Basic - Maths - 002 (9) Math 1011

CHAPTER 1
Mathematical Logic and Set Theory
1.1 Propositional Logic

Mathematical or symbolic logic is an analytical theory of the art of reasoning whose
goal is to systematize and codify principles of valid reasoning.
It has emerged from a study of the use of language in argument and persuasion and
is based on the identification and examination of those parts of language which are
essential for these purposes.
Definition:
A proposition (or statement) is a declarative sentence which is either true or false; but
not both.
Example:
Few examples of propositions.
(a) 2 is an even number.
(b) A triangle has four sides.
(c) Athlete Abebe Bikila won golden medal ten times.
Lemesa B. Dano August 1, 2021 1 / 126
Proposional Logic (Cont’d)
Cont’d
Few examples of sentences that aren not propositions
Example:
Consider the following sentences.
(a) p : A rectangle is a square. (p = F )
(b) p : An Ostrich can fly. (p = T )
(c) p : 2 is greater than 3. (p = F )
(d) r : An Ostrich is a bird. (p = T ) are propositions.

Proposional Logic (Cont’d)
Cont’d
1 Every proposition has a truth value. The truth values of a proposition may be True
or False, but not both.
2 Any proposition is denoted by lowercase English letters such as p, q, r , s, . . .
When two propositions are joined with the connective “and,” the proposition formed is a
logical conjunction. “and” is denoted by “∧”.
The logical conjunction of two propositions, p and q, is written: p ∧ q, read as “p and

q,” or “p conjunction q”.
It is always true that p and q are called the components of the conjunction. p ∧ q is true
if and only if p is true and q is true.

Logical Connectives
Rule:
Let p and q be any two propositions. The compound statement p ∧ q is true if both p
and q are true; otherwise it is false.
We can present the above definition by using the following truth table.
p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Table 1.1: The truth table for conjuction.
Example:
Consider the following propositions.
p : 3 is an odd number. (True)
q : 27 is a prime number. (False)
r : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True).

Conjuction (Cont’d)
Cont’d
Then
(a) p ∧ q: 3 is an odd number and 27 is a prime number. (False)
(b) p ∧ r : 3 is an odd number and Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
Rule:
Let p and q be any two propositions. The compound proposition p ∨ q is False if and
only if both p and q are false; otherwise it is true.
p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Table 1.2: The truth table for Disjuction

Cont’d
Example:
Consider the following propositions:
r : Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (False).
Then
(a) p ∨ q: 3 is an odd number or 27 is a prime number. (True)
(b) p ∨ r : 3 is an odd number or Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
When two propositions are joined with the connective “implies,” the proposition
formed is called a logical implication.
The logical implication of two propositions, p and q, is written: p =⇒ q, read as

“p implies q.”
The function of the connective “implies” between two propositions is the same as
the use of “If..., then ”.

Cont’d
Cont’d
Thus p =⇒ q can be read as “if p, then q.”
The proposition p is called the hypothesis or the antecedent of the conditional

proposition p =⇒ q while q is called its conclusion.
Rule:
Let p and q be any two propositions. Then the compound proposition p =⇒ q is false if
p is true and q is false; otherwise it is true.
The following table is an illustrative of the table table for implication.

p q p =⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Table 1.3: The truth table for Implication

Cont’d
Example:
r : Addis Abeba is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
Then
(a) p =⇒ q: If 3 is an odd number, then 27 is a prime number. (False)
(b) p =⇒ r : If 3 is an odd number, then Addis Abeba is the capital city of Ethiopia.
(False)
There are various ways of expressing the proposition p =⇒ q, namely:
(i) If p, then q, (iv) p only if q,

(ii) q if p, (v) p is sufficient for q
(iii) p implies q, (vi) q is necessary for p

Cont’d
Cont’d
A proposition formed when two propositions are joined with the connective
“bi-implication,” is called a logical bi-implication. It is denoted by “ ⇐⇒ ”.
The logical bi-implication of two propositions, p and q, is written: p ⇐⇒ , read as

p if and only if q.
Rule:
Let p and q be any two propositions. Then the compound proposition p ⇐⇒ q is false
if and only if p and q have different truth values; otherwise it is true.
p q p ⇐⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Cont’d
Example:
p; 3 is an odd number. (True)
r : Addis Abeba is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
Then
(a) p ⇐⇒ q: 3 is an odd number if and only if 27 is a prime number. (False)
(b) p ⇐⇒ r : 3 is an odd number if and only if Addis Abeba is the capital city of
Ethiopia. (True)
There are various ways of naming the proposition p ⇐⇒ q:
(a) p if and only if q, (c) q is necessary and sufficient for p,

(b) p is necessary and sufficient for q, (d) p is equivalent to q

Negation
Cont’d
Given any proposition p, we can form the proposition ¬p called the negation of p.
The truth value of ¬p is F if p is T and T if p is F .
Rule:
Let p be any proposition. Then if p is true, then ¬p is false and ¬p is true if p is false.
The following is the tabular form of a negation.

p ¬p
T F
F T
Table 1.5: The truth table for Negation
Example:
Let p stands for Finfine is the capital city of Oromiya. Then ¬p become Finfine is not
the capital city of Oromiya.

Compound propositions
Cont’d
We shall learn how to form propositions involving more than one connective, and
how to determine the truth values of such propositions.
We give the following two definitions in order to make clear the idea of component
and compound propositions.
Definition:
A component proposition is a proposition that does not contain any of the logical
connectives. For instance, the statement ”p : a rectangle is a square” is a componeent
proposition.
Definition:
The proposition formed by joining any two or more propositions by connective(s) is called
a compound statement.

Cont’d
Example:
The following are some examples of a compound proposition.
(a) 2 ≤ 3 if and only if 2 is a prime number or 3 is an even number.
(b) If a triangle has four sides, then a rectangle is a square or a rhombus.
(c) 2 < 3 or 5 6= 4.
Note: We must be careful to insert the brackets in proper places, just as we do in

arithmetic.
The expression p =⇒ q ∧ r will be meaningless unless we know which connective
should apply first.
It could mean (p =⇒ q) ∧ r or p =⇒ (q ∧ r ), which are very different

propositions.
The truth value of such complicated propositions is determined by systematic

applications of the rules for the connectives.

Cont’d
The possible truth values of a proposition are often listed in a table, called a truth
table.
If p and q are propositions, then there are four possible combinations of truth values
for p and q.
That is, TT , TF , FT and FF .
If a third proposition r is involved, then there are eight possible combinations of

truth values for p, q and r .
In general, a truth table involving “n” propositions p1 , p2 , p3 , . . . , pn contains 2n

possible combinations of truth values.
So, we use truth tables to determine the truth value of a compound proposition
based on the truth value of its constituent component propositions.

Cont’d
Example:
In this two examples you are required to understand the steps followed and practice it
independently latter.
1 Suppose p and r are true and q and s are false. Determine the truth value of the
following compound propositions.

(a) (p =⇒ q) ∧ r ,
(b) p =⇒ [(q ∧ r ) ∨ s]
(c) (p ∧ q) =⇒ (r ∨ s)
2 Suppose the truth values of p, q, r , and s are T , F , F , and T , respectively.
Determine the truth value of (p ∨ q) =⇒ (r ⇐⇒ ¬s).
Solution: We follow a series of steps in the solution of the above examples.

1. Given the truth values of p, q, r , and s are T , F , T , and F , respectively.
(a) (p =⇒ q) ∧ r = (T =⇒ F ) ∧ T = F ∧ T = F .

Cont’d
(b) p =⇒ [(q ∧ r ) ∨ s] = T =⇒ [(F ∧ T ) ∨ F ] = T =⇒ (F ∨ F ) = T =⇒ F = F .

(c) (p ∧ q) =⇒ (r ∨ s) = (T ∧ F ) =⇒ (T ∨ F = F =⇒ T = T .
2. Given truth values of p, q, r , and s are T , F , F , and T , respectively. Then
(p ∨ q) =⇒ (r ⇐⇒ ¬s) = (T ∨ F ) =⇒ (F ⇐⇒ ¬T = T =⇒ T = T .
Definition:
Two compound propositions p and q are said to be equivalent if they have the same
truth value for all possible combinations of truth values for the component propositions
occurring in it. In this case we write p ≡ q.

Cont’d
Example:
Determine whether the following pair of propositions are equivalent or not.
a. p =⇒ q, ¬q =⇒ ¬p
b. p =⇒ q, ¬p =⇒ ¬q
Solution; We use the truth table to determine whether the pair of propositions given
above are equivalent or not.
a. p =⇒ q, ¬q =⇒ ¬p
p q ¬p ¬q p =⇒ q ¬q =⇒ ¬p ¬p =⇒ ¬q
T T F F T T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T F
F F T T T T T
Since the last two columns of the above truth table are the same, then p =⇒ q and
¬q =⇒ ¬p are equivalent propositions.

Cont’d
Note: Notations for equivalence of two compound propositions.
p =⇒ q ≡ ¬q =⇒ ¬p
p =⇒ q 6≡ ¬p =⇒ ¬q
Definition:
Let p and q be any two propositions. For an implication p =⇒ q;
(a) q =⇒ p is called its converse.
(b) ¬q =⇒ ¬p is called its contrapositive.
(c) ¬p =⇒ ¬q is called its inverse.
Example:
Give the negation of the following propositions:
1. If 2 ≤ 3, then 5 6= 4.
2. If 2 is an even number, then it is a composite number.

Cont’d
Cont’d
Solution: Using the given compound proposition, we can give the converse,
contrapoisitive and inverse of the given implications.
1. If 2 ≤ 3, then 5 6= 4.
(i) Converse: If 5 6= 4, then 2 ≤ 3.
(ii) Contrapositive: If 5 6= 4, then 2 6≤ 3.
(iii) Inverse: If 2 6≤ 3, then 5 6= 4.
2. If 2 is an even number, then it is a composite number.

