BOROBUDUR: FORM AND SYMBOLISM

Among the ruins of ancient Indonesia, Borobudur is unique. It contains

no interior room analogus to the principal component of most Indonesia candi.
Its shape can only be explained as the fusion of a number of elements both
foreign and local.1

Symbolic Dimensions of Borobudur

At the summit of Borobudur stands a stupa. Some scholars have decided
that Borobudur is this stupa, and all accompanying components-the
smaller stupa, the hundreds of statues, the thousands of relief panels-are
mere embellishment, ancillary details without which the monument
would still retain its fundamental significance.

Stages of Construction
The construction of the Buddhist monument on Borobudur’s hill began when
Buddhism was still quite underdeveloped in Java in comparison with Hinduism.
Thus the stupa on the summit of the older stepped pyramid can be read as a
fusion of Preclassic and Classic icons.i

Statues and Mandalas

The combination of motifs at Borobudur does not end at two. The
groundplan of the monument seen from above clearly forms a
mandala pattern. Mandalas are diagrams in which deities are
placed in particular locations forming rings or concentric circles.
These diagrams come in many types (over 2,000) and have
multiple purposes, including such functions as aiding meditation,
and delineating sacred space from which evil forces are excluded.

1
Dr. John Indonesian Heriatage - Ancient History, Seconf Edition, Grolier International,
Inc., 1996,page 75.
5
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On Borobudur there are six different types of Buddha

image. On the east, visitors are greeted by three tiers of walls atop
which sit buddhas in Dharmacakramudra (gesture signifying the
conquest of illusion). On the south are three tiers of images in
Varamudra (gesture of lcharity). On the west, three tiers of statues
display Dhyanamudra, meditation, while those on the north are in
Abhayamudra, dispelling fear.

The fourt tier on all four sides depicts a Buddha in

Vitarkamudra-the preaching pose. Beyond this level are three more
round terraces surmounted by perforated stupas in which can be
seen Buddhas in Dhamacakramudra. This pose symbolises
Sakyamuni’s firs sermon in the deer park at Benares. One of
Borobudur’s unsolved mysteries is that this set of six Buddhas
corresponds to no known mandala.

Narrative Reliefs
The final symbolic dimension of Borobudur stems from the reliefs
narrating Buddhist texts which adorn the walls of its four
rectangular galleries. In the monument’s first stage, there was
another series of reliefs at the structure’s foot. The text illustrated
here is taken from the Karmavibhangga, the Law of Cause and
Effect. The text takes the from of illustrations of good deeds and
their rewards, but concentrates more attention on the terrible
punishments which await those who perpetrate evil deeds such as
killing animals, fighting, or adultery.
This series was covered up with added stonework and it
was completely carve, the reason for this measure, as Dumarcay
has shown, is structural: the designers miscalculated the width of
the base needed to support the monument, and had to add more
stone, which obscured the first series of reliefs. Perhaps as a kind
of replacement, a second row of reliefs was added to the inner face
of the balustrade on the first terrace.
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The walls of the first gallery are decorated with four series
of reliefs: two on the wall of the balustrade, and two on themain
wall. Both series on the balustrade wall are taken from texts called
Jatakas, or Birth Stories. These depict tales from the lives of
Sakyamuni, the historical Buddha, in various incarnations before
his final birth as a human being. The theme of these stories is that
of self-sacrifice as a means to gaining merit and a better birth in
the next life, with the attainment of non-being (nirvana) as the
ultimate goal.

The lower level of the main wall adorned with another

series of birht stores, this time depicting scenes from the lives of
the other people in addition to Sakyamuni who also attained
enlightenment. In contrast to Theravada Buddhism, in which it is
believed that only one being has attained enlightenment in this era,
Mahayana buddhist believe that many beings have attained this
stage. These texts are called Avadanas.

The upper level of the main wall, first gallery, displays

reliefs depicting the life of Sakyamuni (Siddharta Gautama)
during his life as a prince who became an ascetic teacher. The
reliefs begin with the Buddha-to-be in heaven before his last
reincarnation, and end with his firs sermon in the deer park in
Benares.

