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Table of Contents

1. Welcome

A. Welcome

2. Copyright Page and Preface

A. Section 1: Copyright
B. Section 2: Dedication

C. Section 3: About the Authors

D. Section 4: Preface

3. 1: The Nature of Leadership

A. Introduction: The Nature of Leadership

B. 1.1: Definitions of Leadership

1. 1.1.2: Type of Influence Process

2. 1.1.3: Purpose of Influence Attempts

3. 1.1.4: Influence Based on Reason or Emotions

4. 1.1.5: Direct and Indirect Leadership

5. 1.1.6: Leadership or Management

6. 1.1.7: Our Definition of Leadership

C. 1.2: Indicators of Leadership Effectiveness

1. 1.2.2: What Criteria to Use

D. 1.3: Research Methods for Studying Leadership

Effectiveness

E. 1.4: Major Perspectives in Leadership Theory and

Research

1. 1.4.2: Behavior Approach

2. 1.4.3: Power-Influence Approach

3. 1.4.4: Situational Approach

4. 1.4.5: Values-Based Approach

F. 1.5: Level of Conceptualization for Leadership Theories

1. 1.5.2: Dyadic Processes

2. 1.5.3: Group Processes

3. 1.5.4: Organizational Processes

4. 1.5.5: Multi-level Theories

G. 1.6: Other Bases for Comparing Leadership Theories

1. 1.6.2: Descriptive or Prescriptive Theory

2. 1.6.3: Universal or Contingency Theory

H. 1.7: Organization of the Book

I. Summary: The Nature of Leadership

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

4. 2: Leadership Behavior

A. Introduction: Leadership Behavior

B. 2.1: Reasons for Diverse Taxonomies of Leadership

Behavior

C. 2.2: Some Important Types of Leadership Behavior

1. 2.2.2: Change-Oriented Behaviors

2. 2.2.3: Empowering and Participative Leadership

3. 2.2.4: Transformational Leadership

4. 2.2.5: External Leadership Behaviors

5. 2.2.6: Proactive Influence Tactics

D. 2.3: Specific Task-Oriented Leader Behaviors

1. 2.3.2: Clarifying Roles and Objectives

2. 2.3.3: Monitoring Operations and Performance

3. 2.3.4: Solving Operational Problems

E. 2.4: Specific Relations-Oriented Leader Behaviors

1. 2.4.2: Developing Subordinate Skills

2. 2.4.3: Providing Praise and Recognition

F. Summary: Leadership Behavior

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: Consolidated Products

4. Case: Superior Staffing

5. 3: The Leadership Situation and Adaptive Leadership

A. Introduction: The Leadership Situation and Adaptive

Leadership

B. 3.1: Different Ways Situations Affect Leaders

1. 3.1.2: Situation Moderates Effects of Leader

Behavior

2. 3.1.3: Situation Directly Affects Outcomes or

Mediators

C. 3.2: Stewart Model of Situational Determinants

1. 3.2.2: Constraints

2. 3.2.3: Choices

3. 3.2.4: Pattern of Relationships

4. 3.2.5: Work Patterns

5. 3.2.6: Exposure

6. 3.2.7: Leader Discretion

D. 3.3: Other Situational Determinants of Leader Behavior

1. 3.3.2: Size of Organizational Unit

2. 3.3.3: External Dependencies

3. 3.3.4: Extreme Contexts

E. 3.4: Guidelines for Coping with Demands and

Constraints

F. 3.5: Early Contingency Theories of Effective Leader

Behavior

1. 3.5.2: Leadership Substitutes Theory

G. 3.6: Multiple-Linkage Model

1. 3.6.2: Situational Variables

2. 3.6.3: Short-Term Actions to Correct Deficiencies

3. 3.6.4: Long-Term Actions to Improve the

Situation

H. 3.7: Evaluation of Research on the Contingency Theories

I. 3.8: Guidelines for Flexible, Adaptive Leadership

J. Summary: The Leadership Situation and Adaptive

Leadership

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: Acme Manufacturing Company