(i) Converse: If 2 is a composite number, then it is an even number.
(ii) Contrapositive: If 2 is not a composite number, then it is not an even number.
(iii) Inverse: If 2 is not an even number, then it is not a composite number.

Properties of Logical connectives
Theorem:
For any three propositions p, q, and r , the following always hold:
1 Indempotent Law a. p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r )
a. p ≡ p ∨ p b. p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r )
b. p ≡ p ∧ p 5 De Morgan’s Laws
2 Commutative Laws a. ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q
a. p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p b. ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q
b. p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p
6 Law of Contrapositive
3 Associative Laws
p =⇒ q ≡ ¬q =⇒ ¬p
a. p ∧ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r
b. p ∨ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r 7 Complement Law
4 Distributive Laws ¬(¬p) ≡ p

Tautology and Contradiction
Definition:
In some proofs these two terminologies are commonly used. Here are the definitions of
tautology and contradiction.
(a) A compound proposition is a tautology if it is always true regardless of the truth
values of its component propositions.
(b) A compound proposition is said to be a contradiction if it is always false regardless
of the truth values of its component propositions.
Example:
Determine whether the following propositions are tautology, contradiction or not.
(a) p ∧ ¬p (c) p =⇒ (q =⇒ p)
(b) p ∨ ¬p (d) (p =⇒ q) ⇔ (p ∧ ¬q)

Tautology and Contradiction (Cont’d)
Solution: As a solution to the above examples we use the truth table to determine
whether the compound propositions are tautology, contradiction or not.
(a) p ∧ ¬p
p ¬p p ∧ ¬p
T F F
F T F
Therefore, p ∧ ¬p is a contradiction.
(b) p ∨ ¬p
p ¬p p ∨ ¬p
T F T
F T T
Therefore, p ∨ ¬p is a tautology.

Tautology and Contradiction (Cont’d)
(c) p =⇒ (q =⇒ p)
p q q =⇒ p p =⇒ (q =⇒ p)
T T T T
T F T T
F T F T
F F T T
Therefore, p =⇒ (q =⇒ p) is a tautology.
(d) Exercise
Definition:
Quantifiers are used to convert any open proposition into a proposition by simply
adhering one or a combination of the two quantifiers.

Open Propositions and Quantifiers
Definition:
An open statement (also called a predicate) is a sentence that contains one or more
variables and whose truth value depends on the values assigned for the variables. We
represent an open statement by a capital letter followed by the variable(s) in parenthesis,
e.g., P(x), Q(x), R(x, y ) etc.
Example:
Consider the following sentences. All of the following sentences are open propositions.
They contain at least one variable.
a. x is the day before Sunday.
b. y is a city in Africa.
c. x is greater than y .
d. x + 4 = 9
e. x 2 + y 2 6= 9

Open proposition (Cont’d
Cont’d
Remark: The following remarks are made as a consequences to the above examples.
(i) An proposition can be represented as a function in x or y . For instance, an open
proposition P in x is denoted by P(x). Similarly an open proposition P in x and y is
denoted by P(x, y ) and so on.
(ii) Any open proposition can be converted into a proposition. There are two ways to
convert an open proposition in a proposition. These are:
a. Direct Substitution
b. Using Quantifiers
Example:
Let U={1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and let P(x) = {x ∈ U : x is an even prime number}.
a. P(2) : 2 is an even prime number.(True)
b. P(7) : 7 is an even prime number.(False)

Universal and Existential Quantifiers
Cont’d
If variables or individuals are substituted by a specific value or a particular person in
an open proposition, then we have propositions.
(a) Monday is the day before Sunday.

(b) London is a city in Africa.
(c) 5 is greater than 9.
(d) −13 + 4 = −9
(e) 32 + 42 6= 9
Notice that the collection of all allowable values for the variable in an open sentence
is called the universal set (or the universe of discourse) and denoted by U.
The second way of converting an open proposition into a proposition is using

quantifiers. There are two quantifiers.
a. Existential quantifier and
b. Universal quantifier.

Cont’d
Definition:
Two open proposition P(x) and Q(x) are said to be equivalent if and only if
P(a) = Q(a) for all individual a.
Note that if the universe U is specified, then P(x) and Q(x) are equivalent if and
only if P(a) = Q(a) for all a ∈ U.
Example:
Consider the universe of discourse U={−1, − 12 , 0, 1}.
Let P(x) : x 2 − 1 = 0 and Q(x) : |x| ≥ 1. Then for all a ∈ U, P(a) and Q(a) have the
same truth value.
i. P(−1) : (−1)2 − 1 = 0. (T) iii. P(0) : 0 − 1 = 0.(F)

Q(−1) : | − 1| ≥ 1. (T) Q(0) : |0| ≥ 1.(F).
ii. P(− 21 ) : (− 21 )2 − 1 = 0.(F) iv. P(1) : 1 − 1 = 0.(T)

Q(− 12 ) : | − 12 | ≥ 1.(F). Q(1) : |1| ≥ 1.(T).

Cont’d
Hence, P(a) = Q(a) for all a ∈ U.
Therefore, the open propositions P(x) and Q(x) are equivalent on U.
Definition:
Let U be the universal set. An open proposition P(x) is a tautology if and only if P(a) is
always true for all values of a ∈ U.
Example:
Show that an open proposition P(x) : x 2 ≥ 0 is a tautology.
Solution: Since the square of any real number is a non-negative real number,then for
every x ∈ R P(x) : x 2 ≥ 0 is always true statement. Therefore, P(x) : x 2 ≥ 0 is a
tautology.

Existential and Universal quantifiers
Definition:
Let U be a universal set. Let P(x) be an open proposition in x.
(a) (∃x)P(x) : There is an individual x so that property P is satisfied.
(b) (∀x)P(x) : For every x property P is satisfied.
Example:
Consider the following open propositions with universal set R.
a. R(x) : x 2 ≥ 0
b. P(x) : (x + 2)(x − 3) = 0
c. Q(x) : x 2 < 0.
Solution: Clearly, R(x) is always true for each x ∈ R, P(x) is true for only x = −2 and
x = 3, and Q(x) is always false for all x ∈ R.
Given an open proposition P(x) with universe U. Then there are three possibilities.

Cont’d
Cont’d
a. P(x) is true for all x ∈ U
b. P(x) is true for some x ∈ U
c. P(x) is false for all x ∈ U.
a. The phrase for every x is called a universal quantifier.
1 for every x,
2 for all x,
3 for each x have the same use.
4 For example, if P(x) is an open proposition with universe U, then (∀x)P(x) is a
quantified proposition and is read as ”every x ∈ U has the property P”.
b. The phrase there exists an x is called an existential quantifier.

1 there exists an x,
2 for some x, and
3 for at least one x have the same use.
4 For example, if P(x) is an open proposition with universe U, then (∃x)P(x) is a
quantified proposition and is read as “there exists x ∈ U with the property P”
Notice that to show (∀x)P(x) is F , it is sufficient to find at least one a ∈ U such that
P(a) is F .

Cont’d
Example:
Let S= {−1, 0, 1}. Let P(x) : x + 3 = 7. Determine the truth value of each of the
following statements.
(a) (∃x)P(x)
(b) (∀x)P(x)
Solution: Given S= {−1, 0, 1} and P(x) : x + 3 = 7, then

(a) Since there is no element of S can satisfy the open proposition P(x) : x + 3 = 7,
then (∃x)P(x) is false statement. i.e., P(1) : −1 + 3 6= 7, P(0) : 0 + 3 6= 7 and
P(1) : 1 + 3 6= 7.
1 Therefore, (∃x)P(x)=F .
(b) Since all elements of S cannot satisfy the open proposition P(x) : x + 3 = 7, then
(∀x)P(x) is a false statement.
2 Therefore, (∀x)P(x)=F

Cont’d
Example:
Express each of the following open proposition into a proposition using quantifiers.
1. Write the following statements using quantifiers.
(i) For each real number x > 0, x 2 + x − 6 = 0.
(ii) There is a real number x > 0 such that x 2 + x − 6 = 0.
(iii) The square of any real number is non - negative.
2.(i) Let P(x) : x 2 + 1 ≥ 0. Find the truth value for (∀x)P(x)
(ii) Let P(x) : |x| = −1. Find the truth value for (∃x)P(x).
Solution: As part of the solution to the above problems we apply the existential and
universal quantifiers.
1 (i) (∀x ∈ R+ )(x 2 + x − 6 = 0).
(ii) (∃x ∈ R+ )(x 2 + x − 6 = 0).
(iii) (∀x ∈ R)(x 2 ≥ 0)
2 (i) (∀x)(x 2 + 1 ≥ 0) = T .
(ii) (∃x)(|x| = −1) = F

Relationship between the existential and universal quantifiers
Cont’d
If P(x) is an open proposition in x, consider the following four statements.
a. (∀x)P(x)
b. (∃x)P(x)
c. (∀x)¬P(x)
d. (∃x)¬P(x)
We might translate these into words as follows.

(a) Everything has property P.
(b) Something has property P.
(c) Nothing has property P.
(d) Something does not have property P.
Now (d) is the denial of (a), and (c) is the denial of (b), on the basis of everyday
meaning.
Thus, for example, the existential quantifier may be defined in terms of the universal
quantifier.

