPTORS
(A) _ _ _ _ __
(§)__ _ __ DOR SA L COLUMN-M ED/A l

----======~----- LEM NI SCAL SYSTEM
(B) _ _ _ _ __
(E) _ __ _ _ _
(C )_ _ __ _ _
(D)_ _ _ __ _
(F) _ _ _ __ _ _
(E) _ _ _ _ __
Adapted from MacKin non, C.D. (2018) . 'Chapter 1: Sensorimo tor anatomy of gait, balance, and fa lls', Handbook o( Clinicnl
REDUCE D PAIN
Neurology, Vol 159: 3-26. © Elsevier. Used with permission.
//11 /J/o/'wc l wloxr I vl1111rl11g /look. published 202 1 hy SACi F Publishing. © Sun ni w Higgs. Alison Cooper a11cl Jmi.11h an l.ec, 202 1 rlw lllt1l''l"''"'".l'1 C 11/011ri11~ /look . pul>Ji;hccl 202 1 by ~M.~ l't1IJll< h l11~ St11a1111c Higgs, Alison Cooper anti Jo11aiha11 I re. 2021
84 85
6.16 TASTE PATHWAY FROM TONGUE TO BRAIN

INTRODUCTION
On the tongue, receptor cells are clustered together in taste buds. The receptors project in three different
cranial nerves (the chorda tympani - which is a branch of the facial nerve, the glossopharyngeal nerve,
and the vagus nerve) via the nucleus of the solitary tract to the ventral posterior medial nucleus of the
thalamus, thence to the primary gustatory cortex, which is part of the insular cortex.

(C) _ _ __ (D), _ _ _ __
D Taste receptor cell (brown)

D Tongue (pink)
CJ Facial nerve (purple)
D Glossopharyngeaf nerve (blue)
0 Vagus nerve (red)
D Nucleus of the solitary tract (green)
D Ventral posterior medial thalamic nucleus (yellow)
D Primary gustatory cortex (orange)
/ \.,
I \
I (H)
(
I
\ )
/
/
-
m Barnes (2013) and NEUROtlker, Wikimedia Comm
Adapted f rO ons.
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\
87
6.17 TASTE BUD 6.18 OLFACTION

Taste buds consist of three types of cells: taste cell s, supporting cells and basal cells. Olfaction, or smell, is t he secon d chemical sen se with th e pr1mary sens~ mi o.l\ \.n \\\~ (}\\o.ctary mucosa
in the superior n asa l cav ity. O Jfact ion is highly sensitive, with some p eopl e abl e to iden tify up to 10,000
smells u sing the 10-20 m illio n o lfactory cells in the olfacto r y mucosa. Supporting cells provi de e!ecr:rical
COLOURING NOTES 6.17 insulation, protect ion a nd n o u rishme nt to th e olfactory neuron s while also detoxifying chemicals, while
Colour and label the following : the basa l cell s di v ide and different iate into n ew o lfactory neurons.
O Taste pore
D Gustatory hair (light blue) COLOURING NOTES 6.18
D Gustatory receptor cells (dark blue)
Label:
D Supporting cells (green)
D Sensory neurons (yellow)
D Olfactor y neu ro n
D Connective tissue
D Basal cells (purple) D Dendrite
D Cilia
D Olfactory vesicle
0 Olfacto ry bul b
D Cr ibriform for mina
D Axon
(A) _ _ _ _ _ __ Colour and label:
D Basal cells (p urple)

D Support ing ce lls (blue)
Colour:
D The ol factory t ract and axons (green)
(C)
(G)
- -- - ---
(F) _ _ _ _ __
/lie 1Jlr1/'1yi /111/ii~Y <.r1!1111rl11x ll<Hlk, publl~hcd 2021 by SAGE Publl1hlng. tt. Sutanric J llgg1. Alison Cooper and Jo11at ila11 I cc, 202 1 rt1c IJ/0P'~~l111/11x)' c olri11ri11x /look , pul>lhhccl 202 1 bv S1\CjE Publlshl11g . ~ Surnnnc Higgs. Alison Cooper and lonathan le~. 2021
BB 89
6.19 THE MAIN OLFACTORY PATHWAY

INTRODUCT~ON
Olfactory neurons project in the olfactory nerve to the olfactory bulb where they synapse with mitral
cells in distinct spherical structures called glomeruli (singular= glomerulus). Many olfactory neurons
project to just a few mitral cells. Unlike other senses, mitral cells project directly to the piriform cortex
(the primary olfactory cortex) without a synapse in the thalamus. Mitra! cells also project directly to the
amygdala and entorhinal cortex. From the piriform cortex, smell information passes to the orbitofrontal
cortex, where it is integrated with taste and visual information.

0 Olfactory neurons (blue) D Piriform cortex (the primary olfactory cortex) (purple)
0 Glomerulus (yellow) D Amygdala (green)
0 Mitral cells (pink) D Entorhlnal cortex (red)
(F) _ _ _ _ __
TO OLFACTORY
CORTEX
(A) _ _ _ __
(C)._ _ _ _ __
_ _ _ _ __.!!____
zw
o~
a: u:
w a: (E) _ _ _ __
~~
en-' Adapted from The Open University Course SD329: Sensation and Perception (2003) ©The Open University.
:::> $
u-'
::::>w
~~
0::
w
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92 93
7.1 MUSCLES OF THE UPPER ARM 702 THE NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

iNTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
Muscles are attached to the skeleton by tendons and can pull, by actively shortening, but not push. Nor The arrival of a single action potential at a neuromuscular junction is sufficient to cause a brief con-
do they need to, for they are arranged in opposition to each other around joints so that active contraction traction of the muscle fibre, called a twitch. Acetylcholine released at the junction causes an excitatory
of one muscle passively stretches the other. Often, several muscles work together as agonists and are potential that opens voltage-gated Na+ channels in the muscle membrane and produces an action poten-
opposed by several antagonists. For example, when the biceps contracts it flexes the arm, while con- tial in the muscle fibre.
tracting the triceps extends the arm.
COLOURING NOTES 7.2

COLOURING NOTES 7.1
Label:
D Muscle fibre (purple)
D Biceps contracts D Neuromuscular junction
D Triceps relaxes D Axon of motor neuron (orange)
D Triceps contracts D Myofibrils <red)
D Biceps relaxes
Colour:
D The muscles (pink)