4. Case: Foreign Auto Shop

6. 4: Decision Making and Empowerment by Leaders

A. Introduction: Decision Making and Empowerment by

Leaders

B. 4.1: Decision Making by Managers

1. 4.1.2: Important Decisions Are Disorderly and

Political

2. 4.1.3: Many Decisions Are Informal and Adaptive

3. 4.1.4: Routine Decisions Are Different

C. 4.2: Participative Leadership

1. 4.2.2: Potential Benefits of Participative

Leadership

2. 4.2.3: Objectives for Different Participants

3. 4.2.4: Research on Effects of Participative

Leadership

4. 4.2.5: The Threshold Effect of Participative

Leadership

5. 4.2.6: Findings in Participation Research

D. 4.3: Normative Decision Model

1. 4.3.2: Situational Variables

2. 4.3.3: Decision Rules

3. 4.3.4: Evaluation of the Theory

E. 4.4: Guidelines for Participative Leadership

1. 4.4.2: Using Participative Decision Making

F. 4.5: Delegation

1. 4.5.2: Potential Benefits from Delegation

2. 4.5.3: Reasons for Lack of Delegation

3. 4.5.4: Research on Consequences of Delegation

G. 4.6: Guidelines for Delegating

1. 4.6.2: How to Delegate

H. 4.7: Psychological Empowerment

I. 4.8: Empowerment Programs

1. 4.8.2: Formal Decision Procedures

2. 4.8.3: Shared Leadership Responsibilities

3. 4.8.4: Information Sharing

4. 4.8.5: Example of a Creative Empowerment

Program

J. 4.9: Benefits of Empowering Leadership and Programs

K. Summary: Decision Making and Empowerment by

Leaders

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: Echo Electronics

4. Case: Alvis Corporation

7. 5: Leading Change and Innovation

A. Introduction: Leading Change and Innovation

B. 5.1: Types of Change in Teams and Organizations

1. 5.1.2: Technology
2. 5.1.3: Strategy

3. 5.1.4: Economics or People

4. 5.1.5: Developmental, Transitional, or

Transformational Change

C. 5.2: Change Processes

1. 5.2.2: Stages in Reaction to a Change

2. 5.2.3: Prior Experience and Reactions to Change

D. 5.3: Reasons for Accepting or Rejecting Change

1. 5.3.2: The Proposed Change Is Not Feasible

2. 5.3.3: The Proposed Change Is Not Cost Effective

3. 5.3.4: The Change Would Cause Personal Losses

4. 5.3.5: The Proposed Change Is Inconsistent with

Values

5. 5.3.6: The Leaders Are Not Trusted

6. 5.3.7: Organizational Cynicism About Change

7. 5.3.8: Alternative Reasons for Resistance

E. 5.4: Implementing Change

1. 5.4.2: Understanding Systems Dynamics

2. 5.4.3: Responsibility for Implementing Major

Change
3. 5.4.4: The Pace and Sequencing of Changes

F. 5.5: Guidelines for Implementing Change

G. 5.6: How Visions Influence Change

1. 5.6.2: Elements of a Vision

2. 5.6.3: Research on Effects of Visions

3. 5.6.4: Guidelines for Developing a Vision

H. 5.7: Collective Learning and Innovation

1. 5.7.2: External Acquisition of New Knowledge

2. 5.7.3: Integrating Exploration and Exploitation

Learning Processes

3. 5.7.4: Knowledge Diffusion and Application

4. 5.7.5: Learning Organizations

I. 5.8: Guidelines for Enhancing Learning and Innovation

J. Summary: Leading Change and Innovation

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: Ultimate Office Products

4. Case: Ready Foods Company

8. 6: Power and Influence Tactics

A. Introduction: Power and Influence Tactics

B. 6.1: Sources of Power

1. 6.1.2: Legitimate Power

2. 6.1.3: Reward Power

3. 6.1.4: Coercive Power

4. 6.1.5: Referent Power

5. 6.1.6: Expert Power

6. 6.1.7: Information Power

C. 6.2: How Power Is Gained or Lost

1. 6.2.2: Strategic Contingencies Theory

2. 6.2.3: Institutionalization of Power

D. 6.3: Consequences of Power

E. 6.4: Guidelines for Using Power

1. 6.4.2: Reward Power

2. 6.4.3: Coercive Power

3. 6.4.4: Expert Power

4. 6.4.5: Referent Power

F. 6.5: Influence Tactics and Outcomes

1. 6.5.2: Influence Outcomes for Proactive Tactics

G. 6.6: Types of Proactive Influence Tactics

1. 6.6.2: Apprising
2. 6.6.3: Inspirational Appeals

3. 6.6.4: Consultation

4. 6.6.5: Exchange

5. 6.6.6: Collaboration

6. 6.6.7: Ingratiation

7. 6.6.8: Personal Appeals

8. 6.6.9: Legitimating Tactics

9. 6.6.10: Pressure

10. 6.6.11: Coalition Tactics

H. 6.7: Power and Influence Behavior

I. 6.8: Effectiveness of Proactive Tactics

1. 6.8.2: Combining Tactics

2. 6.8.3: Sequencing Tactics

3. 6.8.4: Using the Tactics to Resist Influence

Attempts

J. 6.9: Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics

1. 6.9.2: Inspirational Appeals

2. 6.9.3: Consultation

3. 6.9.4: Collaboration

K. Summary: Power and Influence Tactics

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: Sporting Goods Store

4. Case: The New Dean

9. 7: Leader Traits and Skills

A. Introduction: Leader Traits and Skills

B. 7.1: Personality Traits and Effective Leadership

1. 7.1.2: Self-Confidence

2. 7.1.3: Internal Locus of Control

3. 7.1.4: Emotional Stability and Maturity

4. 7.1.5: Core Self-Evaluation

5. 7.1.6: Power Motivation

6. 7.1.7: Personal Integrity

7. 7.1.8: Narcissism

8. 7.1.9: Achievement Orientation

9. 7.1.10: Need for Affiliation

10. 7.1.11: The Big Five Personality Traits

C. 7.2: Skills and Effective Leadership

1. 7.2.2: Conceptual Skills

2. 7.2.3: Interpersonal Skills

3. 7.2.4: Political Skill

D. 7.3: Managerial Competencies

1. 7.3.2: Social Intelligence

2. 7.3.3: Learning Ability

E. 7.4: Situational Relevance of Traits and Skills

1. 7.4.2: Type of Organization

2. 7.4.3: Stress on the Leader

3. 7.4.4: External Environment

F. 7.5: Evaluation of the Trait Approach

G. 7.6: Guidelines for Leaders

H. Summary: Leader Traits and Skills

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: National Products

4. Case: Prestige Marketing

10. 8: Charismatic and Transformational Leadership

A. Introduction: Charismatic and Transformational

Leadership

B. 8.1: Charismatic Leadership

1. 8.1.2: Influence Processes and Mediating

Variables

2. 8.1.3: Traits and Values of Charismatic Leaders

3. 8.1.4: Positive and Negative Charismatics

4. 8.1.5: The Leadership Situation

C. 8.2: Effects of Charismatic Leaders

1. 8.2.2: Findings from Research on Effects of

Charismatic Leaders

2. 8.2.3: Learning Charismatic Leadership

3. 8.2.4: Implications for Organizations

D. 8.3: Transformational Leadership

1. 8.3.2: Influence Processes

2. 8.3.3: Leadership Situation

E. 8.4: Comparison of Charismatic and Transformational

Leadership

F. 8.5: Evaluation of the Theories

G. 8.6: Guidelines for Inspirational Leadership

H. Summary: Charismatic and Transformational Leadership

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: Metro Bank

4. Case: Astro Airlines

11. 9: Values-Based and Ethical Leadership

A. Introduction: Values-Based and Ethical Leadership

B. 9.1: Conceptions of Ethical Leadership

1. 9.1.2: Personal Integrity and Ethical Leadership

2. 9.1.3: Dilemmas in Assessing Ethical Leadership

3. 9.1.4: Multiple Stakeholders and Competing

Values

C. 9.2: Determinants and Consequences of Ethical

Leadership

1. 9.2.2: Situational Influences on Ethical Leadership

2. 9.2.3: Consequences of Ethical and Unethical

Leadership

D. 9.3: Theories of Values-Based Leadership

1. 9.3.2: Servant Leadership

2. 9.3.3: Spiritual Leadership

3. 9.3.4: Authentic Leadership

E. 9.4: Comparison and Evaluation of Theories

1. 9.4.2: Evaluation of Theories

F. 9.5: Guidelines for Ethical Leadership

1. 9.5.2: Programs to Promote Ethical Behavior

2. 9.5.3: Cultural Values, Laws, and Professional

Standards

G. Summary: Values-Based and Ethical Leadership

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: Unethical Leadership at Enron

4. Case: Restview Hospital

12. 10: Dyadic Relations and Followers

A. Introduction: Dyadic Relations and Followers

B. 10.1: Leader-Member Exchange Theory

1. 10.1.2: Determinants and Consequences of LMX

2. 10.1.3: Evaluation of LMX Theory

C. 10.2: Leader Attributions About Subordinates

1. 10.2.2: Other Determinants of Leader

Attributions

2. 10.2.3: Relational Attributions

D. 10.3: Guidelines for Correcting Performance Deficiencies

E. 10.4: Follower Attributions and Implicit Theories

1. 10.4.2: Implications of Follower Attributions

About Leaders

2. 10.4.3: Implicit Leadership Theories

F. 10.5: Impression Management by Leaders and Followers

1. 10.5.2: Impression Management by Leaders

G. 10.6: Followership

1. 10.6.2: Integrating Leader and Follower Roles

H. 10.7: Self-Management

1. 10.7.2: Effects of Self-Management

2. 10.7.3: How Leaders Encourage Self-Management

I. 10.8: Guidelines for Followers

J. Summary: Dyadic Relations and Followers

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: Cromwell Electronics

4. Case: American Financial Corporation

13. 11: Leadership in Teams and Decision Groups

A. Introduction: Leadership in Teams and Decision Groups

B. 11.1: Determinants of Team Performance

1. 11.1.2: Member Skills and Role Clarity

2. 11.1.3: Internal Organization and Coordination

3. 11.1.4: External Coordination

4. 11.1.5: Resources and Political Support

5. 11.1.6: Cooperation and Mutual Trust

6. 11.1.7: Collective Efficacy and Potency

7. 11.1.8: Accurate, Shared Mental Models

8. 11.1.9: Member Diversity

9. 11.1.10: Group Process Dichotomies

10. 11.1.11: Subgroups in Work Teams

C. 11.2: Functional and Cross-Functional Work Teams

1. 11.2.2: Cross-Functional Work Teams

2. 11.2.3: Leadership in Cross-Functional Teams

3. 11.2.4: Virtual Teams

D. 11.3: Self-Managed Work Teams

1. 11.3.2: Leadership in Self-Managed Teams

E. 11.4: Guidelines for Leading Teams

F. 11.5: Leading Decision Groups

1. 11.5.2: Group Maintenance Functions

2. 11.5.3: Who Should Perform the Leadership

Functions

G. 11.6: Guidelines for Leading Meetings

H. Summary: Leadership in Teams and Decision Groups

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: Southwest Engineering Services

4. Case: Columbia Corporation

14. 12: Strategic Leadership in Organizations

A. Introduction: Strategic Leadership in Organizations

B. 12.1: Determinants of Organizational Performance

1. 12.1.2: Efficiency and Process Reliability

2. 12.1.3: Human Capital and Strategic Human

Resource Management

3. 12.1.4: Competitive Strategy

4. 12.1.5: Management Programs, Systems, and

Structures

C. 12.2: How Leaders Influence Organizational Performance

1. 12.2.2: Coordinating Leadership Across Levels

and Subunits

D. 12.3: Situations Affecting Strategic Leadership

1. 12.3.2: Environmental Uncertainty and Crises

E. 12.4: Organizational Culture

1. 12.4.2: Culture and Organizational Performance

2. 12.4.3: Leader Influence on Culture

3. 12.4.4: Difficulty of Culture Change

F. 12.5: Research on Effects of Strategic Leadership

1. 12.5.2: Descriptive Studies of CEO Decisions and

Actions

2. 12.5.3: Survey Studies on CEO Leadership

3. 12.5.4: Evaluation of Research on Strategic

Leadership

G. 12.6: Executive Teams

1. 12.6.2: Facilitating Conditions

2. 12.6.3: Leadership of Executive Teams

3. 12.6.4: Example of a Study on Executive Teams

H. 12.7: Other Conceptions of Organizational Leadership

1. 12.7.2: Relational Leadership

2. 12.7.3: Complexity Theory of Leadership

I. 12.8: External Monitoring and Strategy Formulation

1. 12.8.2: Developing Competitive Strategy

J. 12.9: Guidelines for Strategic Leadership

K. Summary: Strategic Leadership in Organizations

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: Costco

4. Case: Turnaround at Nissan

15. 13: Cross-Cultural Leadership and Diversity

A. Introduction: Cross-Cultural Leadership and Diversity

B. 13.1: Cross-Cultural and Global Leadership

1. 13.1.2: Types of Cross-Cultural Studies

2. 13.1.3: Cultural Influences on Leadership

Behavior

3. 13.1.4: Cross-Cultural Research on Behavior

Differences

4. 13.1.5: Cross-Cultural Research on Effects of

Leader Behavior

5. 13.1.6: The GLOBE Project

C. 13.2: Cultural Values and Leadership

1. 13.2.2: Uncertainty Avoidance

2. 13.2.3: Individualism (versus Collectivism)