Negation of quantifiers
Proposition:
Let P(x) be an open proposition.
¬(∃x)P(x) ≡ (∀x)¬P(x)
¬(∀x)P(x) ≡ (∃x)¬P(x)
Example:
Let U = R. Write down the negation and determine the truth values of each of the
following statements.
a. (∃x)(x < x 2 )
b. (∀x)(4x + 1 = 0)
Solution: We know that a proposition and its negation cannot have the same truth
values.
a. ¬(∃x)(x < x 2 ) ≡ (∀x)¬(x < x 2 ) ≡ (∀x)(x ≥ x 2 ). False (F)
b. ¬(∀x)(4x + 1 = 0) ≡ (∃x)¬(4x + 1 = 0) ≡ (∃x)(4x + 1 6= 0).T

Cont’d
Cont’d
Given propositions containing quantifiers we can form a compound proposition by
joining them with connectives in the same way we form a compound proposition
without quantifiers.
For example, if (∃x)P(x) and (∀x)Q(x) are any two propositions, then
(∀x)P(x) ⇐⇒ (∃x)Q(x) is a compound proposition.
Example:
Let the universal set be the set of integers. Let
P(x): xis a prime number.
Q(x): xis an even number.
R(x): xis an odd number.
Determine the truth values of each of the following propositions.
a. (∃x)[P(x) =⇒ Q(x)] c. (∀x)[R(x) ∧ P(x)]

b. (∀x)[P(x) =⇒ Q(x)] d. (∀x)[(R(x) ∧ P(x)) =⇒ Q(x)]

Quantifiers Occurring in Combinations
Cont’d
Solution:
a. Since there is an x, say 2, such that P(2) =⇒ Q(2) is T , then
(∃x)[P(x) =⇒ Q(x)] is true. Therefore, (∃x)[P(x) =⇒ Q(x)] = T
b. As a counterexample take X = 7. Then P(7) is T and Q(7) is F . Hence
P(7) =⇒ Q(7) = F . Therefore, (∀x)[P(x) =⇒ Q(x)] = F .
c. (∀x)[R(x) ∧ P(x)] = F .
d. (∀x)[(R(x) ∧ P(x)) =⇒ Q(x)] = F .
The following are the simplest forms of combinations:

1 (∀x)(∀y )P(x, y ) : For all x and for all y the relation P(x, y ) holds.
2 (∃x)(∃y )P(x, y ) : There is an x and there is a y for which P(x, y ) holds.
3 (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y ) : For every x there is a y such that P(x, y ) holds.
4 (∃x)(∀y )P(x, y ) : There is an x which stands to every y in the relation P(x, y ).

Cont’d
Example:
Let U= Z. Let P(x, y ) : x + y = 5. Determine the truth value of the following
statements.
(a) (∃x)(∃y )P(x, y )
(b) (∃x)(∀y )P(x, y )
(c) (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y )
(d) (∀x)(∀y )P(x, y )
Solution: Given U= Z and P(x, y ) : x + y = 5, we have:

(a) (∃x)(∃y )P(x, y ) means that there is an integer x and there is an integer y such that
x + y = 5.
1 This statement is true when x = 4 and y = 1, since 4 + 1 = 5.
2 Therefore, the statement (∃x)(∃y )P(x, y ) is always true for this universe.
3 There are other choices of x and y for which it would be true, but the symbolic
statement merely says that there is at least one choice for x and y which will make
the statement true.

Cont’d
1 Therefore, (∃x)(∃y )P(x, y ) = T
(b) (∃x)(∀y )P(x, y ) means that there is an integer x0 such that for every y , x0 + y = 5.
2 This is false since no fixed value of x0 will make this true for all y in the universe;
e.g. if x0 = 1, then 1 + y = 5 is false for some y .
3 Therefore, (∃x)(∀y )P(x, y )=F .
(c) (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y ) means that for every integer x, there is an integer y such that
x + y = 5.
4 Let x = a, then y = 5 − a will always be an integer, so this is a true statement.
Therefore, (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y )=T .
(d) (∀x)(∀y )P(x, y ) means that for every integer x and for every integer y , x + y = 5.
5 This is false, for if x = 2 and y = 7, we get 2 + 7 = 9 6= 5.
6 Therefore, (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y )=F

Cont’d
Example:
Consider the following.
a. Let U=R. Determine the truth value of:
(i) (∀x)(∀y )(x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0)
(ii) (∀x)(∀y )(x 2 + y 2 > 0)
b. Let the domain of the variable x be the set E of even integers and the domain of the
variable y be the set O of odd integers. Determine the truth value of
(∃x ∈ E)(∃y ∈ O)(|x − 1| + |y − 2| ≤ 2)
c. Let U = Q+ . Determine the truth value of (∀x)(∃y )(xy = 1)
d. (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(xy = 1)
Solution: Since any proposition has truth value, we have

a.(i) Since x 2 ≥ 0 and y 2 ≥ 0 for all real numbers x and y , it follows that x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0
and so x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0 is true for all real numbers x and y .
1 Therefore, (∀x)(∀y )(x 2 + y 2 ≥ 0) = T .

Cont’d
Cont’d
(ii) Since x 2 > 0 and y 2 > 0 for all x, y ∈ R − 0, it follows that x 2 + y 2 > 0 and so
x 2 + y 2 > 0 is false for all real numbers x and y .
1 Therefore, (∀x)(∀y )(x 2 + y 2 > 0) = F .
b. There exist an even integer x and an odd integer y such that |x − 1| + |y − 2| ≤ 2.

Since P(2, 3) : 1 + 1 ≤ 2 is true, the quantified statement is true.
2 Therefore, (∃x ∈ E)(∃y ∈ O)(|x − 1| + |y − 2| ≤ 2) = T .
c. For every positive rational number x, there exists a positive rational number y such
that xy = 1.
3 Therefore, (∀x ∈ Q+ )(∃y ∈ Q+ )(xy = 1) = T .
d. Since x=0 and for every real number y , xy 6= 1 is false.

4 Therefore, (∀x ∈ R)(∃y ∈ R)(xy = 1) = F .

Arguments and Validity
Definition:
An argument (or logical deduction) is an assertion that a given set of statements
P1 , P2 , P3 , ..., Pn , called hypotheses (or premises), yield another statement Q, called the
conclusion such that:
P1 , P2 , P3 , . . . , Pn ` Q
or
P1
P2
P3
..
.
Pn
Q

Cont’d
Example:
Consider the following argument:
If you study hard, then you will pass the exam. You did not pass the exam. Therefore,
you did not study hard.
Write down the argument form of the above statements.
Solution: Let
p : You study hard.
q : You will pass the exam.
¬p : You did not study hard.
¬q : You did not pass the exam.
The argument form can be written as:
p =⇒ q, ¬q ` ¬p

Validity of an argument
Definition:
An argument form P1 , P2 , P3 , . . . , Pn ` Q is said to be valid if Q is true whenever all the
premises P1 , P2 , P3 , . . . , Pn are true; otherwise it is invalid or Fallacy.
Example:
Investigate the validity of the following argument:
a. p =⇒ q, ¬q ` ¬p.
b. p =⇒ q, ¬q =⇒ r ` p.
c. If it rains, crops will be good. It did not rain. Therefore, crops were not good.

Cont’d
Solution:
We determine whether the argument form is valid or not.
(a) p =⇒ q, ¬q ` ¬p.
p q ¬p ¬q p =⇒ q
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T
Hence, the premises p =⇒ q and ¬q are true simultaneously only in the 4th row.
Since in this case p is also true in this row, then the argument is a valid argument.

Solution
(b) p =⇒ q, ¬q =⇒ r ` p
p q r ¬q p =⇒ q ¬q =⇒ r
T T T F T T
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F T F F T T
F F T T T T
F F F T T F
1 Hence, the 1st, 2nd, 5th, 6th and 7th rows are those in which all the premises take
value T .
2 In the 5th, 6th and 7th rows however the conclusion takes value F .
3 Therefore, the argument form is invalid.

Solution
(c) If it rains, crops will be good. It did not rain. Therefore, crops were not good.
Solution:
Let
p; It rains.
q : Crops are good.
¬p : It did not rain.
¬q : Crops were not good.
1 The argument form is p =⇒ q, ¬p ` ¬q.
2 Now we can use truth table to test validity as follows:

Cont’d
p q ¬p ¬q p =⇒ q
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T
1 The premises p =⇒ q and ¬p are true simultaneously in row 4 only.
2 Since in this case ¬qis also true, the argument is valid.
1 What is important in validity is the form of the argument rather than the meaning
or content of the statements involved.
2 The argument form P1 , P2 , P3 , . . . , Pn ` Q is valid if and only if the statement

(P1 , P2 , P3 , . . . , Pn ) =⇒ Q is a tautology.

Rules of Inferences
Rule:
a. Modes Ponens f. Modes Tollendo Ponens
p, p =⇒ q ` q ¬p, p ∨ q ` q
b. Modes Tollens g. Modes Ponendo Tollens
¬q, p =⇒ q ` ¬p ¬(p ∧ q), p ` ¬q
c. Principle of Syllogism h. Constructive Dilemma
p =⇒ q, q =⇒ r ` p =⇒ r (p =⇒ q) ∧ (r =⇒ s), p ∨ r ` q ∨ s
d. Principle of Adjunction
(i) p, q ` p ∧ q i. Principle of Equivalence
(ii) p, q ` p ∨ q p =⇒ q, p ` q
e. Principle of Detachment j. Principle of Conditionalization
p ∧ q ` p, q p ` q =⇒ p

Formal Proof of Validity of an Argument
A formal proof of a conclusion Q given hypotheses P1 , P2 , P3 , . . . , Pn is a sequence

of steps, each of which applies some inference rule to hypotheses or previously
proven statements (antecedent) to yield a new true statement (the consequent).
A formal proof of validity is given by writing on the premises and the statements
which follows from them in a single column, and setting off in another column, to
the right of each statement, its justification.
Example:
Show that p =⇒ ¬q, q ` ¬p is valid argument.
Solution:
By the definition of validity we know that the truth value of all the premises are assumed
to be true.

Cont’d
i. q is true premise
ii. p =⇒ ¬q is true premise
iii. q =⇒ ¬p is true contrapositive of result (2)
iv. ¬p is true Modes Ponens using (1) and (3).
Therefore, by 1st rules of inferences p =⇒ ¬q, q ` ¬p is a valid argument.
Example:
Consider the following statements. Determine whether it is valid or fallacy.
It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.
If we go swimming, then it is sunny. If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe
trip. If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset. Therefore, we will be home
by sunset.

