COM 3706 Study Guide

# 2001 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
COM306-D/1/2002-2004
97015423
3B2
C O N T E N T S
INTRODUCTION (v)
Study unit 1: Quantitative and qualitative approaches to

communication research 1
Overview 1
Learning outcomes 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Different ways of knowing (obtaining knowledge) 4
1.3 A conceptual model of assumptions 7
1.4 Quantitative versus qualitative research approaches 9
1.5 An application of quantitative and
qualitative approaches 11
1.6 What about future research? 12
1.7 Conclusion 12
Study unit 2: Steps in the research process 16

Overview 16
Leaning outcomes 16
2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 Step 1: Identification and analysis of the problem 17
2.3 Step 2: Reviewing the literature 26
2.4 Step 3: Formulating hypotheses or
research questions 32
2.5 Step 4: Selection or development of the
research design 43
2.6 Step 5: Writing a research proposal 47
2.7 Remaining steps in the research process 48
2.8 Conclusion 49
Study unit 3: Data collection: sampling, measuring, questioning and

observing 57
Overview 57
Learning outcomes 57
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Sampling 58
3.3 Measurement 71
COM306-D/1/2002-2004 iii
3.4 Collecting data by asking questions 85
3.5 Collecting data by means of observations 98
3.6 Conclusion 104
Study unit 4: Procedures for applying a research design and

interpreting research data 106
Overview 106
4.1 Introduction 106
4.2 Research conducted in controlled environments 107
4.3 Conducting research in semi-controlled
environments 115
4.4 Conducting research in natural environments 124
4.5 What to do with the data you have collected 128
4.6 Conclusion 136
Study unit 5: Research of advertising, mass-media audiences and

mass-media efficiency 138
Overview 138
5.2 Advertising message research 139
5.3 Audience analyses of print and broadcast media 160
5.4 Researching mass-media efficiency 167
5.5 Conclusion 175
Study unit 6: Organisational and development communication

research 177
Overview 177
6.2 Environmental monitoring research 178
6.3 Social audit 180
6.4 Researching participatory strategies in
organisational and development contexts 189
6.5 Participatory action research 193
6.6 Public relations (PR) audit 199
6.7 Communication audit 215
6.8 Conclusion 221
Study unit 7: The research report 231

Overview 231
7.2 Evaluation criteria 232
7.3 Case study 235
7.4 Conclusion 252
SOURCES CONSULTED 254
iv
I n t r o d u c t i o n
Welcome to the Department of Communication.
The topic of this module is communication research.
In this introduction, we focus on the following

& the teaching aims and learning outcomes of this module
& the teaching aims of the study guide
& the structure of the study guide
& the study package
TEACHING AIMS AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THIS

MODULE
This module is designed to help you achieve certain learning outcomes. These learning
outcomes are related to developing the following skills:
& research skills
& problem-solving skills
& communication skills
& environmental literacy skills
& developing a macro vision
& self-responsibility skills
& individual values
& individual skills
(Details of these skills are described in the Foreword of the prescribed book.)
As you read through this list, you probably felt quite overwhelmed or ``threatened'' by
some of these expressions, simply because they are new to you. If so, please stop
worrying! As you work through this module, you will soon realise that you have
already developed a number of these skills and abilities as a result of studying other
undergraduate modules. Please note, though, that in other modules (including
modules for which you are currently registered), these ``skills'' may have been labelled
differently.
COM306-D/1 v
The main aims of this module are based on your achieving the following three learning
outcomes
& research skills Ð You should demonstrate the ability to write a research proposal.
This will involve all the steps of the research process.
& communication skills Ð You should demonstrate the ability to evaluate a research
article according to scientific criteria.
& communication and research skills Ð You should demonstrate the ability to apply
research techniques and methods when investigating communication problems.
You should also show that you know how to keep records of the procedures and
experiences involved, by using academically acceptable language.
We assume that you have already completed an introductory module on Research in

the Social Sciences. To a certain extent, you should therefore be familiar with the
contents of study units 2, 3 and 4 already. In these study units we discuss the most
important concepts, techniques methods and procedures related to:
& steps in the research process
& data collection: sampling, measuring, questioning and observing
& procedures followed when applying a research design and interpreting research
data
Please note that, unlike the module Research in the Social Sciences, in this module
we shall concentrate on applying the concepts, techniques, methods and procedures
used specifically for communication problems (and not the social sciences in general).
TEACHING AIMS OF THIS STUDY GUIDE