3. 13.2.4: Gender Egalitarianism

4. 13.2.5: Performance Orientation

5. 13.2.6: Humane Orientation

6. 13.2.7: Culture Clusters

7. 13.2.8: Evaluation of Cross-Cultural Research

D. 13.3: Guidelines for Global Leadership

E. 13.4: Gender and Leadership

1. 13.4.2: Theories of Male Advantage

2. 13.4.3: Theory of Feminine Advantage

3. 13.4.4: Explanations for the Glass Ceiling and

Glass Cliff

4. 13.4.5: Findings in Research on Gender

Differences

5. 13.4.6: Limitations of Research on Gender

Differences

6. 13.4.7: Identifying Causes and Reducing

Discrimination

7. 13.4.8: Summary of Leader Gender Research

8. 13.4.9: Managing Diversity and Inclusion

9. 13.4.10: Fostering Appreciation and Tolerance

10. 13.4.11: Providing Equal Opportunity

F. Summary: Cross-Cultural Leadership and Diversity

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: Madison, Jones, and Conklin

4. Case: A Day in the Life of a Global Leader

16. 14: Developing Leadership Skills

A. Introduction: Developing Leadership Skills

B. 14.1: Leadership Training Programs

1. 14.1.2: Design of Leadership Training

2. 14.1.3: Effects of Leadership Training

C. 14.2: Learning from Experience

1. 14.2.2: Variety of Tasks or Assignments

2. 14.2.3: Accurate, Relevant Feedback

D. 14.3: Developmental Activities

1. 14.3.2: Developmental Assessment Centers

2. 14.3.3: Developmental Assignments

3. 14.3.4: Mentoring

4. 14.3.5: Executive Coaching

5. 14.3.6: Simulations

6. 14.3.7: Personal Growth Programs

E. 14.4: Facilitating Leadership Development

1. 14.4.2: Support by the Boss

2. 14.4.3: Learning Climate

3. 14.4.4: Criteria for Developmental Assignments

F. 14.5: Systems Perspective on Leadership Development

1. 14.5.2: Integrating Developmental Activities

2. 14.5.3: Leadership Development for the

Organization

3. 14.5.4: Guidelines for Self-Development

G. Summary: Developing Leadership Skills

1. Review and Discussion Questions

2. Key Terms

3. Case: Federated Industries

4. Case: River Bank

17. 15: Overview and Integration

A. Introduction: Overview and Integration

B. 15.1: Major Findings About Effective Leadership

1. 15.1.2: Leadership Behavior

2. 15.1.3: Power and Influence

3. 15.1.4: Traits and Skills

4. 15.1.5: Integration of Diverse Perspectives About

Effective Leadership

C. 15.2: Multi-Level Explanatory Processes

1. 15.2.2: Social Identification

2. 15.2.3: Trust and Cooperation

3. 15.2.4: Knowledge and Skills

4. 15.2.5: Specialization

5. 15.2.6: Perceived Efficacy and Optimism

6. 15.2.7: Empowerment

7. 15.2.8: Collective Learning and Innovation

D. 15.3: Ways to Improve Leadership Research

1. 15.3.2: Survey Studies Versus Experiments

2. 15.3.3: Level of Analysis

3. 15.3.4: Limitations in Behavior Studies

4. 15.3.5: Other Methodological Issues

5. 15.3.6: Summary of Research Limitations

E. 15.4: General Guidelines for Effective Leadership

F. 15.5: The State of the Field

G. Summary: Overview and Integration

1. Key Terms

18. References
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names:

Yukl, Gary A., author. | Gardner, William L., III, author.

Title: Leadership in organizations / Gary Yukl and William Gardner,

University of Albany, State University of New York.

Description: Ninth edition. | Boston : Pearson Education, Inc., [2020]

|

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2018041734 | ISBN 9780134895130 | ISBN

0134895134

Subjects: LCSH: Leadership. | Decision making. | Organization.

Classification: LCC HD57.7 .Y85 2020 | DDC 658.4/092—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018041734

1 19

ISBN 10: 0-13-489513-4

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-489513-0

For their support, devotion, and love, this book is dedicated to

Maureen and Claudia.
About the Authors

Gary Yukl

After more than 45 years of studying leadership, Dr. Gary Yukl is

highly qualified to write about the subject. His highest academic
degree is a Ph.D. in Industrial-Organizational Psychology from the
University of California, Berkeley. He is an emeritus professor at
UAlbany, State University of New York, where before retiring he
taught courses in leadership at the undergraduate, MBA, and doctoral
level. He is a member of the editorial boards for several important
journals that publish articles on leadership theory and research. His
own publications include many articles on leadership, and he has
received a number of awards for best research article, most-cited
article, and best convention paper. He has also received two lifetime
achievement awards for his research and publications: the 2007
Walter Ulmer Applied Research Award from the Center for Creative
Leadership, and the 2011 Eminent Leadership Scholar Award from
the Academy of Management Network of Leadership Scholars. He has
consulted with several business and public-sector organizations to
help improve the effectiveness of their managers, and the leadership
development programs he designed for a consulting company were
used by managers and administrators in many organizations. Some of
the practical guidelines presented in this book are from management
development programs found to improve the effectiveness of the
participants. For his exceptional research and scholarship he was
elected a Fellow of the American Psychological Association, the
American Psychological Society, the Society for Industrial-
Organizational Psychology, and the Academy of Management.

William L. Gardner, III

Drawing on his 40-plus years of teaching and researching leadership,

Dr.

William (Bill) Gardner is well positioned to share his insights on

leaders and effective leadership. His highest academic degree is a
Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) from Florida State University.
He holds the Jerry S. Rawls Chair in Leadership and serves as the
Director of the Institute for Leadership Research in the Rawls College
of Business at Texas Tech University. He previously held faculty
positions at Southern Illinois University, the University of Mississippi,
and the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. During his career, he has
taught leadership and management courses at the undergraduate,
masters, professional MBA, and doctoral levels. Currently, he serves
as the Editor-in-Chief for Group

& Organization Management and as an Associate Editor for The

Leadership Quarterly. He has published numerous high-impact
articles focused on leadership in top-tier journals and received several
best-paper and most-cited-article awards. In 2011, he received the
Distinguished Doctoral Alumni Award from the College of Business at
Florida State University. In 2015, Texas Tech recognized him as an
“Integrated Scholar,” an honor bestowed to “a faculty member who
not only demonstrates outstanding teaching, research, and service,
but is able to generate synergy among the three functions.” In
recognition of his extensive contributors to the Southern
Management Association (SMA), including his service as President
and an SMA Fellow, he received the “James G. (Jerry) Hunt Sustained
Outstanding Service Award” in 2017.

Preface

This book is about leadership in organizations. Its primary focus is on

managerial leadership as opposed to parliamentary leadership,
leadership in social movements, or emergent leadership in informal
groups. The book presents a broad survey of theory and research on
leadership in formal organizations. Topics of special interest are the
determinants of leadership effectiveness and how leadership can be
improved. William Gardner was added as a second author for this
edition to incorporate his knowledge and perspective on effective
leadership.
The book is appropriate for use as the primary text in an
undergraduate or graduate course in leadership. Such courses are
found in many different schools or departments, including business,
psychology, sociology, educational administration, public
administration, and health-care administration. The book is on the list
of required or recommended readings for students in many doctoral
programs in leadership, management, and industrial-organizational
psychology. With its focus on effective leadership in organizations,
the book is especially relevant for students who expect to become a
manager or administrator in the near future, for people who will be
responsible for training or coaching leaders, and for people who will
be teaching courses or workshops that include leadership as one of
the key topics. The book is also useful for practicing managers and
consultants who are looking for something more than vague theories
and superficial answers to difficult questions about leadership. The
book is widely used in many different countries, and some editions
were translated into other languages, including Chinese, Korean,
Indonesian, Spanish, Greek, Croatian, and Swedish.

The content of the book still reflects a dual concern for theory and
practice. We have attempted to satisfy two different audiences with
somewhat different perspectives. Most academics prefer a book that
explains and evaluates major theories and relevant empirical
research.