O The bones (brown)
(D) _ _ _ _ __
(D) _ _ _ _ __
(C) _ _ _ __
Adapted from Garrett, Brain and Behavior (2020). Sage; and Starr, C., and Taggart, R. (1989). Biology: The Unity and JJiversity
of Life. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
lhC' 11/of'\ydw/11)(}' <.olo11rl11x llcl()k, published 2021 by SAGE Publishing.© Su1.anne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 Tlw Hlo/,.\yclwlogy c.oto11rl11s Umk, publhhcd Z02 l by SAtiE l'ublishlug. Li? Suzanne Higgs. Alison Cooper and Jonathan lee. 2021
94 95
7.3 MUSCLE FIBRE CONTRACTION 7.4 THE SPINAL STRETCH REFLEX

The release of Ca++ at the neuromuscular junction causes interleaved filaments of two proteins, actin and The spinal stretc h reflex is an example of the simplest system capable of producing an appropriate. IDOY~
myosin, to slide over each other, shortening the muscle fibre. In the presence of Ca++, the ends of individ- ment to a n external stimulus. Muscle spindles, in parallel with the extrafusal fibres, detect stretching
ual myosin filaments form links that move like tiny oars, 'rowing' myosin along the actin. The filaments within a muscle and activate alpha m o ton eurons via a ynap e in the spinal cord to p rodu ce a compen -
move in waves rather than all together, so that there are always some links between the actin and m yosin. satory contraction according to a simple negative feedback system. Mu cl :.p indl es are wrapped around
After th e action potential, the Ca++ is mopped up, all the links are broken, and th e muscle fibre relaxes. intrafusa l muscle fibres, which are innervated by gamma motoneurons. Activity in a gamma m o tonei:r?n
causes the intrafusal fibres to contract so that they maintain the same length as the extrafusal. Activity
in spindles a lso inhibits th e co ntraction of antagonistic muscles. This link provides the basis of a simple
COLOURING NOTES 7.3 pathway through w h ich to balance the tension in opposing muscles.
0 Myosin filaments (brow n) COLOURING NOTES 7.4

0 Acti n filaments (yellow)
Label: Colour:
D Extrafusa l fibre D The alpha motoneuron loop (red)

D Spinal cord D The gamma motoneuron pathway (green)
D lntraf usal muscle fibres with spindle O The inhibitory loop to relax the antagonistic
D Antagonistic muscle mu scle (blue)
D Agoni st muscle
D Sensory ce ll bod y
(A ) _ _ __
(B)
- -- - - -
(A) _ _ _ _---:
(CJ
Adapted from Figu re 10.7, Principles of A natomy and Physiology (11th ed.), by Gerard J. Tortora and Bryan H. Derrickson,
2006, Ho boken , NJ: John Wiley & Sons
(F)
------
(E)
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97
7.5 MAIN BRAIN AREAS INVOLVED IN MOTOR CONTROL 7.6 THE BASAL GANGLIA
Many brain regions are involved in motor control. The primary and secondary motor cortex form the The basal ganglia are important in selecting the movements required for a particular action. The striatum,
final stages of central motor processing. They receive direct sensory input from the somatosensory and consisting of the caudate nucleus and the putamen in primates, forms the main input stage of the basal
parietal cortex, involved in planning movements, and influence the motor circuits in the spinal cord. ganglia, receiving information from all areas of the cortex and from the limbic system. It projects via two
Through its direct pathways to the spinal cord, the motor cortex can initiate conscious movements. The separate pathways to the output stage, which consists of the globus pallidus and the substantia nigra, and
motor cortex also has two indirect outputs forming loops through the basal ganglia, involved in the selec- thence to the thalamus, which loops back to the cortex.
tion of appropriate movements, and through the cerebellum, involved in learning and refining complex
sequences of actions.
COLOURING NOTES 7.6

COLOURING NOTES 7.5
D Caudate nucleus (purple) D Globus pallidus (medial part) (green)
D Primary motor cortex (red) 0 Basal ganglia (orange) 0 Putamen (orange) D Substantia nigra (red)
D Somatosensory cortex (yellow) O Cerebellum (grey) D Globus pallidus (lateral part) (green) 0 Thalamus (blue)
D Posterior parietal cortex (green) 0 Secondary motor cortex (blue)
(E) _ _ _ _ __
(B) _ _ _ __
(A)
(A)
------ ------
r/tt> Hlufl~yclwlo,i:y '.oln11rt11x Ronk, published 2021 by S,\GI' Publishing. © Suzarme Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 Tire BloP.\yc/wla.~· <:nto11rf11g llnok, published 202 l by SAliE Publishing. ©Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee. 2021
98 99
7.7 THE CEREBELLUM 7.8 CROSS SECTION THROUGH THE CEREBELLAR CORTEX
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCT~ON
The cerebellum is part of the hindbrain and contains more than half of the total number of cells in the The cerebellar cortex has a regular structure consisting of three layers (molecular layer, Purkinje cell
entire brain. Like the forebrain, it consists mainly of a highly folded cortex. The cerebellum is responsible layer and granular layer). The deepest layer contains the granule cells. The axons of each granule cell
for the learning and 'automation' of complex movements. It works with the posterior parietal cortex to project up through the cortex to the surface layer, where they split into two 'parallel fibres' running in
develop and monitor forward plans, and it ensures that directional information from different sensory opposite directions parallel to the cortical surface. The middle layer contains the cell bodies of Purkinje
systems is correctly aligned. cells. The dendrites of the Purkinje cells project up into the surface layer where they form very flat
dendritic trees at right angles to the parallel fibres. Mossy fibres carry sensory input from the cortex
and spinal cord and form excitatory synapses with granule cells. Climbing fibres, originating in the
COLOURING NOTES 7.7 inferior olive and carrying information from the cortex, form excitatory synapses with the cell bodies
of Purkinje cells.
D Identify and label the cerebellum and cerebellar cortical fold
D Colour the cerebellum pink
COLOURING NOTES 7.8
0 Molecular layer D Parallel fibres (yellow)

D Purkinje cell layer D Purkinje cells (orange)
D Granular layer D Mossy fibres (purple)
D Granule cells (blue) O Climbing fibres (red)
(A) _ _ _ _ __
(-:(Ar ---
1 ----
~~-~~--- ~---- ----~ -,,,~~

/
(H)_
I
I
I
I
___,.._ _ -----'fol (r
j
-(D)-r
(G)_ _ _ _ ---~-!11 I
I
I
I
Adapted from original art created by Tomasikiewicz/Body Scientific Intl. for SAGE Publishing
I (E)_----rl-
_) 1
(F)..,,.__ _
/
// //
Adapted from original art created by Tomasikiewicz/Body Scientific Intl. for SAGE Publishing
The /llriP.1yrlmlti,~)' <:ol1111rlnx ll<H1k, published 2021 by SAGE Publishing. ©Suzanne Hlgg$, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 T/1e ll/rlP~rdUJ/o,\')' <.o/011rins /look. publhhed 2021 by SAliF. Publishing.© Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and JonaUian Lee, 2021
110
9.1 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 9.2 HYPOTHALAMIC NUCLEI INVOLVED IN EATING

