1.

No universal sequence of stages is apparent – analysis, design and implementation

are contemporary and inextricably linked.[14]
The action-centric perspective is based on an empiricist philosophy and broadly consistent with
the agile approach[28] and methodical development.[29] Substantial empirical evidence supports the
veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers.[26] Like the rational model, the
action-centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge.[30]
At least two views of design activity are consistent with the action-centric perspective. Both involve
these three basic activities:
 In the reflection-in-action paradigm, designers alternate between "framing", "making
moves", and "evaluating moves". "Framing" refers to conceptualizing the problem, i.e.,
defining goals and objectives. A "move" is a tentative design decision. The evaluation
process may lead to further moves in the design.[13]
 In the sensemaking–coevolution–implementation framework, designers alternate
between its three titular activities. Sensemaking includes both framing and evaluating
moves. Implementation is the process of constructing the design object. Coevolution is
"the process where the design agent simultaneously refines its mental picture of the
design object based on its mental picture of the context, and vice versa". [14]
The concept of the design cycle is understood as a circular time structure,[31] which may start with the
thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication (design
tools), the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the
critical rethinking of the perceived idea. Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the
importance of the means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any
design ideas.[32]
Philosophies[edit]
Philosophy of design is the study of definitions, assumptions, foundations, and implications of
design. There are also many informal 'philosophies' for guiding design such as personal values or
preferred approaches.
Approaches to design[edit]
Some of these values and approaches include:
 Critical design uses designed artifacts as an embodied critique or commentary on
existing values, morals, and practices in a culture. Critical design can make aspects of
the future physically present to provoke a reaction.[33][34][35]
 Ecological design is a design approach that prioritizes the consideration of the
environmental impacts of a product or service, over its whole lifecycle.[36][37] Ecodesign
research focuses primarily on barriers to implementation, ecodesign tools and methods,
and the intersection of ecodesign with other research disciplines.[38][39]
 Participatory design (originally co-operative design, now often co-design) is the practice
of collective creativity to design, attempting to actively involve all stakeholders (e.g.
employees, partners, customers, citizens, end-users) in the design process to help
ensure the result meets their needs and is usable.[40] Recent research suggests that
designers create more innovative concepts and ideas when working within a co-design
environment with others than they do when creating ideas on their own.
[41][42]
 Scientific design refers to industrialised design based on scientific knowledge. [43] Science
can be used to study the effects and need for a potential or existing product in general
and to design products that are based on scientific knowledge. For instance, a scientific
design of face masks for COVID-19 mitigation may be based on investigations of
filtration performance, mitigation performance,[44][45] thermal
comfort, biodegradability and flow resistance.[46][47]
 Service design is a term that is used for designing or organizing the experience around a
product and the service associated with a product's use. The purpose of service design
methodologies is to establish the most effective practices for designing services,
according to both the needs of users and the competencies and capabilities of service
providers.[48][49][50][51]
 Sociotechnical system design, a philosophy and tools for participative designing of work
arrangements and supporting processes – for organizational purpose, quality, safety,
economics, and customer requirements in core work processes, the quality of peoples
experience at work, and the needs of society.
 Transgenerational design, the practice of making products and environments compatible
with those physical and sensory impairments associated with human aging and which
limit major activities of daily living.
 User-centered design, which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end-
user of the designed artifact. One aspect of user-centered design is ergonomics.