They are most interested in how well the research was done, what
was found, how well the research supports the theoretical basis for it,
and what additional research is needed. Academics tend to be
skeptical about the value of prescriptions and guidelines for
practitioners and may consider them premature in the absence of
further research. In contrast, most practitioners want some
immediate answers about what to do and how to do it in order to be
more effective as leaders. They need to deal with the current
challenges of their job and cannot wait for decades until the
academics resolve their theoretical disputes and obtain definitive
answers. Practitioners are more interested in finding helpful remedies
and prescriptions than in finding out how this knowledge was
discovered.

Readers who desire to improve their leadership effectiveness will find

this edition of the book is even more useful than previous editions.

The different preferences are one of the reasons for the much-
lamented gulf between scientists and practitioners in management
and industrial-organizational psychology. We believe it is important
for managers and administrators to understand the complexity of
effective leadership, the source of our knowledge about leadership in
organizations, and the limitations of this knowledge. Likewise, we
believe it is important for academics to think more about how their
theories and research can be used to improve the practice of
management. Too much of our leadership research is designed to
examine narrow, esoteric questions that only interest a few other
scholars who publish in the same journals.

Academics will be pleased to find that major theories are explained

and evaluated, findings in empirical research on leadership are
summarized, and many references are provided to help readers find
sources of

additional information about topics of special interest. The field of

leadership is still in a state of ferment, with many continuing
controversies about conceptual and methodological issues. The book
addresses these issues, but the literature review was not intended to
be comprehensive. Rather than detailing an endless series of weak
theories and inconclusive studies like most handbooks of leadership,
this book describes major findings about effective leadership and how
they can be applied by readers.

For practitioners and students who desire to become effective

managers, we attempted to convey a better appreciation of the
complexity of managerial leadership, the importance of having
theoretical knowledge about leadership, and the need to be flexible
and pragmatic in applying this knowledge. The current edition
provides many guidelines and recommendations for improving
managerial effectiveness, but it is not a

“practitioner’s manual” of simple techniques and secret recipes that

guarantee instant success. The purpose of the guidelines is to help
the reader understand the practical implications of the leadership
theory and research, not to prescribe exactly how things must be
done by a leader.

Most of the guidelines are based on a limited amount of research and

they are not infallible or relevant for all situations. Being a flexible,
adaptive leader includes determining which guidelines are relevant for
each unique situation.

Most chapters end with two short cases designed to help the reader
gain a better understanding of the theories, concepts, and guidelines
presented in the chapter. Most of the cases describe events that
occurred in real organizations, but some cases were modified to
make them more useful for learning basic concepts and effective
practices. For many of the cases, the names of organizations and
individuals were changed to keep the analysis focused on the events
that occurred in a defined time period, rather than on recent events
that may involve different leaders and a

different situation. The cases ask a reader to analyze behavioral

processes, identify examples of effective and ineffective behavior, and
suggest effective ways to handle the situation that is depicted.

In this ninth edition, the basic structure of most chapters remains the
same, but the order of some chapters was changed, a few topics
were moved to a different chapter, some new topics were added, and
the discussion of some other topics was expanded. Since the book is
not intended to be a history of leadership, it seemed appropriate to
reduce the amount of detail about early research programs and old
theories that are no longer popular, and focus more closely on what
we now know about effective leadership.
New to This Edition

Following is a list of changes we made to make the book easier to

understand and more useful to most readers:

The number of chapters was reduced from 16 to 15 to improve the

organization of content.

The order of chapters was modified to improve the explanation of

related topics.

Every chapter has been updated and revised for clarity and
understanding.

New examples of effective and ineffective leadership were added to

most chapters.

Personal Reflection exercises were added to most chapters to help

students think critically and apply the leadership concepts.

Several new cases were added, and there are now two cases for all
but the introduction and overview chapters.

Over 500 citations to recent research were added throughout.

The design of the book was updated, and two colors are used for this
edition.

Chapter by Chapter Changes

In Chapter 1 (

 The Nature of Leadership) we added a discussion of the research

methods used to study leadership, including new methods such as
social networks, biosensor methods, and behavioral genetics.

The description of different theoretical approaches for studying

leadership was expanded.
In Chapter 2 (

 Leadership Behavior) the description of distinct types of leadership

behavior was revised to include new knowledge and theories about
these subjects. A new case on leadership behavior was added to the
chapter.

In Chapter 3 (

 The Leadership Situation and Adaptive Leadership) the ways in

which leaders are influenced by the leadership situation was
expanded to include the discussion of leadership in extreme
situations such as hospital emergency rooms, SWAT teams, and
police work. This chapter also includes some theories of situational
determinants and adaptive leadership that were included in a
separate chapter on managerial work in the previous edition.

In Chapter 4 (

 Decision Making and Empowerment by Leaders) we added a

discussion of the threshold effect of participative leadership, which
explains how there is a minimum level of participative leadership that
must be reached before the positive effects on employee
performance are realized. In addition, we expanded the discussion of
psychological empowerment and empowering leadership.

In Chapter 5

 (Leading Change and Innovation) we added a discussion of the

differences among developmental, transitional, and transformational
change, and organizational cynicism about change was added as
another reason for rejecting change. A discussion of the strategic
fitness process is included, and it involves a nine-step process of
organizational change that combats the “silent killers” of

organizational effectiveness. This chapter also includes a new case

about leading change.
In Chapter 6 (

 Power and Influence Tactics) the description of how leaders can

effectively use their power and several different influence tactics was
expanded. A new case about power and influence was added to the
chapter.

In Chapter 7

 (Leader Traits and Skills) we added a discussion of core self-

evaluations about a leader’s worthiness, effectiveness, and capacity
as a person. In addition, the concept of political skill is discussed in
more detail, along with the associated research and practical
implications of this skill.

In Chapter 8

 (Charismatic and Transformational Leadership) we added a

discussion of specific charismatic leadership tactics that leaders use
to manage impressions. We also describe how leaders can learn to
effectively use these tactics. The discussion of contextual factors that
contribute to the emergence and impact of charismatic leadership
was expanded to include attributional ambiguity.

In Chapter 9 (

 Value-Based and Ethical Leadership) we added an explanation of

the factors that increase the moral intensity of an ethical issue and
the effects of moral intensity on ethical leadership.

The constructs of ethical culture and ethical climate, and the

differences between them, are discussed, along with their effects on
leader and follower behaviors in organizations. We also refined the
discussion of authentic leadership by describing the four components:
self-awareness, balanced processing, relational transparency, and an
internalized moral perspective.
In Chapter 10

 (Dyadic Relations and Followers) we added a discussion of how a

leader’s affective expressions serve as cues about the leader’s
enthusiasm for the relationship, which in turn evoke emotional
reactions from followers. We also describe how leaders and followers
sometimes attribute performance problems to their relationship
rather than to internal or external causes, and how

leaders and followers may engage in relational work for the purpose
of improving the relationship and future performance.

In Chapter 11 (

 Leadership in Teams and Decision Groups) we added a discussion

of how a team’s composition affects the emergence of identity-based,
resource-based, and knowledge-based subgroups, and the
implications of these subgroups are explained. A new case was also
added to this chapter.

In Chapter 12 (

 Strategic Leadership in Organizations) we added a detailed

discussion of strategic human resource management, which calls for
an alignment and coordination of the firm’s human resource practices
across organizational levels to ensure that human capital is deployed
strategically to foster enhanced competitiveness.

In Chapter 13 (

 Cross-Cultural Leadership and Diversity) we introduced the

concept of global leadership and added a set of guidelines for
effective global leadership and the practical challenges that confront
leaders of multinational organizations. We also added a discussion of
the “glass cliff” phenomenon, which refers to the tendency of women
to be more likely to be appointed to leadership positions that are
risky and precarious. We included a discussion of findings from
research that investigates the relationships between gender
composition on corporate boards and key organizational outcomes. A
new case was also added to this chapter.

In Chapter 14 (

 Developing Leadership Skills) we added a discussion of how return

on development investment (RODI) can be used as a metric for
assessing the impact of leadership development programs and
activities. In addition, we expanded the description of factors that
facilitate leader development to include the concept of developmental
readiness, which is a function of the leader’s ability and motivation to
develop. We also added a new case to this chapter.

In Chapter 15 (

 Overview and Integration) we updated the summary of major

findings about effective leadership to include new findings since the
eighth edition was written. Ways to improve leadership

research in the future are suggested, and we briefly summarize some

general guidelines for effective leadership.

Gary Yukl

The Villages, Florida

William L. Gardner

Lubbock, Texas

August, 2018

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Chapter 1

The Nature of Leadership

 Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Understand the different ways leadership has been defined.