INTRODUCTION INTRDDUCl~OM
We need to eat food to provide the energy that our bodies need to function and motivational processes The brain receives information continuously about food that is being eaten and nutrients that are cir-
govern what and how much we eat, but to use the energy from food we have to get it inside the body culating and being stored. We are able to sense nutrients at various stages of digestion, absorption and
in a usable form. When we eat, food is broken down into its constituent parts so that the useful bits metabolism and send information about these nutrients to the brain. Once this information reaches the
(nutrients) can be absorbed from the gut and the bits that cannot be used by the body are excreted. The brain there is further processing and integration with other inputs relevant to eating so that motor outputs
absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream from the digested food provides energy and essential other (eating behaviours) are generated. There are complex neural systems involved in appetite but an area of the
materials for the body to function. Signals from areas within the digestive (or gastrointestinal) system are brain that has received attention in research is the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus comprises a number
used to monitor the likely levels of nutrients that will be absorbed and so affect eating. of subdivisions or 'nuclei', some of which play an important role in eating. These are the paraventricular
nucleus (PVN), arcuate nucleus (ARC) and lateral hypothalamus (LH). By the release of neuropeptides,
signals are sent between these nuclei that lead to either the promotion or inhibition of eating.
COLOURING NOTES 9.1
Label and colour: COLOURING NOTES 9.2
D The oesophagus (pink) D The duodenum (pink) Label and colour:
D The stomach (red) D The small intestine (orange)
D The liver (brown) D The large intestine (green) D The PVN (green)
D The ARC (yellow)
0 The LH (orange)
Write in the relevant nucleus where neurons that express NPY, AgRP, a MSH and POMC are located
Draw coloured arrows to show the projection where NPY, AgRP and a MSH are released:
D Red to denote activation of the target area

0 Blue to denote inhibition of the target area
Draw coloured arrows from relevant nuclei to show:
(A) _ _ _ __ 0 Which nucleus is involved in the promotion of eating (red)

0 Which nucleus is involved in the inhibition of eating (blue)
(C) _ _ _ __
(F) _ _ _ __
w
_J
u
~
w
>
c
a: (8) _ _ _ __
(C) _ _ _ __ (t)
(D) _ _ _ __
(E)
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112 113
9.3 AFFECTIVE REACTIONS TO TASTE 9a4 THE MESOLIMBIC AND MESOCORTICAL

INTRODUCTION DOPAMINE SYSTEM
Responses to some basic tastes have an unlearned or innate component. So, human babies have a positive
affective reaction to sweet tastes and a negative affective reaction to bitter tastes. This is probably because INTRODUCTiON
these reactions serve to ensure the acceptance of milk and the rejection of poisons and so are adaptive.
However, our initial responses to tastes can be readily modified via experience, such that we can come Dopamine is an impo rtant n e urotransmitter in the regulation of motivated behaviours. A rich source of
to like some bitter-tasting foods if we learn that they are not actually dangerous. Some of this learning dopamine neurons is the ventra l tegmental area (VTA) in the midbrain. From here, projections are sent to
occurs socially as we observe the eating patterns of others allowing for social and cultura l influences on the limbic and cortical areas of the brain, which thus create the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine
food choice. systems. Dopamine relea se in the striatum (nucleus accumbens) is linked to motivational 'wanting', and
the targets of the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine systems are activated by food-related images.
COLOURING NOTES 9.3

COLOURING NOTES 9.4
Assign the correct label to the facial expressions elicited in response to:
Label and co lour:
0 Contro l (normal)
D Bitter D The VTA (gree n)
0 Sweet D The nucleus accumbens (purple)
0 Sour D The amygdala (blue)
La bel and colour the arrows show ing the direction of the mesolimbic (red) and mesocortical (light blue) projections
(A) _ _ __ (B) _ _ __ (C)._ __ _ (D)_ _ __ _
Source: Image courtesy of Weiffenbach (19 77). Taste and Development. © U.S. Department of Health , Educatio n , a n d Welfare, (D). _ _ _ _ __
Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health.
Adapted from origina l c rea ted by C hristina W h eele r/ Body Scie ntific Intl. for Sage Publishing.
I lit ll/11/'1yd111/1111)' < 11/1111rl11x /look , published 202 l by SAC.I' Publl1hlng. © Su n n nc Hlgg1, Allso11 Cooper a11d Jonatlrnn Lee, 202 1 Tlw ll/11/'1y<llolog1· <.11/t1111/11s /11111k pui>lhi>cd 20.! I In \AL. I· l'ulJlbhing < Su1a111 1<• I llgg >. Alhm1 Cooper andjonatlrnn Lee. Z02 l
114 ns
9.5 EEG PATTERNS OBSERVED DURING 9a6 SLEEP STAGES DURING ONE NIGHT
WAKING AND SLEEP INTRODUCTION
After a person has fallen asleep, there is progress through the different stages of sleep and REM sleep
INTRODUCTION throughout the night in cycles that alternate between periods of REM and non-REM sleep that take about
90 minutes.
The pattern of brain activity that is recorded via electroencephalography (EEG) varies across the course
of sleep. Sleep can thus be broken down into different stages (1-4 +REM sleep), which have distinct
EEG patterns. COLOURING NOTES 9.6
Label on the y axis of the graph:
COLOURING NOTES 9.5
Cl Awakening
Label (at the top) and colour the background for each distinct EEG pattern: D Stage 1
Cl Stage 2
D Awake [already labelled for you] (red) D Stage 3
D Stage 1 (blue) D Stage 4
D Stage 2 (yellow) D REM sleep
D Stages 3-4 (green)
Colour:
Colour in red and label the background for the pattern that is similar to waking
Below the EEG trace indicate with horizontal black lines the relative level of consciousness for each stage of sleep. 0 The periods of REM and brief awakening (green)
0 The period of SWS (qrey)
AWAKE
EEG
HIGH
LEVEL OF
CONSCIOUSNESS
LOW
Adapted from Bryant, P.A., et al. (2004). 'Sick and tired: does sleep have a vital role in the immune system?', Nature Reviews
Immunology. With permission from the Copyright Clearance Centre: Springer Nature. MIDNIGHT 0130 0300 0500 0630
Adapted from Barnes, J ., (2013). Esst'ntial Riologirn/ Psychology. London: Sage.
nu· lli11/'1ydmlo.~F <.olo11rl11x l!onk. published 2021 hy SAGF. l'uhll~hing. ©Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 The lltol'.\yclwlog)' c.olo11r/11,-.: llm1k. puhll~lwd :ml 1 hy '>1\tiE Publl5hlng. ,,, Suzanne Higg~, AJl~on Cooper and tonathan l.ee. 2021
116 117
9.7 BRAIN AREAS INVOLVED IN WAKING 9a8 BRAIN AREAS INVOLVED IN SLEEP
The brain mechanisms of waking involve two main pathways that form an ascending arousal system. One area of the brain that is more active during sleep than wakefulness is the ventrolateral preoptic
These pathways provide wide stimulation of the cortex to produce the desynchronised EEG that is char- nucleus (VLPO). Neurons in this region of the hypothalamus contain the inhibitory neurotransmitters
acteristic of the waking state. GABA and they connect with the monoaminergic arousal systems in the hypothalamus and brainstem.
When the VLPO is damaged, it causes insomnia. This evidence suggests that projections from the VLPO
form a sleep-promoting pathway that inhibits arousal systems.
COLOURING NOTES 9.7
Label and colour: COLOURING NOTES 9.8
D The PPT/LDT (green) Label and colour:
D The thalamus (yellow)
D The cortex (pink) D The ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (blue)
D The basal forebraln (brown) D The monoaminergic brainstem {purple)
D Lateral hypothalamus (red) D The thalamus (yellow)
D The monoaminergic brainstem {purple)
D The cortex (pink)
D The brainstem-thalamus-cortex pathway (blue) and the monoamine-lateral hypothalamus/basal forebrain-cortex
D The basal forebrain (brown)
pathway (orange)
D The lateral hypothalamus (red)
D The PPT/LDT (green)
Colour:
D The inhibitory projections from the VLPO that inhibit arousal systems <orange)
(A) _ _ __
(A) _ _ __
fllC' Hiol'.1Yrl10lo,zy c.o/r111rl11x fl()(}k, published 2021 by SAGE Publlshlng. ©Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 Tlw nl11Psyclw/11,\')' <.o/11uri11.i: /loo~. puhli,twli 20! I h\ '>Al_i[ Pul>tishlng. eel SuLanno: Higgs. Alison Cooper and Jonothan Lt>e, 2021
118
9.9 ASCHEMATIC OF THE FLIP-FLOP MECHANISM THAT ANSWERS