The teaching aims of this study guide are twofold:
& to help you understand basic research techniques and methods, and how to apply
these to communication problems and issues
& to accomplish the three learning outcomes listed above
STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY GUIDE

We have structured this study guide with one aim in mind Ð to literally guide you
through your studies and to help you master the prescribed book. The study guide is
therefore also divided into 7 study units, each corresponding with the units in the
prescribed book.
Each study units starts with an overview (which gives you a brief summary of the
contents of the study unit), and the learning outcomes that you are expected to have
achieved after you have worked through the study unit. In order to guide you through
your studies, this study guide also doubles as a workbook. This is why it contains two
types of teaching-learning ``tools'', namely activities and self-evaluation and portfolio
tasks.
The purpose of the activities is to guide your study-reading through a specified section
in the prescribed book. Different types of activities have been included. Activities vary
vi
from matching certain problems to solutions, to distinguishing between true-false
statements. In other words, activities deliberately guide your study-reading of the
prescribed study material.
The self-evaluation and portfolio tasks specifically focus on the learning outcomes. By
doing these tasks you can therefore find out to what extent you have achieved your
own learning outcomes for each study unit.
To guide you through your studies and to help you master the prescribed study
material, it is essential that you become actively involved in the learning process.
Towards this end we suggest that you open a file in which you keep a record of your
responses to the activities and to the self-evaluation and portfolio tasks. As you
progress, you will find that this file is a very useful reference source, because you will
be producing a record of answers and experiences that are relevant to your academic
development. Such a file becomes your personal portfolio which contains evidence of
your knowledge, competence, orientations and performance.
Let us illustrate the above suggestion (of keeping a record of your activities and tasks in
a file) with a few practical examples.
& In an activity in study unit 3 you will be asked to identify problems that are caused
by the wording of questions and/or statements used in a survey or interviews. In
an activity in study unit 4 you are given the opportunity to evaluate an actual
questionnaire and to evaluate the scales used. By the time you reach study unit 4,
therefore, you will find the notes that you made for study unit 3 a very useful
learning aid.
& Study unit 5 (Research of advertising, mass-media audiences and mass-media
efficiency) contains several activities, as well as self-evaluation and portfolio tasks.
These self-evaluation and portfolio tasks focus on the formulation of questions
used in data-collection. For example, you will be asked to match a question to
test for a change from unawareness to awareness of a new brand, by using an
unaided-recall technique. If Ð by the time you reach study unit 5 Ð you have
forgotten that an unaided-recall technique is an example of an open ended
question, then the notes that you made while working through study unit 2 will
be helpful.
& One of the self-evaluation tasks set in study unit 6 will require you to compile a
questionnaire as part of a communication audit of an organisation. This means
that you either have to remember or revise what you have learnt and work
through notes you made for study units 2, 3, 4 and 5.
Each activity, and each self-evaluation and portfolio task, is followed by our comments.
You are an independent learner, so please do not worry if our comments sometimes
differ from your responses. We welcome such differences, because they indicate that
variables such as your research objective, the people and media you researched, and
the setting in which you conducted your research, can influence the way you collect
and interpret research data. Having said that, there will be times when our comments
are, in fact, the right answers. In these cases, we will tell you to re-read the prescribed
book if you have given the wrong responses.
COM306-D/1 vii
The end of each unit (in the prescribed book) contains a guide that you can use to
assess whether you have achieved your own learning outcomes. You are encouraged
to evaluate your own performance on an on-going basis. You are also encouraged to
add your own additional criteria which may be unique to your research task. These
criteria should also be recorded in your portfolio file to document and to keep track of
your own learning experiences.
STUDY PACKAGE
Your study package consists of the following:
& A prescribed book that you have to buy, entitled:
Du Plooy, GM. 2001. Communication research: techniques, methods and
applications. Kenwyn: Juta.
& This study guide: COM306±D
& Tutorial letter 101.
& At least one additional tutorial letter which you will receive during the course of the
semester.
We suggest that you begin your studies by reading Tutorial Letter 101 for COM306±D.
This tutorial letter contains important information about your studies and the