Understand the major types of leadership theories that have been

studied.

Understand the different ways leadership effectiveness is determined.

Understand what aspects of leadership have been studied the most.

Understand the organization of this book.

Introduction

Leadership is a subject that has long excited interest among people.

The term connotes images of powerful, dynamic individuals who
command victorious armies, direct corporate empires from atop
gleaming skyscrapers, or shape the course of nations. The exploits of
brave and clever leaders are the essence of many legends and myths.
Much of our description of history is the story of military, political,
religious, social, and business leaders who are credited or blamed for
important historical events, even though we do not understand very
well how the events were caused or how much influence the leader
really had. The widespread fascination with leadership may be
because it is such a mysterious process, as well as one that touches
everyone’s life. Why did certain leaders (e.g., Gandhi, Mohammed,
Martin Luther King, Jr., Mao Tse-tung) inspire such intense fervor and
dedication? How did certain leaders (e.g., Julius Caesar, Alexander
the Great) build great empires? Why did some rather undistinguished
people (e.g., Adolf Hitler, Claudius Caesar) rise to positions of great
power? Why were certain leaders (e.g., Winston Churchill, Indira
Gandhi) suddenly deposed, despite their apparent power and record
of successful accomplishments? Why do some leaders have loyal
followers who are willing to sacrifice their lives, whereas other
leaders are so despised that subordinates conspire to murder them?

Questions about leadership have long been a subject of speculation,

but scientific research on leadership did not begin until the twentieth
century.

The focus of much of the research has been on the determinants of

leadership effectiveness. Social scientists have attempted to discover
what traits, abilities, behaviors, sources of power, or aspects of the
situation determine how well a leader is able to influence followers
and accomplish task objectives. There is also a growing interest in
understanding leadership as a shared process in a team or
organization and the reasons why this process is effective or
ineffective. Other important questions

include the reasons why some people emerge as leaders, and the
determinants of a leader’s actions, but the predominant concern has
been leadership effectiveness.

Some progress has been made in probing the mysteries surrounding

leadership, but many questions remain unanswered. In this book,
major theories and research findings on leadership effectiveness will
be reviewed, with particular emphasis on managerial leadership in
formal organizations such as business corporations, government
agencies, hospitals, and universities. This chapter introduces the
subject by considering different conceptions of leadership, different
ways of evaluating its effectiveness, and different approaches for
studying leadership. Finally, the chapter explains the basis for
placement of key topics in different parts of the book.

Definitions of Leadership

Understand the different ways leadership has been defined.

The term leadership is a word taken from the common vocabulary

and incorporated into the technical vocabulary of a scientific discipline
without being precisely redefined. As a consequence, it carries
extraneous connotations that create ambiguity of meaning (Calder,
1977; Janda, 1960). Additional confusion is caused by the use of
other imprecise terms such as power, authority, management,
administration, control, and supervision to describe similar
phenomena. An observation by Bennis (1959, p. 259) is as true today
as when he made it many years ago: Always, it seems, the concept
of leadership eludes us or turns up in another form to taunt us again
with its slipperiness and complexity. So we have invented an endless
proliferation of terms to deal with it ... and still the concept is not
sufficiently defined.
Researchers usually define leadership according to their individual
perspectives and the aspects of the phenomenon of most interest to
them.

After a comprehensive review of the leadership literature, Stogdill

(1974, p. 259) concluded that “there are almost as many definitions
of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the
concept.” The stream of new definitions has continued unabated
since Stogdill made his observation. Leadership has been defined in
terms of traits, behaviors, influence, interaction patterns, role
relationships, and occupation of an administrative position. Table 1-1
shows some representative

definitions presented over the past 50 years.

Table 1-1 Definitions of Leadership Leadership is “the behavior of an

individual … directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal”
(Hemphill & Coons, 1957, p. 7).

Leadership is “the influential increment over and above mechanical

compliance with the routine directives of the organization” (Katz &
Kahn, 1978, p. 528).

Leadership is “the process of influencing the activities of an organized

group toward goal achievement” (Rauch & Behling, 1984, p. 46).

“Leadership is about articulating visions, embodying values, and

creating the environment within which things can be

accomplished” (Richards & Engle, 1986, p. 206).

“Leadership is a process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to

collective effort, and causing willing effort to be expended to achieve
purpose” (Jacobs & Jaques, 1990, p. 281).
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Lettres à un
indifférent
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Lettres à un indifférent

Author: Adolphe Retté

Release date: January 29, 2024 [eBook #72804]

Language: French

Original publication: Paris: Bloud et Gay, 1921

Credits: Laurent Vogel (This file was produced from images

generously made available by the Bibliothèque
nationale de France (BnF/Gallica))

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LETTRES À

UN INDIFFÉRENT ***
 ADOLPHE RETTÉ

LETTRES A UN INDIFFÉRENT

PARIS
BLOUD ET GAY, ÉDITEURS
3, RUE GARANCIÈRE, 3

1921
Tous droits réservés
 DU MÊME AUTEUR

Du Diable à Dieu. — Récit d’une conversion.

Le Règne de la Bête. — Roman.
Un séjour à Lourdes. — Journal d’un pèlerinage à pied.
Impressions d’un brancardier.
Sous l’Étoile du matin. — La première étape après la
conversion.
Dans la lumière d’Ars. — Récit d’un pèlerinage.
Au pays des lys noirs. — Souvenirs politiques et littéraires.
Quand l’Esprit souffle. — Récits de conversions.
Ceux qui saignent. — Notes de Guerre.
Sainte Marguerite-Marie. — Vie de la Révélatrice du Sacré-
Cœur, d’après les documents originaux.

En préparation :

Histoire populaire et illustrée de saint François-Régis.