CONTROLS SHIFTS BETWEEN SLEEPING AND WAKING
INTRODUCTION
While there is clearly an interaction between the brain areas involved in sleep and waking, the transition
between the two states still needs to be explained. The current understanding is that there are 'flip-flop'
switches that allow fast and complete transitions from waking to sleep and vice versa. In the brain, these
CHAPTER 1
flip-flops seem be made up of groups of neurons that inhibit each other. The primary groups of neurons
involved are in the VLPO. COLOURING NOTES t1 COLOURING NOTES 1.5
(a) Brain (a) Central sulcus
(b) Spinal cord (b) Parietal lobe
COLOURING NOTES 9.9 (c) Nerves (c) Occipital lobe
Label and colour: Draw:
(d) Cerebellum
The central nervous system is inclusive (e) Spinal cord
D The VLPO (blue) D Activating projections in green of the brain and spinal cord, whilst (f) Brainstem
D The monoaminergic brainstem (yellow) D Inhibitory projections in red the nerves make up the peripheral (g) Temporal lobe
D The orexin system (orange) nervous system. (h) Lateral fissure
(i) Frontal lobe

(A) (a) Superior
(b) Proximal (a) Pons
0 (c) Distal (b) Medulla
(d) Medial (c) Midbrain
AWAKE
(e) Lateral (d) Hindbrain
0 (f) Inferior
COLOURING NOTES 1.7
COLOURING NOTES 1.3
0 (a) Anterior
(a)
(b)
(c)
Afferent
Soma of sensory neuron
Grey matter
(b) Superior (d) White matter
(c) Posterior (e) Dorsal root
(d) Inferior (f) Spinal nerve
(e) Coronal (g) Ventral root
(f) Sagittal (h) Soma of motor neuron
(B) (g) Horizontal (i) Efferent
0
COLOURING NOTES t4 COLOURING NOTES 1.8
SLEEP
(a) Left cerebral hemisphere (a) Lateral ventricles
(b) Third ventricle
0 (b) Right cerebral hemisphere
(c) Cerebellum (this appears in
both images)
(c)
(d)
Cerebral aqueduct
Fourth ventricle
0 {d) Brainstem (e) Central canal of spinal cord
Adapted with permission of Wiley. From Saper et al. (2005). 'Homeostatic, circadian, and emotional regulation of sleep',
Journal o(Comparative Neurology, 493(1). Permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
rl1c 11/oJ''Y"'"''"·~>' <.11/1111rl11.'( Jlook. published 2021 by SAGF. Publishing. ©Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan l.ee. 2021 119
_..L .,
120 121
CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3
COLOURING NOTES 2.1 (g) Postsynaptic neuron COLOURING NOTES 3.1
(h) Axon
(a) Dendrites Inhalat io n will b e the m ethod presenting the earliest peak of concentration of drug in the brain, with
(b) Nucleu s inj ection following soon after and b oth w ill be qu ite high peaks. After that, snorting/snuffin g follows but
(c) Axon COLOURING NOTES 2.7 is a m u ch lower peak. Finally, Ingestion is last to pea k with a much wider but flatter curve. See The Brai n:
(d) Cell body (a) Axon Understanding Ne11robiolo~ry Tl1ro11gl1 tire Study of Addiction, https://science.education.nih.gov/ supplements/
(e) Schwann cells (b) Synaptic vesicle nih_ n eu ro.pdf.
(f) Axon terminals
(c) Dend rite
(g) Myelin sheath (d) Synaptic cleft
(e) Neurotransmitter COLOURING NOTES 3.2 COLOURING NOTES 3.3
COLOURING NOTES 2.2 (a) Agonist (a) Therapeutic effect
(b) Therapeutic index
(a) Myelin sheath COLOURING NOTES 2.8 (b) Antagonist
(c) Partial inverse agonist (c) Toxic effect
(b) Node of Ranvier (a) Synapatic cleft
(c) Axon
(b) Vesicle
(d) Sch wa n n ce ll
(e) Oligodendrocyte
(c) Cytoplasm COLOURING NOTES 3.4
(d) Neurotransmitter molecules
(f) Axon
COLOURING NOTES 2.3 COLOURING NOTES 2.9 I