Cont’d
Solution:
Let
p : It is sunny this afternoon. t : We will be home by sunset.

q : It is colder than yesterday.
¬p : It is not sunny this afternoon.
r : We go swimming.
s : We take a canoe trip. ¬r : We do not go swimming.
In symbol the above of set of statements becomes the next argument form:
¬p ∧ q, r =⇒ p, ¬r =⇒ s, s =⇒ t ` t.
1. ¬p ∧ q = T . (Premise) 6. s = T . (Modus Ponens using (4) and

2. ¬p = T . (Simplification using (1)) (5))
3. r =⇒ p = T . (Premise)
7. s =⇒ t = T . (Premise)
4. ¬r = T . (Modus Tollens using (2)
and (3)) 8. t = T . (Modus Ponens using (6) and
5. ¬r =⇒ s = T . (Premise) (7))
Therefore, the statement is a valid argument.

Set Theory
The concept of a set
Definition:
A set is a collection of well defined objects.
Any collection cannot be a set.
When we say the collection is a well defined objects, we mean it is possible to list
member of a set without doubt.
For instance, the collection of beautiful birds in a certain is zoo is not a set.
If A is a set, then the objects of the collection A are called the elements or members
of the set A.
If x is an element of the set A, we write x ∈ A. If x is not an element of the set A,

we write x 6∈ A.

Description of Sets
Cont’d
We use capital letters to denote the names of sets and lowercase letters for elements
of a set.
Note that for each object x and each set A, exactly one of x ∈ A or x 6∈ A but not
both must be true.
Sets are described or characterized by one of the following four different ways.
I. Verbal Method:
In this method, an ordinary English statement with minimum mathematical
symbolization of the property of the elements is used to describe a set.
Actually, the statement could be in any language.

Cont’d
Example:
Each of the following sets are described verbally.
a. The set of counting numbers less than ten.
b. The set of letters in the word “Addis Ababa.
c. The set of all countries in Africa.
II. Roster/Complete Listing Method:

If the elements of a set can all be listed, we list them all between a pair of braces
without repetition separating by commas, and without concern about the order of
their appearance.
Such a method of describing a set is called the roster/complete listing method.

The sets {a, b, c}, {b, c, a} and {c, a, b} contain the same elements, namely a, b and
c.
Example:
Repetition of the same element in a given set is meaningless.
a. Let A = {a, b, c}. Elements of A are a, b and c. Notice that c and {c} are different
objects. Here {c} ∈ A but c 6∈ A.
Cont’d
Cont’d
b. Let B = {{a}}. The only element of B is a. But a 6∈ B.
c. Let C = {a, b, a, b, a, a}. Then C has four elements.
III. Partial Listing Method:
In many occasions, the number of elements of a set may be too large to list them
all; and in other occasions there may not be an end to the list.
In such cases we look for a common property of the elements and describe the set by
partially listing the elements.
More precisely, if the common property is simple that it can easily be identified from
a list of the first few elements, then with in a pair of braces, we list these few
elements followed (or preceded) by exactly three dotes and possibly by one last
element.
The following are such instances of describing sets by partial listing method.

Cont’d
Example:
a. The set of all counting numbers is N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}.
b. The set of non-positive integers is {. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0}.
c. The set of multiples of 5 is {. . . , −15, −10, −5, 05, 10, 15, . . . }.
d. The set of odd integers less than 100 is {. . . , −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, . . . 99}.
IV. Set - builder Method:

When all the elements satisfy a common property P, we express the situation as an
open proposition P(x) and describe the set using a method called the Set-builder
Method as follows:
A = {x : P(x)}
We read it as A is equal to the set of all x’s such that P(x) is true.

Cont’d
Notice that the letter x is only a place holder and can be replaced throughout by
other letters.
For a property P, the set {x|P(x)}, {t|P(t)} and {y |P(y )} are all the same set.
Example:
The following sets are described using the set-builder method.
a) A = {x|x is a vowel in the English alphabet}.
b) B = {t|t is an even integer}.
c) C = {n|n is a natural number and 2n − 15 is negative}.
d) D = {y |y 2 − y − 6 = 0}.
e) E = {x|x is an integer and x − 1 < 0 =⇒ x 2 − 4 > 0}.

Relationships between two sets
Definition:
An empty set, denoted by ∅ or {}, is the set which has no element.
Example:
The set of x ∈ R such that x 2 + 1 = 0 is an empty set.
Definition:
A Set B is said to be a subset of set A (or is contained in A), denoted by B ⊆ A, if every
element of B is an element of A, i.e.,
(∀x)(x ∈ B) =⇒ (x ∈ A)

Cont’d
It follows from the definition that set B is not a subset of set A if at least one
element of B is not an element of A.
That is,
B 6⊆ A ⇐⇒ (∃x)(x ∈ B =⇒ x 6 inA)
In such cases we write B 6⊆ A or A ⊇ B. For any set A, ∅ ⊆ A and A ⊆ A.
Example:
This example emphasizes on subset and proper subsets of a set.
a. If H = {x|x is a multiple of 6} and G = {x|x is even integer}, then H ⊆ G since every
multiple of 6 is even. However, 2 ∈ G while 2 6∈ H. Hence, G 6⊆ H.
b. If A = {a, b}, then {a} ⊆ A and {{b}} ⊆ A. On the other hand, since b ∈ A, {b} 6⊆ A, and
{a, b} 6⊆ A.

Cont’d
Definition:
Two sets A and B are said to be equal, written A = B, if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. That is,
A = B if and only if (∀x)(x ∈ B ⇐⇒ x ∈ A).
Example:
Here are few examples of equal sets.
a. The sets {1, 2, 3}, {2, 1, 3}, {1, 3, 2} are all equal.
b. {x|x is a counting number} = {x|x is a positive integer}.
Definition:
A set A is said to be a proper subset of set B if every element of A is also an element of
B, but B has at least one element that is not in A.
A ⊂ B ⇐⇒ [(∀x)((x ∈ A) =⇒ (x ∈ B)) ∧ (A 6= B)]

Cont’d
Definition:
Let A be a set. The power set of A, dented by P(A), is the set whose elements are all
subsets of A. That is, P(A) = {B : B ⊆ A}.
Example:
Let A = {x, y , z}. Find the power set of set A, P(A).
Solution:
As noted before, ∅ and A are subset of set A.
Moreover, {x}, {y }, {z}, {x, y }, {x, z} and {y , z} are also subsets of set A. Therefore,
P(A) = {∅, A, {x}, {y }, {z}, {x, y }, {x, z}, {y , z}}.

Set Operations and Venn diagrams
Set Operations
Definition:
The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all elements that are
either in A or in B (or in both sets). That is, A ∪ B = {x : (x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)}.
Definition:
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all elements that
are in A and B. That is, A ∩ B = {x : (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)}.
Notice that two sets A and B are said to be disjoint sets if A ∩ B = ∅.
Example:
Let A be the set of positive even integers, and B be the set of positive multiples of 3.
Find A ∪ B and A ∩ B.

Cont’d
Solution:
By definition of union and intersection of two sets, we have;
A ∪ B = {x : xis a positive integer that is either even or a multiple of 3}
= {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, . . . }.
A ∩ B = {x|xis a positive integer that is both even and multiple of 3}
={6, 12, 18, 24, . . . . . . }
={x|xis a positive multiple of 6}.
Definition:
The difference between two sets A and B, denoted by A − B or A \ B, is the of all
elements in A and not in B; this set is also called the relative complement of B with
respect to A. Symbolically, A \ B = {x : x ∈ A ∧ x 6∈ B}.
Example:
If A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {1, 2}, then A \ B = {3, 5} and B \ A = {2}.
A \ B and B \ A are not commutative.

Cont’d
Definition:
Let A be a subset of a universal set U. The absolute complement (or simply
complement) of A, denoted by A0 or Ac , is defined to be the set of all elements of U that
are not in A. That is,
Ac = {x : x ∈ U ∧ x 6∈ A}
. Notice that
Ac = (U \ A)
The following venn diagram is the best way of presenting sets.
Figure 1: Union, Intersection, Absolute complement and Symmetric difference of sets

Cont’d
This figure is called venn diagram for the union, intersection, absolute complement
and symmetric difference of any two sets A and B.
We will discuss the venn diagram in detail in the next section.
Example:
Let U = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 12}. Let A = {x|x is a positive factor of 12} and B = {x|x is an
odd integer in U}. Find (a) Ac , (b) B c , (c) (A ∪ B)c and (d) Ac \ B c .
Solution:
Given sets U = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 12}, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11}. Hence,
a) Ac = {5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11},
b) B c = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12},
c) (A ∪ B)c = {8, 10} and
d) Ac \ B c = {5, 7, 9, 11}

Properties of set operation
Theorem:
Let U be a universal set. If A, B ⊆ U, then
1 (Ac )c = A 4 (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c
2 Ac = U \ A 5 (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c
c
3 A\B =A∩B 6 A ⊆ B ⇐⇒ B c ⊆ Ac
Proof: Given two sets A and B, then the proof of #4 is as follow:

(4) x ∈ (A ∪ B)c ⇐⇒ x 6∈ A ∪ B
⇐⇒ x 6∈ A ∨ x 6∈ B
⇐⇒ x ∈ Ac ∧ x ∈ B c
⇐⇒ x ∈ Ac ∧ B c
Therefore, (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c .
Definition:
The symmetric difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A4B, is the set A4B =
(A \ B) ∪ (B \ A).