Le Soleil intérieur.
 A
GASTON RAIS
QUI N’EST PAS UN INDIFFÉRENT
 PRÉFACE

Quelques années avant la guerre, au milieu de septembre, je fis

une excursion en auto avec un ami âgé de trente-cinq ans environ.
Je l’avais rencontré à l’hôtellerie d’une communauté de Bénédictins
exilée en Belgique depuis l’époque où l’athéisme officiel baptisa
défense laïque une crise de rage antireligieuse.
Aux offices, nous nous trouvions côte à côte ainsi qu’au
réfectoire. Comme nous étions les seuls retraitants, il arriva que,
pendant les récréations nous échangeâmes des propos qui me
prouvèrent qu’il possédait une forte culture littéraire. D’ailleurs il
gardait toujours, sous son bras ou dans la poche de son veston, un
exemplaire de la Divine Comédie. Je remarquai que ce poème
constituait sa lecture unique à l’exclusion de tout livre de piété. Il le
feuilletait à la chapelle où il me parut qu’il ne priait pas. Il l’annotait
dans sa cellule tandis que le missel dont le Père hôtelier l’avait muni,
comme moi, demeurait immuablement fermé.
Nous n’étions pas encore assez liés pour que je lui demandasse
le motif d’une préférence aussi exclusive. Au surplus, très courtois
mais distant, il se livrait peu. Il parlait assez volontiers de Dante pour
louer la splendeur farouche ou la suavité insinuante des images dont
le grand Florentin illustra ses vers ; il analysait, de façon perspicace,
son symbolisme. Si l’entretien amenait le nom de quelque auteur
contemporain, les jugements qu’il formulait témoignaient de son
sens critique et de son bon goût. Mais, quant à tout autre sujet, il se
tenait sur une grande réserve — au point que, parfois, s’il entamait
une phrase qui aurait pu ouvrir un jour sur son être intime, il
s’interrompait net et laissait tomber la conversation. On eût dit alors
qu’il fermait une porte à triples verrous pour empêcher son
interlocuteur de pénétrer dans son âme.
 Je crus m’apercevoir, tout d’abord, qu’il y avait là non de la
méfiance à mon égard, mais plutôt un sentiment de crainte tel que
celui qu’on éprouverait à peser sur une plaie mal guérie et d’où le
sang ne demande qu’à jaillir. Néanmoins, je me sentais intrigué car il
est rare que deux hommes sympathiques l’un à l’autre — c’était
notre cas — vivent, pendant une quinzaine, dans un tête-à-tête
journalier sans en venir aux confidences personnelles.
— Après tout, me dis-je, cela ne me regarde pas. Si ce garçon
aime à garnir de palissades les entours de son âme, je ne vois pas
pourquoi je tenterais de forcer la clôture. Il apprécie ainsi qu’il sied
Dante et l’art en général ; ce n’est déjà pas si commun. Profitons de
son intelligence et gardons-nous d’entreprendre le cambriolage de
sa personnalité.
Cependant, la seconde semaine de mon séjour s’achevait et je
dus songer à boucler ma valise pour le départ. J’en parlai au Père
hôtelier devant Maurice — c’est le nom que je donnerai à mon
nouvel ami. — De plus, je manifestai le regret de n’avoir pas visité la
célèbre abbaye de Maredsous qui s’élève à une vingtaine de
kilomètres du château isolé que nos cénobites avaient adapté, tant
bien que mal, aux règles et aux coutumes de la discipline
monastique.
— Je puis vous conduire à Maredsous, intervint Maurice, j’ai mon
auto. En moins d’une heure, nous serons là-bas. Après, je vous
mènerai à la gare de Namur où vous prendrez le train pour Paris.
Tandis qu’il me faisait cette proposition, je le regardais et il me
sembla que ce n’était pas une politesse banale qui l’avait inspirée.
D’ordinaire impassible, la physionomie de Maurice laissait percer le
désir que j’acceptasse.
Je ne saurais expliquer comment j’eus l’intuition que ma société
lui était bonne. Ce fut une sorte d’avertissement qui se formula d’une
façon assez précise en moi. J’acquiesçai donc sans hésiter.
Nous gagnons l’abbaye ; nous la parcourons rapidement, pilotés
par un frère convers. Comme, remontés sur la machine, je
m’inquiétais de l’heure approchante du train, Maurice me demanda
tout à coup :
— Êtes-vous très pressé de retourner chez vous ?
— Pressé ?… Mon Dieu non : en ce moment je m’octroie des
vacances et je n’ai pas d’autre projet que celui d’être à
Fontainebleau pour la fin du mois. C’est le moment où ma chère
forêt commence à se dorer d’automne.
— En ce cas, reprit-il, pourquoi ne resteriez-vous pas encore
avec moi ? Il m’est venu l’idée de battre un peu le pays en votre
compagnie. Je le connais passablement et j’y sais des coins
attrayants. Nous garderons l’auto : nous irons à droite, à gauche,
sans itinéraire fixé d’avance ; nous rencontrerons de vieilles églises
d’architecture savoureuse et des paysages bons à se fixer dans la
mémoire. Ce ne sera pas du temps perdu pour vous… Pour moi,
non plus.
L’invite me séduisit et je n’eus pas grand’peine à consentir. La vie
ressemble si souvent à un sentier grisâtre et rectiligne entre deux
talus monotones qu’il faut s’empresser de saisir, avec gratitude, les
occasions de sauter par-dessus le remblai pour flâner parmi les
plaines — peut-être féeriques — qui s’élargissent là-bas et vont se
perdre dans la brume empourprée où se transfigurent des horizons
mystérieux.
En outre, je sentais de plus en plus que Maurice avait besoin de
ma présence…
Ce récit n’ayant pas pour objet de développer des impressions
de voyage, je mentionnerai seulement que nous avons parcouru en
tous sens les Ardennes belges, poussé une petite pointe en
Allemagne, une autre en Hollande. Bien entendu, nul chauffeur
mercenaire ne nous soumettait à sa tyrannie. Maurice tenait le
volant. Aux étapes, je lui donnais un coup de main pour nettoyer et
graisser la machine, changer les pneus, déjouer l’astuce des
aubergistes. Quant aux sensations d’art et de belle nature, la récolte
fut abondante… Je passe rapidement sur tout cela pour en venir à
l’épisode qui me révéla enfin mon compagnon de route.
 Une seule fois, au cours de notre randonnée, Maurice eut la
velléité de s’ouvrir davantage. Nous visitions l’église d’une bourgade
dont le nom m’échappe. Nous y fûmes retenus par un retable du
quatorzième siècle représentant une Mise au tombeau. J’en admirai
l’art naïf et pathétique. Puis un enchaînement d’idées me fit rappeler
la mort pour notre salut du Rédempteur. Maurice m’écoutait sans
émettre une syllabe ; comme à l’habitude, ses traits demeuraient
rigides. Pourtant, lorsque j’ajoutai que ce divin holocauste nous
valait de sentir le Christ vivre en nous, sa physionomie s’anima
soudain ; ses joues pâles se colorèrent ; une flamme, aussi vite
éteinte qu’allumée, passa dans ses prunelles ; et il dit d’une voix
sourde :
— Jésus est mort en moi ; il ne ressuscitera pas…
Surpris, j’attendais avec quelque anxiété qu’il poursuivît. Mais,
fâché sans doute d’avoir rompu la consigne de silence sur soi-même
qu’il s’imposait, il se maîtrisa. Son visage redevint morne. Une
minute après, il se mit à détailler, du ton le plus froid et à un point de
vue purement technique, le travail de l’artiste qui avait sculpté le
retable.
Je craignis de le désobliger en contrariant son parti-pris et ne
relevai point le propos. Il me suffisait, quant à présent, d’être assuré
que la réserve insolite dont il se masquait l’âme, lui servait à refréner
des orages. — Sous cette glace où il fige l’expression de ses
sentiments, pensai-je, se creuse, sans doute, un cratère en
éruption ; il m’a envoyé un jet de lave… Attendons la suite.
Elle ne tarda pas.
Le lendemain, nous passons la nuit dans un hameau perché sur
une colline, à peu de distance de Liége. Au réveil, je m’aperçois que
c’est dimanche et, naturellement, je demande à la patronne de
l’auberge s’il y a une église où entendre la messe.
— Pas ici, me répondit-elle, la paroisse est à une bonne lieue.
Mais vous trouverez, au bas de la côte, un couvent de religieuses du
Sacré-Cœur où la messe se dit à sept heures. La chapelle est
ouverte au public.
 — Cela vous convient-il ? dis-je à Maurice.
D’ordinaire, étant l’urbanité même, et aussi, tenant, je crois,
beaucoup à m’être serviable, il adhérait gracieusement à tout ce que
je lui proposais. Je fus donc fort étonné de le voir froncer le sourcil,
pincer les lèvres et secouer la tête. Pour la première fois, il montrait
de la mauvaise humeur.
— Réellement, dit-il, est-ce que vous tenez à ne pas manquer la
messe ?
— Mais oui, j’y tiens… D’ailleurs, c’est dimanche.
— Je le sais bien que c’est dimanche… Seulement, j’avais
combiné notre itinéraire du jour de façon à visiter deux ou trois sites
assez éloignés d’ici… Si nous allons à la messe, nous perdrons du
temps.
Je repris :
— Une messe basse dure vingt minutes. Et puis, en ce qui me
concerne, je n’estime pas que ce soit du temps perdu… S’il vous
déplaît d’y assister, rien ne vous oblige de m’accompagner.
Il me regarda longuement, l’air indécis. Je dois avouer que j’avais