(a) Axon terminal I
(a) Phospholipids I
(b) Neurotransmitter transporter I
(b) Protein channels I
(c) Postsynaptic receptor
(c) Extracellular fluid I
(d) Synaptic vesicle 0UJ SENSITISATION I
(d) Intrace llular fluid u.. I
(e) Neurotransmitter u..
UJ I
(f) Synaptic cleft UJ l+--
COLOURING NOTES 2.4 (g) Dendrite > 1 /
~UJ /
/
/
(a) K+ ion channel a: /
(b) Na+K+-ATPase transporter COLOURING NOTES 2.10 /
/
(c) Inside n euron / TOLERANCE

(a) Synaptic cleft /
(d) O utside ne uron /
(b) Presynaptic term ina l /
/
(c) Postsynaptic termi nal /
Im age n eeds to be recreated for /_
(d) Receptors :;;...-'
answers with th e labels added in
(e) Neurotransmitter DOSE
(f) Astrocyte
COLOURING NOTES 2.5 (g) Synaptic vesicle ·1a1-Da n
Adapte d fro m H I
da n a nd Bru nto n (20 14)
(a) Thresh o ld line

(b) Depolarisatio n COLOURING NOTES 2.11
(c) Repola risation
Amino acids Neuropcptides
COLOURING NOTES 3.5
(d) Stimulus
(e) Resting potenti al line GABA Opioids (a) N o c(fPCI
Glutamate
Glycine
Neurop eptide Y
Orex in
(I J) <;/(l!/y
COLOURING NOTES 2.6 C llol ccystokin in (CJ Sleep
Monoamines (d) Unconscious
(a) Presyn aptic axon
Serotonin Lipids /gasesGAB (e) Labou red brea thin g
(b) Pos tsyn aptic axon
Dopamine Ca nnabin o ids (f) Death
(c) Axon term inal
(d) Syn a ptic cleft Histamine N itric ox id e
(e) Den drites Noradrena line
(f) Presynaptic n euron
111< lll11 /''r< l111lnx1· < 11lmtrl11s lkfflk puhlhhed 2021 hy SAGF Publlihlng. f' SuiMtne Hlgg\, Alison Cooper and fonalhan Lee 2021
122 123
COLOURING NOTES 3.6 (A) COLOURING NOTES 3.6 (B) CHAPTER 4

(a) Neurotransmitter (a) Neurotransmitter
(b) Ion (b) Metabotropic receptor
(c) Closed ion channel (c) G-protein COLOUR~NG NOTES 4.1 (e) Spinal cord
(d) Ionotropic receptor (d) G-protein gated ion channel (f) Midbrain
(a) Sugar-phosphate backbone (g) Hindbrain
1. A (h) Cranial nerves
2. G (i) Forebrain
3. T (j) Spinal cord
COLOURING NOTES 3.7 4. c (k) Midbrain
5. T (1) Hindbrain
(C) Benzodiazepine receptor site 6. G (m) Spinal cord
(B) Barbituarate receptor site
7. c (n) Forebrain
8. A (o) Midbrain (hidden)
(p) Hindbrain
(0) Alcohol receptor site
(q) Spinal cord
COLOURING NOTES 4.2 (A)
(a) Homologous chromosome COLOURING NOTES 4.5
(b) Sister chromatids
(c) Homologues separate, sisters remain attached (a) Ventricular zone
(d) Sisters separate (b) Cortical plate
(e) DNA replication recombination (c) Brain surface
(E) Neural membrane (f) Chromosome segregation (meiosis I) (d) The radial glia
(g) Chromosome segregation (meiosis II) (e) The fluid-filled ventricle
(h) Gametes The cells (circles) in the cortical plate (B) that are
closest to the ventricular zone (A) should be yel-
COLOURING NOTES 4.2 (BJ low. The cells (circles) closest to the brain surface
\ @
(a) Interphase
(b) Prophase
(C) should be pink.
(c) Metaphase COLOURING NOTES 4.6

Adapted from original created by Carolina Hrejsa/Body Scientific Intl. for Sage Publishing. (d) Anaphase (a) Migration zone
(e) Telophase (b) Outer layer of the brain (where the oldest
neurons are)
COLOURING NOTES 3.8 COLOURING NOTES 3.10 COLOURING NOTES 4.3 (c) Ventricular zone (where the youngest
neurons are)
(a) Cocaine (a) Nicotine (a) Neural plate (d) Migrating neurons
(b) Presynaptic transporter protein (b) Acetylcholine (b) Non-neural ectoderm (e) Radial glial fibres
(c) Dopamine (c) Axon terminal (c) Neural groove
(d) Acetylcholine receptors (d) Neural tube
COLOURING NOTES 4.7
COLOURING NOTES 3a9 COLOURING NOTES 4.4 (a) Cell body
(a) Postsynaptic receptors
COLOURING NOTES 3.11 (b) Axon
(b) Endogenous opioids (a) Adenosine (a) Forebrain (c) Growth cone
(c) Morphine (b) Caffeine (b) Midbrain
(c) Hindbrain
(d) Forebrain
r/11· 11/11/';~·clwlox1· <.11/1111ri11x Hook. published 2021 by 'il\GF. Publishing. ©Suzanne t-llggs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee. 2021 The ntnl'~ydwl<wr c.ol1111ri11x /11101<.. pul>lhlwll 2112 I br \MIE Puhlishin~ ,,,, Suzan11e Higgs. Alison Cooper and lonathan Lee. 2021
124 125
COLOURING NOTES 4.8

(a) Cell breaks into apoptotic bodies
CHAPTER 5
(b) Nuclear collapse
(c) Normal cell COLOURING NOTES 5.1
(i) cytoplasm Panel A - screens are 1 & 3; processors are 2 & 4.
(ii) nucleus
(iii) other organelles Panel B - 2 &. 4 should be coloured.
(d) Cell damage Panel C - 1 should be coloured as the screen could still have power to it.
(e) Cell parts phagocytosed
(f) Cell shrinks developing buds or blebs Circling exercises:
(C) _ _ __
(a) The images that represent a double dissociation are Bl and B2; and Cl and C2
(b) The images that represent a single dissociation are B3 and B4; and C3 and C4
COLOURING NOTES 4.9 (c) Dopamine