Cont’d
Example:
Let U = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 10} be the universal set. If A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10} and
B = {3, 5, 7, 9}, then find A4B and B4A.
Solution:
Given U = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 10}, A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10} and B = {3, 5, 7, 9},
Thus, B \ A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and A \ B = {3, 5, 7}.
Thus, we have A4B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10} and
B4A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10}.
Theorem:
For any three sets A, B and C , each of the following holds.
1 A∪B =B ∪A (∪ is commutative)
2 A∩B =B ∩A (∩ is commutative)
3 (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C ) (∪ is associative)
4 (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (∩ is associative)
5 A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C ) (∪ is distributive over ∩)
6 A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ) (∩ is distributive over ∪)
Cont’d
Proof: We proof part (f ) of the theorem.
(f) x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C ) ⇐⇒ (x ∈ A) ∩ x ∈ (B ∪ C ).
⇐⇒ (x ∈ A ∩ x ∈ B) ∪ x ∈ (A ∩ C )
⇐⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ x ∈ (A ∩ C )
⇐⇒ x ∈ [(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C )]
Therefore, A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ).
Definition:
Let A and B be any two sets. The cartesian product of A and B, denoted by A × B, is
defined by A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B}.
Example:
If A = {1, 2} and B = {−1, 0, 1}, then find (a) A × B (b) B × A.
Solution:
Given A = {1, 2} and B = {−1, 0, 1}, then
(a) A × B={(1, -1), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, -1), (2, 0), (2, 1)}
(b) B × A={(-1, 1), (-1, 2), (0, 1), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2)}
Venn diagram
Sets are represented as interlocking circles, each of which is enclosed in a rectangle,
which represents the universal set U.
Figure 2: Venn diagram
Example:
List all elements of sets U and A from the venn diagram on figure 1.3.

CHAPTER 2
The Real and Complex Number Systems
The Real Number System

We define and give examples for each real number system of the form:
Natural Number system
Integers
Rational Numbers
Irrational Numbers
I. Natural Numbers
Definition:
The set of natural numbers is denoted by N and is described as N = {1, 2, 3, . . . }.
Operation on N
1 The set of natural number are closed under addition and multiplication operations.
2 The set of natural number is not closed under subtraction and division operations.
i. a, b ∈N =⇒ a+b ∈N
ii. a, b ∈N =⇒ a·b ∈N
iii. a, b ∈N =⇒ a − b 6∈ N
iv. a, b ∈N =⇒ a ÷ b 6∈ N

Cont’d
In this remark we will examine sum, product, addends and factors.

a. If a + b = c, then c is called sum and a and b are called addends.
b. If ab = c, then c is called product and a and b are called factors.
II. Order Relation on N

The set of natural number obeys the order relation.
For any natural number a and b if a > b, then a − b is positive.
Proposition:
For any three natural numbers a, b and c, then the following properties always hold:
i) Transitive property
a > b and b > c =⇒ a > c
ii) Addition property
a > b =⇒ a + c > b + c
iii) Multiplication property
a > b =⇒ ac > bc
iv) Trichotomy law
(∀a, b ∈ N) =⇒ a > b or a < b or a = b

Cont’d
Definition:
A number a ∈ N is said to be:
i. even if it is divisible by 2.
ii. odd if it is not divisible by 2.
iii. prime if it has only two factors (1 and itself).
iv. composite if it has three or more factors.
Notice that 1 is neither prime nor composite natural number.
Example:
The following example indicates the set of even, odd, prime and composite natural
numbers.
The set E = {2, 4, 6, 8, . . . } is an even natural number.
The set O = {1, 3, 5.7. . . . } is an odd natural number.
The set P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, . . . } is a prime natural number.
The set C = {4.6.8, 9, . . . } is a composite natural number.

Prime Factorization:
Definition:
A prime factorization of a composite number is the product of all its prime factors.
Example:
Here are examples of prime factorization of few composite natural numbers.
(a) 6 = 2 × 3
(b) 30 = 2 × 3 × 5
(c) 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 = 22 × 3
(d) 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23
(e) 180 = 22 × 32 × 5
Theorem:
Every composite natural number can be expressed as a product of its prime factors. This
factorization is unique except the order of the factors.

Greatest Common Factor (GCF)
Definition:
The greatest common factor (GCF) of two natural numbers a and b, denoted by
GCF (a, b) or (a, b), is the greatest number which is a factor of each of the given number.
If the GCF of two numbers is 1, then the numbers are called relatively prime.
Example:
Find the greatest common factor of 24 and 60.
Solution:
In order to determine the greatest common factor of 24 and 60, we use the following
three steps.
(1) List all factors of 24 and 60.
F24 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24} and
F60 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60}
(2) Take out all common factors of the two numbers.
F24 ∩ F60 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}
(3) Select the greatest number among the common factors of the two numbers.
Therefore, (24, 60) = GCF (24, 60) = 12
Cont’d
Steps to find the GCF of two natural numbers.
(1) Find the prime factorization of each of the natural numbers.
(2) Take the least number of times the exponent appears.
Let a = p1α1 × p2α2 × · · · × pnαn and b = p1β1 × p2β2 × · · · × pnβn . Then
min(α1 ,β1 ) min(α2 ,β2 ) min(αn ,βn )
(a, b) = p1 × p2 × · · · × pn ,
Example:
Find the greatest common factor of 24 and 60 using prime factorization method.
Solution:
We apply the above two steps to determine the GCF of 24 and 60.
(1) The prime factorization of 24 and 60 are:
24 = 23 × 3 = 23 × 31 × 50
60 = 22 × 3 × 5 = 23 × 31 × 51
(2) The factors that appear in all cases are 2, 3 and 5, but take the numbers with the
min(α1 ,β1 ) min(α2 ,β2 ) min(αn ,βn )
least number of times. That is, (a, b) = p1 × p2 × · · · × pn
min(3,2) min(1,1) min(0,1)
(24, 60) = 2 ×3 ×5
(24, 60) = 22 × 3 = 12

Cont’d
Example:
Find the greatest common factor of 20, 80 and 450.
Solution:
We apply prime factorization method in this case to determine the GCF (20, 80, 450).
(1) The prime factorization of 20, 80 and 450 are:
20 = 22 × 5 = 22 × 30 × 51
80 = 24 × 5 = 24 × 30 × 51
450 = 2 × 32 × 52 = 21 × 32 × 52
(2) The factors that appear in all cases are 2, 3 and 5, but take the numbers with the
least number of times. That is,
min(α1 ,β1 ,γ1 ) min(α2 ,β2 ,γ2 )
(a, b, c) = p1 × p2 × · · · × pnmin(αn ,βn ,γn )
min(2,4,1) min(0,0,2)
(20, 80, 450) = 2 ×3 × 5min(1,1,2)
Therefore, (20, 80, 450) = 2 × 5 = 10

Least Common Multiples (LCM)
Definition:
The least common multiple (LCM) of two numbers a and b, denoted by
LCM(a, b)or [a, b], is the least number which is a multiple of each of the given number.
Example:
Find the least common multiple of 18 and 24.
Solution:
Given a = 18 and b = 24. We following steps
(1) List few multiples of 18 and 24.
M18 = {18, 36, 54, 72, 90, 108, 120, 144, . . . } and
M24 = {24, 48, 72, 96, 120, 144, . . . }
(2) Take out all common multiples of 18 and 24.
M18 ∩ M24 = {72, 120, 144, . . . }
(3) Select the smallest of all the common multiples of 18 and 24.
Therefore, LCM(18, 24) = 72.

Cont’d
Cont’d
The LCM can be computed using prime factorization
(1) Find the prime factorization of each of the natural numbers.
(2) Form the LCM of the given numbers as the product of every factor that appears in
any of the prime factorization but take the highest number of times it appears.
Let a = p1α1 × p2α2 × · · · × pnαn and b = p1β1 × p2β2 × · · · × pnβn . Then
max(α1 ,β1 ) max(α2 ,β2 )
[a, b] = p1 × p2 × · · · × pnmax(αn ,βn ) ,
Example:
Find the least common multiple of 20,80, and 450.
Solution:
The following two steps.
(1) The prime factorization of 20, 80 and 450, respectively are:
20 = 22 × 5 = 22 × 30 × 51
80 = 24 × 5 = 24 × 30 × 51
450 = 2 × 32 × 52 = 21 × 32 × 52

Cont’d
(2) The factors that appear in any cases are 2 , 3 and 5, but take the numbers with the
highest number of times. That is,
max(α1 ,β1 ,γ1 ) max(α2 ,β2 ,γ2 )
[a, b, c] = p1 × p2 × · · · × pnmax(αn ,βn ,γn )
max(2,4,1) max(0,0,2)
(20, 80, 450) = 2 ×3 × 5max(1,1,2)
4 2 2
Therefore, [20, 80, 450] = 2 × 3 × 5 = 3600
III. Well ordering principle of N
Proposition:
Every nonempty subset of the set of natural numbers has smallest (least) element.
Example:
Consider the set S = {2, 3, 4, . . . }. Here S 6= ∅ and S ⊆ N. Hence, the smallest element
of S is 2.
Note: The set of counting numbers including zero is called the set of whole numbers,
denoted by W, is given by W = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }.

Principle of Mathematical Induction
Proposition: (First Principle of Mathematical Induction)

Let P(n) be an open proposition associated with a natural number n. If
P(1) is true, and
P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true for k > 1.
Then P(n) is true for all natural number n.
The method is used to prove different propositions involving positive integers using three
steps:
1 Prove that P1 holds true.
2 Assume that Pk is true for k > 1.
3 Show that Pk+1 is true.
Example:
Show that Pn : 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 for all n ∈ N.

Cont’d
Solution:
By using proposition 2.2 we can prove the above assertion.
1 For n = 1, we have;
1 = 12 = 1
Hence, P1 is true.
2 Assume that Pk is true for k > 1.That is,
Pk : 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) = k 2 for k > 1. We want to show that Pk+1 is true.
That means,
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 .
3 Claim: 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2
Now,
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) +(2k + 1) = k 2 + (2k + 1)
| {z }
Pk
= (k + 1)2
.
Hence, Pk+1 is true. Therefore, the assertion is true for all natural number n.