parlé d’une manière assez sèche. Le fait est que je me sentais
dérouté car si jusqu’alors j’avais eu lieu de soupçonner chez Maurice
une sorte d’inertie, quant à la foi, j’avais pu également constater
qu’au monastère comme ailleurs, il s’était conformé aux rites et aux
préceptes sans effort apparent ni répugnance marquée. Or,
aujourd’hui, quelque chose me disait que Maurice cherchait à se
dérober et que cette mauvaise raison d’une journée de voyage fort
chargée ne constituait qu’un prétexte.
Cependant, comme je ne voulais à aucun prix me donner, vis-à-
vis de lui, le rôle d’un censeur importun, je conclus en souriant :
— Eh bien, je file à la messe. Si vous n’y venez pas, j’en serai
quitte pour prier en double : un introït pour vous, puis un pour moi et
le reste de même…
Ma plaisanterie ne le dérida pas. Il demeurait contracté. Mais,
comme je passais le seuil en disant : A tout à l’heure, il me rejoignit,
murmurant :
— Je vais avec vous. — Puis il ne desserra plus les dents jusqu’à
la chapelle.
De mon côté, je réfléchissais. J’étais assez perplexe. Pourquoi
Maurice s’insurge-t-il à propos d’une chose aussi simple que
l’assistance à la messe dominicale ? S’il ne croit plus, pourquoi s’est-
il astreint à une retraite chez les moines ? Pourquoi s’applique-t-il
avec tant de soin à dérober les mouvements profonds de son âme ?
Pourquoi, s’il nourrit de l’hostilité contre l’Église, semble-t-il prendre
plaisir à ma société ? Il a pu vérifier que — bien imparfaitement,
certes, mais avec bonne volonté — je m’efforce d’observer la loi
catholique ; donc, s’il en est devenu l’adversaire, il aurait dû m’éviter,
ne pouvant tabler sur mon approbation…
Tout cela, et d’autres remarques analogues que j’avais faites à
son sujet, formaient un problème tramé d’éléments contradictoires.
Pour le moment, je n’étais pas à même de le résoudre. Je ne pus
que me remémorer l’aphorisme de Tourgueneff : « L’âme d’autrui,
c’est une forêt obscure. »
Mais dans cette forêt il y a parfois des vipères. Qui sait si le
Vieux Serpent n’engluait pas de son venin la conscience du pauvre
Maurice ?
Je conclus : En tout cas, il souffre et je voudrais essayer de lui
venir en aide. Je vais prier pour lui… S’il est dans les vues de Dieu
que je lui sois auxiliateur, unissant mon oraison au Saint Sacrifice,
j’obtiendrai que les mérites de Notre-Seigneur suppléent à mon
insuffisance.
Nous arrivons à la chapelle. Elle était de dimensions exiguës :
une poignée de paysans, de tâcheronnes et de fermières, une
trentaine d’enfants l’emplissaient presque jusqu’au porche, de sorte
que nous eûmes quelque peine à trouver place.
La messe commença. Quoique je fisse de mon mieux pour la
suivre, je dus m’apercevoir que Maurice ne priait pas. Il gardait
l’attitude d’un homme bien élevé que les circonstances forcent de
subir une corvée ; mais ses yeux erraient çà et là, en quête d’un
incident ou d’un objet propre à fixer son attention. On eût dit qu’il
cherchait à me faire entendre qu’il était venu là par condescendance
mais que toute pensée religieuse lui restait étrangère.
Attristé, je m’enfonçai dans une prière aussi fervente que
possible à son intention.
La sonnette tinta pour la Consécration et Jésus descendit sur
l’autel. Et alors, je vis, d’un regard d’âme, le Jardin des Olives. Les
disciples sommeillaient, étendus sur le sable ; — parmi eux Maurice
plus assoupi que quiconque. Notre-Seigneur, le visage inondé du
sang de son agonie, vint à lui et lui dit : Tu n’as pas pu veiller une
heure avec moi ?… Mais Maurice ne répondit rien ; il dormait.
Cette image me fut décisive. Dieu soit loué, me dis-je, il ne livre
pas le bon Maître aux juges iniques ; il ne le flagelle ni ne le
couronne d’épines !… Il dort et un mauvais rêve l’obsède. Seigneur,
faites que je parvienne à l’éveiller…
La messe terminée, la chapelle se vida rapidement. Dehors, les
fidèles échangeaient, en patois wallon, des phrases joviales puis se
séparaient pour regagner qui sa métairie, qui sa chaumine.
Je dis à Maurice : Maintenant, je suis vôtre. Embrayons le moteur
et en route !…
Mais il ne paraissait plus aussi pressé de partir. Tournant le dos à
l’auberge, il me fit signe de le suivre et prit un chemin étroit qui
montait à notre gauche et aboutissait à une plate-forme d’où l’on
dominait le pays. J’allai après lui sans l’interroger. A l’expression de
sa figure, j’avais deviné que quelque chose venait de se produire en
lui qui modifierait nos rapports.
Nous arrivons au sommet de la montée et nous débouchons sur
la petite esplanade que Maurice m’avait indiquée. Nous y
découvrons un banc de bois vermoulu. Trois tilleuls l’ombrageaient
dont le feuillage odorant bruissait avec douceur au vent frais du
matin. Devant nous, des prairies descendaient en une longue pente
que jalonnaient des pommiers touffus où rougissaient les premières
teintes de l’automne. Tout au bas, la ville de Liége se tassait, grise et
confuse, à travers les fumées onduleuses qui montaient de ses toits
d’ardoise. Elle emplissait la vallée d’une rumeur vague où se
cadençaient les gammes joyeuses des cloches du dimanche. La
Meuse décrivait une courbe au lointain et brillait, comme un large
cimeterre d’or et d’acier fabuleux, sous le soleil oblique.
Je revois ce paysage ; je me rappelle, avant tout, le ciel si pur, si
profond, si diaphane, qui répandait sur nos têtes sa lumière
argentée.
Nous nous asseyons. Maurice, les yeux baissés, se tait assez
longtemps ; et je me garde de le troubler, car je crains d’effaroucher
son esprit ombrageux en manifestant trop tôt l’intérêt fraternel que je
lui porte.
Enfin il relève le front, me fixe bien en face — la tristesse de son
regard m’émeut — et, me serrant la main d’un geste spontané, il se
met à me parler :
— Combien j’ai dû vous froisser, tout à l’heure, en montrant,
d’une façon aussi malgracieuse, que la messe me déplaisait !…
— Me froisser, ce serait beaucoup dire, répondis-je, mais j’avoue
que je fus quelque peu dérouté. En effet, vous reconnaîtrez que,
depuis notre rencontre, rien dans vos manières d’agir ne pouvait me
donner à supposer que la pratique religieuse vous fût répulsive.
— Oui, reprit-il, vous deviez croire à un caprice saugrenu de ma
part. Mais mon incartade avait des causes. Si cela ne vous ennuie
pas, je vais vous les exposer… Après tout, je suis las de me taire. Il
y a trop de temps que le fardeau de mes pensées m’écrase. Il me
soulagerait de vous en décrire la pesanteur. Si vous pouviez m’aider
à le supporter, je me féliciterais du hasard qui nous lia.
— Ce n’est peut-être pas un hasard, observai-je.
— Nous verrons… Pour commencer, il importe que je vous
esquisse, à grands traits, ma vie antérieure.
Il se recueillit quelques minutes. Les cloches allègres chantaient
toujours ; les ramures éoliennes des tilleuls frémissaient à l’unisson ;
caché à la cime, un ramier sauvage roucoulait timidement, par
intervalles. Sous le soleil pacifique, toute la campagne se reposait
dans le Seigneur et murmurait un hymne à sa gloire.
Cette harmonieuse sérénité me fit du bien. J’avais besoin de ce
réconfort, car de tels abîmes se creusent parfois dans une âme qui
s’apprête à vous livrer son secret ! Lorsqu’il plaît à Dieu de m’en
ouvrir quelqu’une, je suis d’abord pris de panique : le sentiment de
ma propre misère m’accable et ce n’est que par une fuite éperdue
dans le Cœur de Jésus que j’obtiens le courage de revenir à elle et
d’affronter les vertiges de « la forêt obscure ».
Enfin Maurice reprit la parole. Il s’exprimait avec lenteur, sans
faire un geste :
— J’appartiens à une famille qui, si loin que remonte le souvenir,
fut très pieuse et même rigide quant à l’observation des préceptes
du catholicisme. Ma mère avait perdu ses parents lorsque je vins au
monde. Veuve aussi, peu après son mariage, elle passait la plus
grande partie de ses journées à l’église. Tout enfant, elle
m’emmenait avec elle ; elle exigeait que je reste agenouillé à son
côté et me réprimandait si je marquais de la fatigue ou de l’ennui. A
la maison, c’étaient des exercices de piété interminables, des
lectures à haute voix, choisies dans des traités d’ascétisme
rébarbatifs qui, quoique je les comprisse mal, m’infligeaient la notion
que j’étais un être abominable de naissance et qu’en moi ne
cessaient de germer mille instincts pervers. Les mots d’« enfer » et
de « damnation » revenaient à tous les paragraphes. Quand ma
mère commentait ces textes lugubres, elle en aggravait encore la
désolation ; un Dies iræ perpétuel grondait en ses discours. De sorte
que je vivais dans une atmosphère de compression et d’effroi. Je
concevais Dieu comme un tyran prêt à me pulvériser pour un
bâillement involontaire aux offices, pour la demande d’une cuillerée
de confiture en plus sur le pain de mon goûter.