examination. It also includes information about how to contact the University and the
lecturers in the Department of Communication.
``TALK TO US''
If you experience problems with a specific section of the module, please don't hesitate
to contact the lecturers who are responsible for this module. (Our names, telephone
numbers, e-mail addresses and other relevant information are included in Tutorial
Letter 101.)
We do hope you enjoy studying this module. We enjoyed writing it and we learned
a lot from doing the activities and the self-evaluation and portfolio tasks ourselves!
In conclusion, we would like to thank colleagues from the Bureau for University
Teaching, Unisa Press, the Editorial Department, Department of Production and the
many critical readers (colleagues and students) for their inputs, suggestions and
constructive contributions towards the content and presentation of this study guide.
viii
S T U D Y U N I T
1
QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITATIVE
APPROACHES TO
COMMUNICATION
RESEARCH
OVERVIEW
As a science, communication can only be valid if it is adapted to and tested with
reference to human behaviour. However, the way in which you research the area of
human behaviour that interests you will not only be influenced by the reasons for your
investigation. The way in which you look at reality will also influence how you do your
research. This first study unit introduces you to the different ways in which
communication can be researched explored, described, analysed and/or tested.
This study unit deals with the different methods ordinary people and scientists use to
understand communication questions and problems. In this study unit, we will discuss
the most important historical roots of communication research; we will also discuss the
different assumptions on which quantitative and qualitative approaches to
communication research are based. The main reason why you need to know these
assumptions is because they guide the procedures and processes that you will follow
when you conduct your own research. Also, these assumptions will guide your choice
of a research project.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this study unit, you should be able to demonstrate your understanding of
& the different ways of knowing
& the assumptions on which the quantitative and qualitative approaches to
communication research are based
& the implications of the above assumptions for selecting a research design
COM306-D/1 1
1.1 Introduction
You and a friend visit the annual show in your town. After you have both watched
various activities in the central arena, you decide to visit the sections that display flowers
and needlework and your friend decides to visit the display of the latest farming
equipment. If Ð at the end of the day Ð someone asks you to describe your
experiences of the show, it is likely that your description of the show will differ from
your friend's. Although both versions are ``correct'', they differ because you and your
friend's personal experiences and observations of the show differed.
This sort of thing also occurs in communication research. All research is conducted
from a particular viewpoint, and this viewpoint will influence the kind of questions
asked, the methods used and the nature of the research findings. Unit 1 in the
prescribed book deals with two approaches to communication research Ð
quantitative versus qualitative Ð and the assumptions on which these approaches are
based. Those of you who have studied the module: Research in the Social Sciences will
have already been introduced to these two approaches. However, in this study unit we
concentrate on the theories, assumptions and methods that apply specifically to
Communication and not the social sciences in general.
As we said in the Introduction to this study guide, the purpose of this study guide is to
help you understand the prescribed book. The study guide also enables you to
monitor and evaluate your personal progress.
The following mindmap summarises the main points that are dealt with in this study
unit.
2
Different ways of
knowing
Approaches to
communication research
A conceptual
model of
assumptions
! !
Ontological
!
" Qualitative
~
Quantitative 3
"
~
~ ~ ~
~
!
3
Theoretical
! !
Epistemological
!
!
Methodological
!
!
What about future
research?
COM306-D/1 3
1.2 Different ways of knowing (obtaining knowledge)
An elderly person believes that a good digestion is ensured by drinking a cup of hot
water every morning; a couple solve their marital problems by asking advice from a
priest; a journalist argues that to obtain information from the private sector is not
unconstitutional; and the management of a firm is reluctant to spend money on
advertising via the Internet, until research has been done in which the financial
advantages are measured and proven. These four descriptions are examples of
different ways of knowing. In the prescribed book these ways of knowing are also
called ``methods'', methods which we use to find answers to questions or to solve
problems.
The first activity below focuses on these different methods, and the descriptions of
their characteristics.
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ACTIVITY 1
Study-read Study-read the methods which we use to acquire knowledge Ð