Cont’d
Example:
n(n + 1)
Show that Pn : 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = for all n ∈ N.
2
Solution:
By using proposition 2.2 we can prove the above assertion.
1(1 + 1)
1= =1
2
Hence, P1 is true.
k(k + 1)
Pk : 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + k = . We want to show that Pk+1 is true. That
2
means,
(k + 1)(k + 2)
Pk+1 : 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (k + 1) = .
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
3 Claim: Pk+1 : 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + k + (k + 1) =
2

Cont’d
Now,
(k)(k + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + k + k + 1 = + (k + 1)
| {z } 2
Pk
(k + 1)(k + 2)
=
2
. Hence, Pk+1 is true. Therefore, the assertion is true for all natural number n.
Proposition: (Second Principle of Mathematical Inducntion)

Let n0 be any integers. Let Pn0 , Pn0+1 , . . . , Pn , . . . be propositions such that
Pn0 is true
Pn implies Pn+1 for each integer n ≥ n0
Then Pn is true for every integer n ≥ n0
Example:
Show that Pn : 5n + 6n < 9n for all n ≥ 2.

Cont’d
Solution:
By using the second principle of mathematical induction we have.
52 + 6 2 < 92
=⇒ 25 + 36 < 81
Hence, P2 is true.
Pk : 5k + 6k < 9k .
We want to show that Pk+1 is true. That means,
Pk+1 : 5k+1 + 6k+1 < 9k+1 .
3 Claim: Pk+1 : 5k+1 + 6k+1 < 9k+1
5k+1 + 6k+1 = 5 · 5k + 6 · 6k < 6 · 5k + 6 · 6k
= 6 · (5k + 6k )
< 9 · (5k + 6k )
< 9 · 9k = 9k+1
Hence, Pk+1 is true.
Therefore, the assertion is true for all natural number n ≥ 2.
The set of Integers
Definition:
The set of integers, denoted by Z, is defined by Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . }.
A. Operation on Z
Under this section we are going to discover the closurity property of arithmetic operations
on the set of integer.
(i) a, b ∈ Z =⇒ a + b ∈ Z
(ii) a, b ∈ Z =⇒ a − b ∈ Z
(iii) a, b ∈ Z =⇒ ab ∈ Z
(iv) a, b ∈ Z =⇒ a/b 6∈ Z
From this section we conclude that the set of integers is closed under the operations
addition, subtraction and multiplication.
But it is not closed under the operation division.
That means, the quotient of two integers in not necessarily an integer.

B. Order property of Integers
Proposition:
For any three integers a, b and c, then the following properties always hold:
i) Transitive property
a > b and b > c =⇒ a > c
ii) Addition property
a > b =⇒ a + c > b + c
iii) Multiplication property
a > b =⇒ ac > bc
iv) Trichotomy law
(∀a, b ∈ N) =⇒ a > b or a < b or a = b

The set of Rational Numbers
Definition:
a
A rational number, denoted by Q, is a number of the form , where a and b are integers
b
a
with b 6= 0. That is, Q = { : a, b ∈ Zandb 6= 0}.
b
I. Operation on the set of Rational Numbers
On the operation of rational numbers we are going to examine the closurity property of
the set of rational numbers.
a c a c
1 , ∈ Q =⇒ + ∈Q
b d b d
a c a c
2 , ∈ Q =⇒ − ∈Q
b d b d
a c a c
3 , ∈ Q =⇒ × ∈Q
b d b d
a c a c
4 , ∈ Q =⇒ ÷ 6∈ Q
b d b d

Cont’d
In general, the set of rational numbers is closed under addition, subtraction and
multiplication operations.
But it is not closed under division operation.

a c
For any two rational numbers and , we have the following axioms:
b d
a c ad + bc a c ac
1 + = 3 × =
b d bd b d bd
a c ad − bc a c ad
2 − = 4 ÷ =
b d bd b d bc
Example:
Perform the following operations.
1 3 1 3
1 + 3 ×
2 5 2 5
3 2 7 3
2 − 4 ÷
5 7 2 5

Cont’d
Solution:
We apply the above axioms to perform the above problems.
a c ad + bc
(a) + =
b d bd
1 3 5+6 11
=⇒ + = =
2 5 10 10
a c ad − bc
(b) − =
b d bd
3 2 21 − 10 11
=⇒ − = =
5 7 35 35
a c ac
(c) × =
b d bd
7 3 21
=⇒ − =
2 5 10
a c a d ad
(d) ÷ = × =
b d c c bc
7 3 7 5 35
=⇒ ÷ = × =
2 5 2 3 6
Order property of Rational Numbers
Proposition:
Let ba , dc , and e
f
be three rational numbers.
(a) Commutative property
a c c a
+ = +
b d d b
a c c a
− = −
b d d b
(b) Associative property a c e a c e
+ + = + +
b d f b d f
(c) Existence of Additive identity
a a a
0+ = +0=
b b b
(c) Existence of additive inverse
a a
+ (− ) = 0
b b
(d) Existence of multiplicative inverse
a b
× =1
Lemesa B. Dano b a August 1, 2021 90 / 126
Decimal Representation of Rational Numbers
a
A rational number can be written in decimal form using long division.
b
The result obtained from the long division may be either terminating or
nonterminating decimal numbers.
The following two examples illustrate this in depth.
Example:
Express the following rational numbers in decimal form.

25 25 22
(a) , (b) and
4 3 7
Solution:
By using long division we get the following decimal numbers.
25
1 = 6.25, (Terminating decimal number)
4
25
2 = 8.333 · · · = 8.3̇ and
3
22
3 = 3.142857142857 · · · = 3.142857 (Non-terminating decimal numbers.)
7
Fractional Representation of decimal numbers
A. Terminating decimals:
Proposition:
Consider any terminating decimal number d. Then the fractional equivalent of d can be
computed as:
n
10
d =d× ,
10n
where n is the number of digits after the decimal point.
Example:
Converting the following terminating decimal numbers into fractional form.
1 d = 3.47
2 d = 0.25
3 d = 0.005

Cont’d
Solution:
Applying the above formula we get:

1 Given d =
3.47and n = 2. Thus, 100
=⇒ 0.25 = 0.25 ×
10n 100
d =d× 25
10n 2 =⇒ 0.25 =
10 100
=⇒ 3.47 = 3.47 × 2
10
100 3 Given d =
0.005
and n = 3. Thus,
=⇒ 3.47 = 3.47 × 10n
100 d =d×
347 10n
=⇒ 3.47 = 3
100 10
Given d = =⇒ 0.005 = 0.005 ×
2
0.25and n = 2. Thus, 3
10
10n 1000
d =d× =⇒ 0.005 = 0.005 ×
10n 2 1000
10 5
=⇒ 0.25 = 0.25 × =⇒ 0.005 =
102 1000

Non - terminating decimals:
Proposition:
Consider any non-terminating periodic decimal number d. Then the fractional form of d
can be obtained by using the formula below:
k+p
− 10k

10
d =d× ,
10k+p − 10k
where k is the number of terminating and p is the number of non - terminating digits
after the decimal point.
Example:
Convert the following non - terminating decimals into fractional form.
1 2.538
2 0.0025
3 0.257̇

Cont’d
Solution:
Applying the above formula we get the following results.
1 Here d =2.538, k = 1 and
p = 2. Thus,
10k+p − 10k
d =d×
10k+p − 10k
101+2 − 101

=⇒ 2.538 = 2.538 ×
103 − 10
1+2 1
1

10 − 10
=⇒ 2.538 = 2.538 × 3 − 101
10
1000 − 10
=⇒ 2.538 = 2.538 ×
1000 − 10
2.538 × 1000 − 2.538 × 10
=⇒ 2.538 =
990
2538.38 − 25.38
=⇒ 2.538 =
990
2513
=⇒ 2.538 =
990

Cont’d
1 Here d =0.0025, k = 2and p = 2. Thus,

10k+p − 10k
d =d×
10k+p − 10k
102+2 − 102

=⇒ 0.0025 = 0.0025 ×
104 − 10
2+2 2
10 − 102

=⇒ 0.0025 = 0.0025 ×
10 − 10
4 2

10000 − 100
=⇒ 0.0025 = 0.0025 ×
10000 − 100
0.0025 × 10000 − 0.0025 × 100
=⇒ 0.0025 =
9900

25.25 − 0.25
=⇒ 0.0025 =
9900
25
=⇒ 0.0025 =
9900
2 (c) is left as exercise

Non - terminating and non - periodic decimals:
Some decimal numbers are neither terminating nor non-terminating periodic.
Such types of numbers are called irrational numbers.
For examples, the decimal 6.757757775 . . . is neither terminating nor repeating
decimal.
This type of decimal is called Irrational numbers.
Example:
√
Show that 2 is an irrational number.
Solution:
√
We proceed by contradiction. Suppose 2 is a rational number. Thus,
√ a
=⇒ 2 = , where GCF (a, b) = 1
b
a2
=⇒ 2 = 2
b
=⇒ a2 = 2b 2 (∗)
=⇒ a2 is even
=⇒ a is also even
=⇒ a = 2n; (∀n ∈ N) (∗∗)
Cont’d
Substituting (∗∗) in (∗), we get;
=⇒ 4a2 = 2b 2
=⇒ b 2 = 2n
=⇒ b 2 is even
=⇒ b is even
=⇒ b = 2m; (∀m ∈ N) (∗ ∗ ∗) √
From (∗∗) and (∗ ∗ ∗), we get a contradiction that GCF (a, b) = 1. Hence, 2 is not a
rational number. Therefore, it is an irrational numbers.
Definition:
An irrational number is a number which is neither terminating nor non-terminating
decimals.
The set of irrational number is not closed under addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division operation.
The sum of two irrational numbers is not irrational. Similarly, the quotient of two
irrational numbers is not irrational.
√
8 √
For example, √ = 4 = 2. Hence, the result of the quotient of two irrationals is
2
may be rational.
Field axioms of real numbers
Definition:
A number is called a real number if and only if it is either a rational number or an
irrational number. The set of real numbers, denoted by R, can be described as the union
of the set of rational and irrational numbers. That is,
R = {x : x is a rational or an irrational number}.
Definition:
The set of real number together with + and · satisfies the following nine axioms.
1 ∀a, b ∈ R =⇒ a + b = b + a
2 ∀a, b, c ∈ R =⇒ (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
3 (∀a ∈ R)(∃0 ∈ R) such that a + 0 = a
4 (∀a ∈ R)(∃−a ∈ R) such that a + (−a) = 0
5 ∀a, b ∈ R =⇒ ab = ba
6 ∀a, b ∈ Ra, b, c ∈ R =⇒ (ab)c = a(bc)
7 (∀a ∈ R)(∃1 ∈ R) such that a · 1 = a
8 (∃a−1 ) ∈ R such that aa−1 = 1 for all a ∈ R
9 ∀a, b, c ∈ R =⇒ a(b + c) = ab + ac

Order relation on R
The set R together with the two binary operation that satisfies all axioms a − i is
called a field.
In this case we denote the field of real numbers as (R, +, ·).
The set of real number is closed under addition, subtraction and multiplication
operations.
But it is not closed under division operation.