(d) Presynaptic neuron
COLOURING NOTES 5.2
(a) Caudate (e) Postsynaptic neuron (a) Memory strength
(b) Putamen (f) Synaptic cleft (b) Amount learned on trial
(c) Healthy brain (g) Vesicles containing dopamine (c) Prediction error
(d) Parkinson's disease (h) Dopamine receptors
(e) Substantia nigra pars compacta Your lines may look a little something like this:
The nigrostriatal pathways should go COLOURING NOTES 4.12

from the caudate and putamen down 120
Note on answers: Some of these are
to the substansia nigra pars compacta. interchangeable.
100
s
COLOURING NOTES 4.10 (a), (b) and (c) are dopamine, 5-HT and GABA -
in any order
Cl
..-
LL
0 80
(a) Caudate (d) and (e) can be either GABA or COMT so long I-
:::>
(b) Putamen as GABA is with synthesis and COMT is with Q.
-I
(c) Healthy brain degradation w 60
(d) Brain with Huntington's disease cu
(f) Dysbindin -I
w
(g) and (h) can be either synthesis or degradation > 40
COLOURING NOTES 4.11 so long as degradation is with COMT and ~

w
synthesis is with GABA a:
20
(a) Tyrosine (i) Release
(b) L-DOPA (j) DISCl
0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TRIAL NUMBER
D (A) MEMORY STRENGTH 6 (B) PREDICTION ERROR Q (C) AMOUNT LEARNED ON TRIAL
COLOURING NOTES 5u3

(a) Occipital lobe - more perceptual neurons
(b) Temporal lobe - more mnemonic neurons
The red arrow should go from the occipital lobe towards the temporal lobe.
!ht· /1111f'1ycl111JoX)' <.u/011rl11g /Jo11k. published 2021 by SAGE Publishing.© Suzanne Higgs, Alison cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 Th" lll11Psfd1111t~i:r <,0Jo11rl11s /look. puhli\l wd 202 I h\' 'ii\1 ii-. Publishi11K ,. Sun11111l' I llggs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan lee, 2021
1 ,_
126
127

SUPPORTED SUPPORTED
D BYSTM BYLTM
TI ME
STM
------------------
--',"\
\\
ACQUISITION ~
LTM HIPPOCAMPUS
. b H ·sa/Body Sci entific In tl. for SAGE Publish ing

Ada p ted fro m origi n al creation y re1
COLOURING NOTES 5.5

(a) Output n euron
COLOURING NOTES 5.S
(b) an d (c) lnput n eurons. Strong vs. weak could be either way round.
INTEGRAL TO THE MEMORY
(B)
COLOURING NOTES 5.6
(a) The outp ut neuron
(b) The in put neu ron al cell body
(c) The interneuron
Axona l pro jecti on is from B to 3 HIPPOCAMPUS
Interneuron pro jecti ons are B to 1 a nd C to 2
Excitato ry synapses a re 1 and 3
Inh ibito ry synapse is 2
3 is strengthened by LTP
COLOURING NOTES 5.7 (C) ~0

(a) The output neuron
(b) The input ne urona l cell body f7J~ 1JJ/;jJ)
ilJ~UI < ~.-
(c) The interneuron ~INTEGRAL
!lf1vi.nwE~
UNI~
~/
c::::>
/
C()H \t1
COH C:.
Axonal projection from input to output is from B to 3.
THIS SHOULD BE THF 1INI IS
7
Axonal projection from input to interneuron is from B to 1. LINKED TO Tl/( ///{l(lf)(,/IM/IAL
AxonaJ projection from interneuron to o utput is from C to 2.
=
/JN//!;> CHOSIN IN !01
ANDA/ SO<NOICAffnA,, IN H UI~
Excitatory synapses are l and 3. WHI< M/MO HnN / "/ ~
..__.... HI P P OCA MPus
Inhibitory synapse is 2.
1 is weakened by LTD. c:::> c:::>
C ha~ reduced activity.
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128 129
COLOURING NOTES 5.10 CHAPTER 6

(a) Iris (a) Left visual field
(b) Cornea (b) Right visual field
(c) Pupil (c) Temporal
(d) Lens (d) Nasal
PLASTICITY BETWEEN INTEGRAL (e) Retina (e) Optic chiasma
UNITS (ANY COMBINATION AND
NUMBER OF UNITS COULD HAVE
(f) Optic nerve (f) Lateral geniculate nucleus
BEEN CHOSEN) (g) Optic radiation
(h) Primary visual cortex
COLOURING NOTES 6.2 (i) Superior colliculus
(a) Cornea
(b) Iris
(c) Lens COLOURING NOTES 6.7
(d) Retina (a) Parietal cortex
(e) Optic nerve (b) Inferotemporal cortex
(f) Pupil (c) Dorsal stream
(g) Fixation point (d) Ventral stream
(h) Light
COLOURING NOTES 5.11 COLOURING NOTES 6.3 COLOURING NOTES 6.8

Before extinction: (a) Outer ear
(a) Macula
(b) Middle ear
(b) Fovea
(a) Infralimbic cortex (c) Inner ear
(c) Retina
(b) Hippocampus (d) Auditory nerve
(d) Vitreous gel
(c) Amygdala (e) Cochlea
(e) Optic nerve
(f) Eustachian tube
(f) Iris
In this scenario the CS should only have an arrow to the amygdala and the fear response is activated. (g) Ear drum
(g) Cornea
(h) Ear canal
(h) Pupil
After extinction - in the extinction context: (i) Hammer
(i) Lens
(j) Anvil
(d) Infralimbic cortex (j) Bipolar cell
(k) Pinna
(e) Hippocampus (k) Amacrine cell
(1) Stirrup
(f) Amygdala (1) Cone
(m) Horizontal cell
(n) Ganglion cell
In this scenario the CS should have arrows to all three brain areas and there should be a line between
(o) Rod
COLOURING NOTES 6.9
the infralimbic cortex and the amygdala. The fear response is not activated.
(a) Inner hair cells
After extinction - in a different context: (b) Tectorial membrane
COLOURING NOTES 6.4 (c) Outer hair cells
(g) lnfralimbic cortex (a) Cell bodies (d) Basilar membrane
(h) Hippocampus {b) Cone photoreceptors (e) Auditory nerve
(i) Amygdala (c) Rod photoreceptors (f) Basilar membrane
(d) Synaptic terminals
In this scenario, there should be arrows from the CS to all three brain areas, but this time, there should be (e) Inner segments
an arrow between the hippocampus and the infralimbic cortex. The fear response is activated. (f) Outer segments COLOURING NOTES &a10
(g) Membranous discs containing photo pigments (a) Medial geniculate body
(b) Primary auditory cortex (Al)
(c) Inferior colliculus
COLOURING NOTES 6a5 (d) Superior olivary nucleus
(a) On responses (e) Auditory nerve
(b) Off responses (f) Cochlea
/Ii{' flltJl'>ycl1olox1' <.o/11ur/11x lllHlk, publbhcd 2021 by SAGE Publishing. ©Suzanne Higgs, Alison Cooper and Jonathan Lee, 2021 Tlw /1101'.\ycho/11:<}' ( .olo11ri11;.: /look, puhli\l wd 2112 I h~ '>Ali l. Puhli~hlni.i ~'· S1u<11111t' HI~~. Alison Coopt>r and Jonathan Let•. 2021
-
130 131
COLOURING NOTES 6.11 (e) Spinal cord