Plus tard, j’ai compris que ma mère, par hérédité ou par nature,
s’était imbue de jansénisme. Je sentais bien qu’elle m’aimait tout de
même, mais il y avait trop de jours où elle se reprochait son affection
comme une faiblesse. Alors, elle redoublait de sévérité à mon égard
et, pour expier ce manquement à la règle farouche qu’elle s’était
imposée, elle s’écrasait de mortifications.
Plusieurs fois, je la vis changer de confesseurs ; elle ne les
trouvait jamais assez austères. Enfin elle découvrit un vieux prêtre
retiré du ministère et qui professait la sombre doctrine d’épouvante
et de réprobation où elle se cramponnait comme un naufragé de
l’océan glacial à une banquise.
J’appris à le connaître, cet homme, car dès que j’eus sept ans,
elle obtint qu’il me confessât toutes les semaines. Je me rappelle la
rudesse opiniâtre qu’il mettait à fulminer l’anathème contre mes
pauvres petits péchés. Il s’appliquait, avec un zèle atrabilaire, à me
persuader que j’étais un composé de toutes les imperfections et que,
très probablement, Dieu m’avait prédestiné aux rigueurs de sa
justice.
Bien entendu, les plaisirs de mon âge m’étaient interdits ; je n’ai
jamais possédé ni toupie ni soldats de plomb. On m’élevait
soigneusement à l’écart des autres enfants, tenus pour des vases de
perdition. En dehors de son directeur, ma mère ne recevait que trois
dévotes surannées qui partageaient son égarement. Parques
inflexibles, leur âme se révélait plus sèche, plus rugueuse et plus
racornie que le cuir d’un dromadaire tué par la soif au centre du
Sahara. Elles s’accordaient pour jeter de la cendre à la face de
l’univers entier, critiquer âprement le clergé de leur paroisse,
éplucher avec malveillance et assaisonner de vinaigre les faits et
gestes de quiconque leur frôlait le coude. Leurs propos me
transperçaient comme une bise de novembre. Mais s’il m’arrivait
d’éternuer en leur présence, elles ne perdaient pas une seconde
pour me prédire la carrière d’un scélérat. Dénouement du drame :
des claques sur mes joues pâlotes et ma réclusion dans un cabinet
noir…
Quand je me reporte aux années de ma morne enfance, je les
revois pareilles à une courette obscure, humide et froide, étranglée
entre quatre maisons hautes de huit étages, aux murailles verdâtres
comme des linceuls moisissants, aux fenêtres closes de persiennes
inexorables. Un ciel couleur de suie pèse sans cesse sur les toits.
Tout au fond, grelotte un acacia malingre dont les quelques feuilles
se fripent et se recroquevillent sitôt sorties du bourgeon. Et cet
arbrisseau qui s’étiole, c’est moi-même…
Lorsque je fis ma première communion, l’implacable janséniste
m’avait tellement imprégné du sentiment de mon indignité que je
reçus l’hostie sans aucune joie. Je passai le reste du jour dans le
tremblement, à me redire que je venais, presque à coup sûr, de
profaner le corps du Dieu terrible dont la Majesté courroucée
m’opprimait ainsi qu’un bloc de granit.
Peu après, ma mère mourut subitement. J’eus pour tuteur un
parent assez éloigné qui crut assez faire en administrant, avec
probité, la fortune assez considérable dont j’héritais. Pour le surplus,
je fus transplanté dans un collège ecclésiastique, au loin. J’y passai
même toutes mes vacances…
Vous n’avez que faire de descriptions. Je n’entrerai donc pas
dans le détail de ma nouvelle existence. Ce qu’il importe d’en retenir,
c’est que le milieu, si différent de celui où j’avais langui auparavant,
ne réussit pas à modifier l’état de mon âme. Le contact de mes
camarades de pension — d’assez gentils enfants pour la plupart —
ne me dégourdit point. Je laissai tomber les avances que quelques-
uns me firent. Je ne les rabrouais pas, mais je prenais un air si
malheureux et si morose quand on m’invitait à une partie de barres
ou de billes, qu’on finit par me considérer comme un jeune hibou qui
ne saurait se plaire aux envolées pépiantes des passereaux. On me
laissa dans mon coin ; et cet isolement me maintint dans la stupeur
terrifiée où je me figeais depuis que j’avais reçu l’empreinte du
jansénisme.
Des professeurs et des surveillants, aucun n’obtint ma confiance
ni mon affection. Je ne leur reproche pas de m’avoir négligé.
C’étaient de bons prêtres, attentifs à leur fonction. Mais n’étant
qu’une demi-douzaine, toujours surmenés, parmi un grand nombre
d’élèves, ils ne pouvaient guère se donner à l’un plus qu’à l’autre. Ils
nous instruisaient et nous éduquaient à la grosse, d’après des
méthodes traditionnelles, s’attachant surtout à nous canaliser dans
un courant d’habitudes pieuses qui nous devinssent une routine
préservatrice pour l’avenir.
Or je crois qu’à cette époque, j’aurais eu besoin d’une sollicitude
particulière. J’eusse rencontré un cœur d’apôtre, comme on prétend
qu’il en existe, quelqu’un de brûlant qui me témoignât de la
tendresse, qui me réchauffât l’âme, peut-être serais-je sorti de
l’ombre taciturne où je me confinais pour m’épanouir au grand soleil
de la joie, ainsi que le faisaient mes camarades.
Ce sauveteur clairvoyant je ne le trouvai pas.
Je passai donc les jours à rêver tristement dans le vague.
Pourtant, à la longue, une pensée obsédante s’empara de moi qui
fixa mon esprit jusqu’alors à la dérive. La voici : je comparais, à toute
heure, la religion rébarbative, que ma mère et son vieux directeur
m’avaient inculquée, à la dévotion aisée que nos maîtres nous
apprenaient. Je m’aperçus vite qu’elles ne coïncidaient en aucun
point. Et je me demandais : Dieu est-il un despote inaccessible dont
nous ne sommes jamais sûrs d’apaiser la colère ? Ou bien est-il un
dominateur indulgent, que quelques exercices de piété, accomplis
avec exactitude mais sans trop de réflexions, suffisent à contenter ?
J’avais beau me poser la question, je n’arrivais pas à une
réponse qui me tranquillisât. Enfin, à force d’incertitudes, un
scrupule me vint. Je m’imaginai que, par manque de soin dans mes
examens de conscience, j’avais dissimulé des péchés dont la
survivance en moi m’aveuglait quant à la façon de comprendre Dieu
et de lui être agréable.
Je me crus damné sans rémission. Cette idée me fut bientôt si
pénible que je résolus de la soumettre à mon confesseur. Si j’avais
su m’expliquer, si surtout j’avais remonté jusqu’à la cause initiale de
mon désarroi, il est à peu près certain qu’il aurait saisi la gravité du
mal dont je souffrais et qu’il y aurait porté remède. Mais, par timidité
et aussi par crainte d’offenser Dieu en alléguant des excuses au
crime dont je m’estimais coupable, je me bornai à dire au Père que
je ne pouvais plus communier parce que, malgré les absolutions
antérieures, ma conscience demeurait chargée de péchés.
 Je m’exprimai sans doute d’une façon très gauche car mon
confesseur comprit que je lui avais caché des fautes dont j’avais eu
honte de lui spécifier l’espèce. Mais il ne lui fallut pas beaucoup
d’interrogations pour se rassurer à cet égard. Il en conclut que mon
scrupule ne provenait que d’un défaut de confiance dans la
miséricorde divine. Il me reprocha, en termes peut-être trop
sommaires, un excès d’analyse sur moi-même et me prescrivit de
mettre désormais plus de simplicité dans ma préparation au
sacrement de pénitence. Puis, comme trente élèves attendaient leur
tour, agenouillés à la file dans la chapelle, il me congédia.
Je demeurai anxieux. La question n’était pas résolue : qui avait
raison des tenants du Dieu sévère ou des partisans du Dieu de
mansuétude ? Les impressions reçues jadis restaient trop fortes
pour que je ne penchasse pas vers les premiers. Elles l’emportèrent
et il en résulta que je m’ancrai dans le désespoir avec la conviction
que les maîtres, les élèves et moi-même nous étions tous des
réprouvés. Par suite, nos confessions, nos communions, nos prières
n’étaient que gestes et chuchotement vains dans les ténèbres…
Plus rien à faire pour notre salut !
Cette crise était trop violente pour durer… Vous m’objecterez que
j’aurais dû, par exemple, me confier au Supérieur. Homme
d’expérience, il m’aurait, je le suppose, tiré de la cave sans
soupiraux où je m’isolais de la sorte…
— Assurément, répondis-je, dans un cas pareil, se taire, c’est
aggraver son mal.
— Oui, mais voilà, je ne parlai pas. Je ne sais quelle force latente
me murait dans mon silence. Il semble que, rabattue sur elle-même
de si bonne heure, attaquée dans sa volonté, mon âme était
devenue incapable de dilatation. Lorsque le sentiment de désespoir
qui l’opprimait s’atténua par l’accoutumance, je fus pris d’une sorte
d’atonie religieuse. Je ne me dérobai point à la pratique ; je continuai
d’obéir, sans objections, au règlement : j’allais à la messe, je me
confessais, je communiais comme les autres. Mais je faisais tout
cela d’une façon machinale, parce qu’il n’était pas dans mon
caractère de me révolter. Une résignation passive atrophiait mes