The set of real number obeys the following order relations.
(a) Transitiveproperty :
If a < b and b < c, then a < c for any three rral numbers.
(b) Additionproperty :
If a < b, then a + c < b + c for any three rral numbers.
(c) Multiplicationproperty :
If a < b, then
i. ac < bc for all c > 0
ii. ac > bc for all c < 0
(d) TrichotomyLaw :
For any two real numbers a and b, we have either a < b, a = b or a > b.

Intervals
Definition:
Let a and b are real numbers and a < b. Then the intervals which are subsets of R with
end points a and b are defined as below:
1 (a, b) = {x : a < x < b} 4 [a, b) = {x : a ≤ x < b}

2 [a, b] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b} 5 [a, ∞) = {x : x ≥ a} are intervals of
3 (a, b] = {x : a < x ≤ b} different form.
Example:
Write the simplest interval form of the set E = {x : −3 < 2x − 5 ≤ 1}.
Solution:
Using the concept of linear inequality, we can simplify the above set.
E = {x : −3 < 2x − 5 ≤ 1}
= {x : −3 + 5 < 2x ≤ 1 + 5}
= {x : 1 < x ≤ 3}
= (1, 3]

Upper bound property of R
Definition:
Let A be a nonempty subset of R.
1 A point a ∈ R is said to be an upper bound of A if and only if x ≤ a for all x ∈ A.
2 A point b ∈ R is said to be an lower bound of A if and only if x ≥ b for all x ∈ A.
Definition:
Let A be a nonempty subset of R.
1 A point a ∈ R is said to be the least upper bound of A, denoted by lub(A) or
sup(A), if:
i. a is an upper bound of A and
ii. if b is another upper bound of A, then a ≤ b.
2 A point a ∈ R is said to be the greatest bound of A, denoted by gub(A) or inf (A),
if:
i. a is a lower bound of A and
ii. if b is another lower bound of A, then a ≥ b.

Cont’d
Example:
Consider the set A = [2, 5). Find the lower and upper bound of set A.
Solution:
Since A 6= ∅ and A ⊆ R, then the set A has lower and upper bounds.
The greatest lower bound of A, glb(A) or inf (A), is 2 and the least upper bound of A,
lub(A) or sup(A), is 5.
Example:
Consider the set E = {x : −3 < 2x − 5 ≤ 1}. Find inf (E ) and sup(E )
Solution:
Since E is a nonempty subset of R, we have:
E = {x : −3 < 2x − 5 ≤ 1}
{x : −3 + 5 < 2x ≤ 1 + 5}
=⇒ E = {x : 1 < x ≤ 3}
= (1, 3] Therefore, inf (E ) = 1 and sup(E ) = 3.

Cont’d
Example:
1
Consider the set A = for all n ∈ N. Find the greatest lower bound and least upper
n
bound of set A.
Solution:
1
We list out the first few terms of the set A = for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
n
1 1
The set A = {1, , , . . . }.
2 3
Hence, A 6= ∅ and A ⊆ R.
Hence, glb(A) = 0 and lub(A) = 1 .

The Completeness property of R
Proposition:
Every nonempty subset of R that has lower bounds has greatest lower bound and every
nonempty subset of R that has upper bounds has a least upper bound.
Example:
Show that the set E = {r ∈ Q : r 2 < 2} is not complete.
Solution:
Since E 6= ∅ and E ⊆ R, we have
E = {r ∈ Q : r 2 < 2} =⇒ r 2 < 2
√
=⇒ |r | < 2
√ √
=⇒ − 2 < r < 2
√ √
Hence, the set E = {− 2 < √r < 2} is a nonempty
√ subset√of real number. It is also a
bounded set and glb(E ) = − 2 and lub(E ) = 2 . But, ± 2 6∈ Q. Therefore, the set E
is not complete.

Cont’d
Equation of the form x 2 + 1 = 0 has no solution on the set of real numbers.
Therefore, the set of complex numbers permits us to solve such equations.
Definition:
The set of complex numbers, denoted by C, is defined by:

C = {z : z = x + iy ; x, y ∈ R, i 2 = −1}.
Note:
These remarks summarized definition ?? in a very simply words as below:
1 In the expression z = x + iy ,
the number x is called the real part of Z , denoted by Re(z) and

the number y is called the imaginary part of z, denoted by Im(z).
2 If x = o, then the number is called purely imaginary and purely real if y = 0.
3 Any complex number can be defined as an ordered pair (x, y ) of real numbers.

Cont’d
Example:
Find the real and imaginary parts of the following real numbers.
1 z = 3 + 7i
2 z =1−i
3 − 2i
3 z=
5
Solution:
Using the above remarks we can put the real and imaginary of any complex number.
z Re(z) Im(z)
z = 3 + 7i 3 7
z =1−i 1 -1
3 − 2i 3 −2
z=
5 5 5

Plotting a Complex Numbers
Any complex number z = x + iy can be plotted on the complex plane as a vector on

the coordinate plane.
Figure 4: Complex numbers represented as a vector on complex plane

Cont’d
Example:
Draw the complex number z = 2 + 3i
Solution:
We use a complex plane the draw the complex number z = 2 + 3i
Figure 5: Vector representation of complex plane z = 2 + 3i

Equality of two complex numbers
Definition:
Two complex numbers z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id are said to be equal if and only if
a = c and b = d.
Example:
Find the value of x and y if z1 = 2 + ix and z2 = y + 6i are equal complex numbers.
Solution:
Applying the equality of two complex numbers we can determine the value of unknown as
follow:
z1 = z2 =⇒ 2 + ix = y + 6i
=⇒ y = 2, x = 6

Operations on Complex numbers
Proposition:
Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any two complex numbers.
1 z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i(b + d) a + ib
4 z1 ÷ z2 = ; provided that
2 z1 − z2 = (a + c) − i(b + d) c + id
z2 6= 0.
3 z1 · z2 = (ac − bd) + i(ad + bc)
Example:
If z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = 4 + i, then perform the following operations.
1 z1 + z2 3 z1 · z2
2 z1 − z2 4 z1 ÷ z2
Solution:
Applying the above proposition we can simplify each of the above problems.
1 z1 + z2 = (2 + 3i) + (4 + i) = 6 + 4i 3 z1 · z2 = (2 + 3i) · (4 + i) = 5 + 14i

2+3i
2 z1 − z2 = (2 + 3i) − (4 + i) = −2 + 2i 4 z1 ÷ z2 = 4+i
=
Conjugate of a Complex Number
Definition:
The conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy , denoted by, z, is defined as:
z = x + iy = x − iy
It can be represented by the point (x, −y ) which is the reflection of the point (x, y )
about the x - axis.
Figure 6: Conjugate of complex number on complex plane

Cont’d
Example:
Give the complex conjugate of each of the following complex numbers. (a) 2 − 5i
Properties of complex conjugate
Proposition:
Let z1 and z2 be any two complex numbers.
i. z1 = z1
ii. z + z = 2x
iii. z − z = 2iy
iv. z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
v. z1 − z2 = z1 − z2
vi. z1 · z2 = z1 · z2

vii. zz12 = zz12

Cont’d
Proof:
We proof two parts of this proposition and leave the rest as exercise.
(a) Let z = x + iy . Then z = x − iy .
Hence, z = x + iy = z.
Therefore, z = z.
(d) Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 . Then z1 = x1 − iy1 and z2 = x2 − iy2 .
Now,
z1 + z2 = x1 + iy1 + x2 + iy2 = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )
=(x1 + x2 ) − i(y1 + y2 )
=x1 + x2 − iy1 − y2
=(x1 − iy1 ) + (x2 − y2 )
=z1 + z2

Modulus of a complex number
Definition:
The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy is a non - negative real number, denoted
by |z|, is defined as:
p
|z| = |x + iy | = x 2 + y 2
Geometrically, the number |z| represents the distance between the point (x, y ) and the
origin.
Figure 7: Conjugate of complex number on complex plane

Cont’
Example:
Find the modulus of each of the following complex numbers.
(a) z = 3 − 4i
√
3+i
(b) z = 2
√
(c) z = −9 + 2 + i
Solution:
Applying the definition of modulus of a complex number, we have;
− 4i
(a) z = 3 p
√
|z| = 32 + −42 = 9 + 16 = 5
√
3+i
(b) z =
r2 √ r
3 2 1 3 1
|z| = ( ) + ( )2 = + =1
2 2 4 4
√
(c) z = √ −9 + 2 + i =
√ 2 + 4i √
|z| = 22 + 42 = 4 + 16 = 2 5

Properties of Modulus
Theorem:
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be two complex numbers.
1 |z1 | = |z1 | z1 |z1 |

4 | |=
z2 |z2 |
2 |z1 |2 = z1 · z1
5 |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |
3 |z1 · z2 | = |z1 | · |z2 |
6 |z1 − z2 | ≥ |z1 | − |z2 |
Definition:
Let z = x + iy be a complex number. Then
1 the additive inverse of z, denoted by (-z), is given by −z = −(x + iy ) = −x − iy .
2 the multiplicative inverse of z, denoted by z −1 , is given by z −1 = 1
x+iy
= x−iy
x 2 +y 2
Example:
Find the additive and multiplicative inverse of z = 3 + 4i.