(f) Endogen ous opioids
CHAPTER 7
(a) Sem icircu lar can a ls
(b) Utricle (c) Basal gan glia
(c) Saccu le COLOURING NOTES 6.16 COLOURING NOTES 7.1 (d) Cerebellum
(d ) Coch lea (a) Ventral posterior m ed ial t h a lamic nucleus (a) Biceps c o n t racts (e) Primary motor cortex
(b) Primary gustatory cort ex (b) Trice ps re laxes (f) Som atosensory cortex
(c) Biceps re laxes
COLOURING NOTES 6.12 (c) Facial nerve
(d) Triceps co ntract s
(a) Otolith s
(d) Nucleus of th e solitary t ract COLOURING NOTES 7.6
(e) Glossopharyn geal n erve
(b) Gelatinou s membran e (a) Putam en
(c) Hair cells
(f) Vagu s nerve
(g) Tongue
COLOURING NOTES 7.2 (b) Caudate nucleus
(d ) Neu rons (h ) Taste receptor cell (a) Axon of m o t or n e u ro n (c) Th alamus
(b) Neu rom u scu la r junct io n (d) Substantia n igra
(c) Myofibrils (e) Globus pallid us (lateral part)
COLOURING NOTES 6.13 COLOURING NOTES 6.17 (d ) M u sc le fi b re (f) Globus pallidus (medial part)
(a) Me issn er's corpu scle (a) Taste pore
(b) Merkel's disc
(c) Ruffini end ings
(b) Gustatory h air COLOURING NOTES 7.3 COLOURING NOTES 7.7
(c) Gu statory receptor cell
(d ) Pacinian corp uscle (d) Basal cell (a) Act in fi la m e nt s (a) Cerebellar cortical fold
(e) Free n erve en dings (b) Myosi n fil a m e n ts (b) Cerebellum
(e) Sensory neurons
(f) Ha ir (f) Connective tissue
(g) Su pporting cell COLOURING NOTES 7.4 COLOURING NOTES7.8
COLOURINGNOTES 6.14 (a) Se n so ry c e ll body (a) Parallel fibres
(a) Cereb ral cortex COLOURING NOTES 6.18 (b) Spina l cord (b) Molecular layer
(b) Midbra in (c) Antagoni st muscle (c) Purkin je cell layer
(a) Olfactory bulb (d) Gran ul ar layer
(c) Po n s (d ) Ext rafu sa l fib re
(b) Cri briform formina (e) Purkinj e cells
(d) Med ulla (c) Axon (e) Agonist muscle . with s ind le
(f) Intrafu sal mus cl e fi b 1es p (f) Climbin g fibres
(e) Medu lla (d) Basal cell
(g) Alp h a n1o t o n e u ron loop (g) Mossy fibres
(f) Spinal cord (e) Supporting cell (h ) Ga m ma m o t oneuro n pathway (h ) Granule cells
(g) Dorsal column nuclei (f) Olfactory n euro n
(h) Dorsal root gan glion cells (i) Inhib it ory loop
(g) Dendrite
(i) Med ia l le mniscu s (h) Cilia
( j) Ve ntra l posteri or nucleu s (i) Olfactory ves icle COLOURING NOTES 7.5
(k) Prima ry som at osen sory
cortex (S l ) (a) Se co n dary m _o t_o r ~0 1."~~~
COLOURING NOTES 6.19 (b ) Poste ri o r jlfl rl Cla l cOl lCX
COLOURING NOTES 6.15 (a) Olfactory n euron s

(b) Glomerulus
(a) Midbrain
(c) Amygdal a
(b) Periaqueducta l grey area (d ) Entorhin al cortex
(c) Pons
(e) Piriform co rtex (the prima ry o lfactory co rtex)
(d) Med u lla
(f) Mitra! cell s
111< /liu/'1.1< //11/11s> r 11/11111/11g Hook pu blish ed 2021 hy SAGF. Pu blishing. © Sman n e l llggs, Alison C ooper and Jonath an Lee. 2021
133
132
CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9
LH should have a red arrow as it is involved
COLOURING NOTES 8.1 There should be arrows between the following COLOURiNG NOTES 9.1 in the promotion of eating.
numbers: 1 ~2~3~5->6~7; 4~6. (a) Oesophagus
1. Stimulus (environment) PVN should have a blue arrow as it is involved
The black arrows should be betwee n (b) Liver in the inhibition of eating.
2. Perception (brain) (c) Duodenum
1~2 & 2~3.
3. Peripheral response (body) (d) Large intestine
4. Interpretation (brain) And a blue arrow between 6~ 7. (e) small intestine
5. Emotion (brain) COLOURING NOTES 9.3
All others should be red. (f) Stomach
(a) Control (normal)
Arrows should be present between 1 ~ 2~3 ~4~5. (b) Sweet
COLOURING NOTES 9.2 (c) Sour
You should have black arrows between 1~2 & 2~3 . COLOURING NOTES 8.4 (a) T h e ARC
(d) Bitter
And a blue arrow between 4~5. (a) The cingulate gyrus (b) The LH
This leaves 3 ~4 as a red arrow. (b) The amygdala (c) The PVN COLOURING NOTES 9.4
(c) The prefrontal cortex
. hat ex press NPY, AgRP, (a) Mesocortical projections
(d) The hypothalamus The neu1ons t M C should be located in th e ARC. (b) The amygdala
COLOURING NOTES 8.2 a MSH and PO
blue line from the ARC (c) Mesolimbic projections
1. Stimulus (environment) COLOURING NOTES 8.5 AgRP should have a (d) The VTA
2 . Perception (b ra in) ( a) to the PVN (c). (e) The nucleus accumbens
(a) Anger a red arrow from the ARC
3 . Peripheral response (body) NPY should have
(b) Fear o the pVN (c).
4. Emotion (brain) . d a rrow from
(c) Surprise (a) t
Id have a ie
(d) Sadness a MSH shoU LH (b).
Arrows should be present between 1~2~3;
(e) Happiness the ARC (a) to the
2~4 ; 4 ~3 .
(f) Disgust
You sh o u ld h ave black arrows between 1 ~2 & 2~3.
And a ll othe rs sh o uld be red. COLOURING NOTES 8.6 COLOURING NOTES 9.5
(a) The hypoth alamus
AWAKE REM SLEEP*
COLOURINGNOTES 8.3 (b) CRF
(c) The pituitary gland STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3 AND 4
1. Stimulus (en vironment) (d) ACTH
2. Perceptio n (bra in) (e) The adrenal cortex
3. Perip h era l respon se (bo dy) (f) Cortisol
4. Context (en vironment)
5. W hich e m o tio n ? (bra in) The feedback loop you have drawn should go
6. Interpretation (bra in) from corti sol (f) to the hypoth a lamus (a) a nd
7. Emotion (brain) pituitary gla nd (c).
l.[VEL or:
CONSC IQ L)[')f\/ff 88
LOW
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" '"' ' " ' 111 " •·i k II
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- - T ·-
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135
134
COLOURING NOTES 9.6 COLOURING NOTIES 9.9
BRIEF AWAKENING (A) ORX
AWAKENING
FIRST CYCLE SECOND
0 ONOAMINERGIC
CYCLE BRAINSTEM AWAKE
REM SLEEP
~
STAGE 1
VLPO OON
0
STAGE 2
STAGE 3
STAGE4
MIDNIGHT 0130 0300 0500 0630
(B) ORX
l~sws [:]REM 0
~0 /
Adapted from Barnes, J., (2013). Essential Biological Psychology. London: Sage.
SLEEP
COLOURING NOTES 9.7