The fifth and last series occupies the upper three galleries
of Borobudur. The text used for the source of inspiration is called
the Gandavyuha. This scripture contains the story of a young man,
son of a merchant, named Suhana who goes from theacher to
teacher in the search of enlightenment. The majority of reliefs
show scenes of the boy alternately travelling by various
conveyances including chariots and elephant, and scenes of him
kneeling reverently in front of the varous teachers (kalayanamitra,
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or “good friend”) who include men, women, children and

Bodhisattvas. At the end of his quest Sudhana is admitted to the
palace of Maitreya, Buddha of the Future, atop Mount Sumeru,
wherein he is given more lessons and has various visions. The last
series of reliefs on the upper terrace is taken from a sequel to this
text, called the Bhadracari, in which Sudhana vows to become a
Bodhisattva and to follow the example of a particular Bodhisattva
named Samantabhadra.

The placement of this series at the uppermost level of the

monument seems to indicate that this was the most respected text
by the builders of Borobudur. The sequence of reliefs seems
designed to encourage pilgrims to follow Sudhana’s example while
simultaneously climbing a symbolic mountain, the summit of
which is thus protrayed as the goal and source or residence of the
highest wisdom.

Function of the Candi

The word candi is generally considered to have been derived from
the term candikagrha denoting the dwelling place of Candika,
Goddes of Death, and consort of Lord Siva. Candi are linked to
death: they were frequently constructed to glorify a deceased
king or queen. Literally this could be interpreted to mean that the
candi is a building used for burial purposes, or even a tomb, but in
fact candi are associated with death in a very different way.

They were built as shrines to glorify deceased rulers. The

monarchs were believed to be manifestations of particular deities,
earthly representatives of the details, who ruled over the people to
protect the cosmic order on behalf of the deity. In death, the
monarchs had become reunited with their divine patrons and were
Sejarah Indonesia 9

immortalised as statues depicting the deity. When enthroned in the

inner space of the candi, the statue becomes an object of worship.
One primary function of the candi was to protect this statue
from the elements, and from the view of commoners. The essence
of the deity was not believed to reside in the statue at all times. The
deity had to be invited, through invocations, to descend and
temporarily occupy the image. On such occasions the statue could
be viewed by worshippers, but only the priests were actually
allowed in the shrine room.

The Temple Mountain

Early Javanese inscriptions sometimes referred to temples as
mountains. Javanese reverence for mountains began in prehistoric
times, and Indic mythology contains elements which the Javanese
would have found instantly recognisable. In Hindu-buddhist
mythology, Mount Meru is a cosmic mountain situated at the
centre of the cosmos that constitutes the axis of the world. It rises
from the very bottom of the earth up to the highest level of heave.
It is also the abode of the gods. The cosmic mountain is thus a
symbol for the univers. The candi and its architectural details can
be interpreted in terms of this symbolism.
The three level of the candi represent the triloka. These
consist of the three superimposed worlds believed to make up the
univers. The base of the candi represents the world of mortals, and
is called Bhurloka. One level up, the body of the candi represents
the Bhuvarloka or world of the purified. It is here that the devotee
can communicate with a deity andin turen the deity receives
homage. At the higherst level, the roof of the candi represents the
world of the gods, or Svarloka.
The architectural features of the candi are designed to
accentuate its symbolic meaning as a replica of mount Meru. The
base of the candi is dominated by a series of horizontal mouldings.
Carvings here are largely confined to geometric patterns and floral
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designs. In complete contrast, the walls of the temple body are

richly decorated with all manner of ornamental designs, the aim of
which is to create an other-wordly atmosphere.

BOROBUDUR AND THE RISE OF BUDDHISM

Buddhism was a popular religion in central Java for only about a

century, between circa 750 AD and 850 AD. Despite the relative
brevity of its popularity, Buddhism fostered a number of great
monuments. Borobudur, the best known of these, is interesting
both for its beauty and for the light it sheds on the evolution of the
Buddhist faith beyond India.
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Early Classic Period, 75