Argument of a Complex Number
Solution:
Given z = 3 + 4i. Then
(i) −z = −(3 + 4i) = −3 − 4i
(ii) z −1 = 1
3+4i
= 3−4i
32 +42
= 3−4i
25
Definition:
An argument of a complex number z = x + iy is the angle formed by the complex
number z = x + iy with the positive x− axis.
1 The argument of a complex number z = x + iy , deonted by argz, is defined by
arg (z) = tan−1 yx .
2 The particular argument of z that lies in the range −pi < θ ≤ pi s called the
principal argument of z and is dented by Arg
Note:
Let z = x + iy be a complex number.
1 −π < Arg (z) ≤ π
2 If 0 < Arg (z) ≤ π, we move it in a counterclockwise direction.

Cont’d
Example:
Find the principal argument of each of the following complex numbers.
√
1 z =1+i 3 z =− 3−i
√
2 z = −2 + 2 3i 4 z = 3i
Solution:
1 Given z = 1 + i.
Argz = tan−1 11 = π4
√
2 z = −2 + 2 3i √ √
Argz = tan−1 2−23 = tan−1 3 = 2π
3
√
3 Given z = − 3 − i
Argz = tan−1 −−1 √
3
= √13 = −5π
6
4 Given z = 3i.
Argz = tan−1 3 π

0
= 2

Cont’d
Proposition:
Let z1 = x + iy and z2 = c + id be two complex numbers. Then

Arg (z1 · z2 ) = Argz1 + Argz2 z1
1 2 Arg z2
= Argz1 − Argz2
Example:
Find the principal argument of the following complex numbers.

1 (1 + i)(−1 − i) 2 −2+2i
1−i
Solution:
We apply the above proposition.
1 Given (1 + i)(−1 − i). Arg (1 + i)(−1 − i) = Arg (1 + i) + Arg (−1 − i) =
tan−1 1 −1 −11
= π4 + −3π = − π2

1
+ tan −11 4

2 Given −2+2i
1−i
. Arg −2+2i1−i
= Arg (−2 + 2i) − Arg (1 − i) =
tan−1 −2 + 2i − tan−1 1 − i = 3π
4
− (frac−π4)

Polar form of a complex number
Definition:
Let r and θ be polar coordinates of the point (x, y ) of the complex number z = x + iy .
Since x = rcos(θ) and y = rsin(θ), then the complex number can be written as:
z = r (cos(θ) + isin(θ))
which is called polar form, where r is modulus and θ is principal argument of z.
Example:
Express the following complex numbers in polar form
(a) z = 1 + i (b) z = 3 − 3i
Solution:
By the definition of polar form of a complex number, we have
(a) Given z = √
1 + i. √
Since r = 2 and θ = tan−1 1 = π π π

4
, then z = 2(cos 4
) + isin 4
)
3 − 3i.
(b) Given z = √ √
Since r = 18 and θ = tan−1 −1 = − π4 , then z = 18(cos π π

4
) − isin 4
)

Multiplication and Division in polar forms
Theorem:
If z1 = r1 (cos(θ1 ) + isin(θ1 )) and z2 = r2 (cos(θ2 ) + isin(θ2 )), then
1 z1 · z2 = r1 · r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + isin(θ1 + θ2 ))
z1 r1
2
z2
= r2
(cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + isin(θ1 − θ2 ))
Proof:
We use the sum angle rule
z1 · z2 = r1 (cos(θ1 ) + isin(θ1 )) · r2 (cos(θ2 ) + isin(θ2 ))

= r1 · r2 [(cos(θ1 ) + isin(θ1 )) · (cos(θ2 ) + isin(θ2 ))]
= r1 · r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + isin(θ1 + θ2 ))
z1 r1 (cos(θ1 ) + isin(θ1 ))
=
z2 r2 (cos(θ2 ) + isin(θ2 ))

r1 cos(θ1 ) + isin(θ1 )
=
r2 cos(θ2 ) + isin(θ2 )
r1
= (cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + isin(θ1 − θ2 ))
r2
Cont’d
Example:
If z1 = 6(cos( π2 ) + isin( π2 )) and z2 = 2(cos( π3 ) + isin( π3 )), then find
z1
(a) z1 · z2 (b) z2
Solution:
We apply the multiplication and division of two complex numbers in polar form
(a) z1 · z2
z1
(b) z2
Definition:
The argument of the product of two complex numbers is the sum of their arguments.
The argument of the quotient of two complex numbers is the difference of their
arguments.

Theorem:
If z = r (cos(θ) + isin(θ)), then
r (cos(θ) + isin(θ))
for any natural number n.
Example:
Evaluate the following complex number in polar form
√
(a) ( 3 + i)6
(b) (2 + 2i)6
Solution:
√
(a) Given ( 3 + i)6 .
Since r = 2 and θ = π6 , then we have
√
( 3 + i)6 = 26 (cos(6 × π6 ) + isin(6 × π6 ))
= 64(cos(π) + isin(π))
√
(b) Given (2 + 2i)6 . Since r = 2 2 and theta = π
.
√ 4
(2 + 2i)6 = (2 2)6 (cos( 6×π
4
) + isin(6 × π4 ))
3π 3π
= 512(cos( 2 ) + isin( 2 ))
The nth root of a complex number
Theorem:
Let z = r (cos(θ) + isin(θ)). The nth root of a complex number z is given by
√

n θ + 2πk θ + 2πk
r cos + isin ,
n n
where k = 0.1, 2, . . . , n − 1.
Example:
Determine the fourth roots of i.
Solution:
The polar form of i becomes
π π
i = 1 cos + isin
2 2
Applying the above theorem, we obtain
√
π π
1 4 + 2πk + 2πk
i 4 = 1 cos 2 + isin 2 ,
4 n

Cont’d

π πk π πk
= cos + + isin +
8 2 8 2
Setting k = 0, 1, 2, 3 we obtain the following four roots.

π π(0) π π(0) π π
z0 = cos + + isin + = cos + isin
8 2 8 2 8 8

π π(1) π π(1) 5π 5π
8 2 8 2 8 8

π π(2) π π(2) 9π 9π
8 2 8 2 8 8

π π(4) π π(4) 13π 13π
8 2 8 2 8 8
Example:
Find all four roots of z = 16 cos 4π + isin 4π

3 3

Euler’s Formula
Definition:
The complex number z = r (cos(θ)) + isin(θ) can be written in exponential form as:
1 z = re iθ which is called Euler’s formula.
2 z n = r n (cos(nθ) + isin(nθ)) = r n e i(nθ)
Example:
Express the following complex numbers using Euler’s formula
√
(a) z = 1 + i (b) z = 3+i
Solution:
√
(a) Given z = 1 + i. Since r = 2 and θ = π4 , we have
√
z= 2(cos π4 + isin π4 )
√ iπ
= 2e 4
√
b) Given z = 3 + i. Since r = 2 and θ = π3 , we have
z=2 (cos π 3+isin π )
3
iπ
=2e 3

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CHAPTER 1

Mathematical Logic and Set Theory

1.1 Propositional Logic

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The logical conjunction of two propositions, p and q, is written: p ∧ q, read as “p and

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The logical implication of two propositions, p and q, is written: p =⇒ q, read as

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The proposition p is called the hypothesis or the antecedent of the conditional

The following table is an illustrative of the table table for implication.

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There are various ways of expressing the proposition p =⇒ q, namely:

(i) If p, then q, (iv) p only if q,

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The logical bi-implication of two propositions, p and q, is written: p ⇐⇒ , read as

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There are various ways of naming the proposition p ⇐⇒ q:

(a) p if and only if q, (c) q is necessary and sufficient for p,

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The truth value of ¬p is F if p is T and T if p is F .

The following is the tabular form of a negation.

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Note: We must be careful to insert the brackets in proper places, just as we do in

It could mean (p =⇒ q) ∧ r or p =⇒ (q ∧ r ), which are very different

The truth value of such complicated propositions is determined by systematic

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That is, TT , TF , FT and FF .

If a third proposition r is involved, then there are eight possible combinations of

In general, a truth table involving “n” propositions p1 , p2 , p3 , . . . , pn contains 2n

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following compound propositions.

Solution: We follow a series of steps in the solution of the above examples.

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(b) p =⇒ [(q ∧ r ) ∨ s] = T =⇒ [(F ∧ T ) ∨ F ] = T =⇒ (F ∨ F ) = T =⇒ F = F .

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Note: Notations for equivalence of two compound propositions.

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(ii) Contrapositive: If 5 6= 4, then 2 6≤ 3.

(iii) Inverse: If 2 6≤ 3, then 5 6= 4.

2. If 2 is an even number, then it is a composite number.

(ii) Contrapositive: If 2 is not a composite number, then it is not an even number.

(iii) Inverse: If 2 is not an even number, then it is not a composite number.

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(a) Monday is the day before Sunday.

The second way of converting an open proposition into a proposition is using

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i. P(−1) : (−1)2 − 1 = 0. (T) iii. P(0) : 0 − 1 = 0.(F)

ii. P(− 21 ) : (− 21 )2 − 1 = 0.(F) iv. P(1) : 1 − 1 = 0.(T)

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Hence, P(a) = Q(a) for all a ∈ U.

Therefore, the open propositions P(x) and Q(x) are equivalent on U.

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