'\NOAMINERGIC BRAINSTEM
(a)
(b)
(c)
Cortex
Thalamus
The basal forebrain
0
(d) Lateral hypothalamus
(e) The PPT/LDT
(f) The monoaminergic brainstem
Adapted with permission of Wiley. From Saper et al. (2005). 'Homeostatic, circadian, and emotional regulation of sleep',
Journal ofComparaHve Neurology, 493(1). Permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
Brainstem-thalamus-cortex pathway (in blue) should run from (e) to (b) and then (b) to (a).
Monoamine-lateral hypothalamus/basal forebrain-cortex pathway (in orange) should be the arrows The inhibitory projections should be drawn between the VLPO and the monoaminergic brainstem in
between (f) to (d) and then (d) to (c). (a). The activating projections should be between ORX and the monoaminergic brainstem in both
(a) and (b).
COLOUR~NG NOTES 9.8

(a) The cortex
(b) The thalamus
(c) The basal forebrain
(d) The lateral hypothalamus
(e) The ventrolateral preoptic nucleus
(f) PPT/LDT
(g) The monoaminergic brainstem
The inhibitory projections from the VLPO that inhibit arousal systems (in orange) runs from (e) to (g).
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SUZANNE HIGGS

1.1 THE PERIPHERAL AND CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

COLOURING NOTES 1.1

1.2 ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS

• Horizontal: into superior (upper/above) and inferior (lower/below)

The same terminology is also often applied to the brain.

Ventral/ Front of the Dorsal/ Back of the

Superior Above Inferior .Below

Proximal Closer to Dis ta I Further from

Superficial Closer to Deep Further from

COLOURING NOTES 1.2

- - COLOURING NOTES 1.3 - - COLOURING NOTES 1.4

D Coronal section D Posterior D Brainstem (green)

(E) _ _ _ _ __ (F) _ _ _ _ __ (G) _ _ _ __ _

1.5 THE LOBES OF THE BRAIN 1.6 THE BRAINSTEM

Label and colour: D Lateral ve ntricles (green)

2.1 TRADITIONAL REPRESENTATION OF ANEURON 2.2 OLIGODENDROCYTES (GLIAL CELLS)

D Extracellular fluid (outside neuron)

D Phospholipids (yellow) D Outside neuron D Inside neuron

D Na+ ions (red) D Phosolipids (yellow)

2.7 THE KEY STRUCTURES OF THE SYNAPSE 2.8 EXOCYTOSIS

r ·•---•-·•~~.~·,:_._.:.,,~···•~'·-··~-•.:... . . !"'I.· J.L

2.9 POSTSYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION 2.10 THE TRIPARTITE SYNAPSE

Label: Label and colour:

D Axon terminal D Synaptic vesicle (red)

Label and colour:

D Postsynaptic receptor (green)

COLOURING NOTES 3.1

D Inhalation in red D Agonist: colour the markers red

-0-(A) _ _ __ -0-(B) _ _ __ --f:r- (C)_ _ _ __

3.7 THE GABA-A RECEPTOR COMPLEX 3.8 EFFECTS OF COCAINE ON DOPAMINE

COLOURING NOTES 3.9 D Acetylcholine (green)

SENDING NEURON SENDING NEURON

3.11 CAFFEINE BINDING TO ADENOSINE RECEPTORS

4.1 THE STRUCTURE OF DNA 4.2 MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS

Label: Colour: Label:

Mitosis consists of five main stages (but not in this order):

COLOURING NOTES 4.3

D The fluid-filled ventricle D The first-formed cortical neurons (yellow) (B) _ _ _ _ __

D The surface of the brain D Later formed neurons (pink)

Colour and label:

D The ventricular zone (brown)

Adapted from illustration by Lydia Kibiuk, © 1995.

4.7 AXON GUIDANCE 4.8 APOPTOSIS

4.9 NEUROPATHOLOGY OF PARKINSON'S DISEASE 4.10 BRAIN WITH HUNTINGTON'S DISEASE

Label and colour:

D The caudate and puta men (blue)

5.1 SINGLE VS DOUBLE DISSOCIATIONS 5.2 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF HOW MEMORY

(a) The two images that represent a double dissociation in green

D (A) !:::. (B) Q(C)

5.3 PROGRESSION OF MEMORY-RELATED PROPERTIES IN 5.4 CONVERSION OF SHORT-TERM MEMORY INTO

COLOURING NOTES 5.4

5.5 ASSOCIATIVE LTP 5.6 INCREASING OUTPUT VIA LTP

5.7 INCREASING OUTPUT VIA LTD 5.8 THE HIPPOCAMPUS

5.9 SYSTEMS CONSOLIDATION 5.10 MULTIPLE TRACE THEORY

COLOURING NOTES 5.9 COLOURING NOTES 5.10

5.11 NEURAL CIRCUITRY OF MEMORY EXTINCTION BEFORE EXTINCTION

COLOURING NOTES 5.11

D Label each circle with the appropriate anatomical area

After extinction - in the extinction context:

D Label and colour the image as above

After extinction - in a different context:

D Label and colour the image as above

AFTER EXTINCTION - IN A DIFFERENT CONTEXT

---- ~---- ----~ -,,,~~