sections 1.1 and these are listed numerically in the left-hand column. Link each of
1.2 in the these methods to one of the phrases that describe a characteristic of
prescribed book that method. These characteristics are listed alphabetically in the right-hand
column. Once you have made your choice, write the letter (a), (b), (c), (d), (e),
(f), (g), (h) or (i) in the middle column.
Fill in your
Methods we use to A characteristic or description of one
link or
acquire knowledge of the methods
choice
(1) the method of (a) The research process follows a
tenacity logical sequence of steps and
procedures.
(2) the method of (b) A researcher selects a particular
authority research method based on the
advice given by an expert in
research design.
(3) a priori method (c) The methods used to collect and
analyse data should be
published, together with the
findings and conclusions of the
research.
(4) a scientific method (d) In a new research study, the
which is empirical researcher has to take
cognisance of other researchers'
previous findings.
(5) a scientific method (e) A researcher formulates
which is cumulative hypotheses based on self-evident
assumptions.
(6) a scientific method (f) Communication research is
which is systematic guided by theory; and/or
consistencies in the data are
used to formulate a theory.
4
Fill in your
Methods we use to A characteristic or description of one
link or
acquire knowledge of the methods
choice
(7) a scientific method (g) A researcher approaches a
which is objective research problem, based his or
her belief of what was successful
in the past, irrespective of what
other researchers' views are.
(8) a scientific method (h) Communication behaviour is
which is predictive observed, measured and
classified.
(9) a scientific method (i) A researcher's assumptions are
which is public tested by comparing them with
factual evidence.
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are (1) The method of tenacity:
based on section This is a very unscientific way of obtaining knowledge or solving a re-
1.2 in the search problem, because it is simply based on what a researcher believes
prescribed book to be true (or false). Such beliefs are not necessarily valid. The appropriate
description of tenacity,
tenacity would therefore be the link (g): A researcher ap-
proaches a research problem, based his or her belief of what was suc-
cessful in the past, irrespective of what other researchers' views are.
(2) The method of authority:
People are authoritative in certain fields Ð for example, medicine, law,
farming, economics or religion. When using the method of authority to
find answers to questions, we are consulting a particular person because
he or she is acknowledged to be an authority in a certain field. The most
appropriate link is therefore (b): A researcher selects a particular research
method based on the advice given by an expert in research design.
(3) An a priori method:
Supposing you decide to compare urban dwellers' mass media use, in-
cluding Internet use, with those living in rural areas (bearing in mind that
some of these people do not have access to electricity). It is self-evident
that a higher percentage of urban dwellers use the Internet and media
such as direct satellite television. In making this assumption, we have
applied the a priori method. The appropriate link would therefore be op-
tion (e): A researcher formulates hypotheses based on self-evident as-
sumptions.
(4) A scientific method which is empirical:
An empirical perspective of the world sees the world as being similar to a
machine, and consisting of cause-and-effect relationships. A scientific
method which is empirical would obtain knowledge on the basis of
measurements and tests and not on the basis of past experiences or
theoretical arguments. The description which is the most appropriate
summary of the empirical perspective is option (h): Communication be-
haviour is observed, measured and classified.
(5) A scientific method which is cumulative:
If you were to undertake research that applies to development commu-
nication, you would need to take into account the different models of
COM306-D/1 5
development that have guided communication theory and development
during the past 40 years. Development has been regarded as a form of
modernisation because it constantly adopts new ideas; it has also been
regarded as liberating people from government control; as a way of
meeting basic human needs; and as a form of social marketing.
This brief overview illustrates that, when undertaking scientific research,
you should not ignore previous research findings. This cumulative nature
of scientific research is therefore best illustrated by option (d): In a new
research study, the researcher has to take cognisance of other researchers'
previous findings.
(6) A scientific method which is systematic:
When undertaking research, you would plan the procedures to be used by
formulating the goal and the objectives of your research. You would decide
on the population to be observed, or analysed and you would decide on the
most appropriate methods for collecting the data you need. None of these
aspects of research would be decided or selected haphazardly, because
each has an impact on the other. For example, the population selected for
analysis will influence the type of sample that will be drawn, and the type
of sample may influence the method, and so on. The statement that a
scientific method is systematic is therefore best linked to option (a): The
research process follows a logical sequence of steps and procedures.
(7) A scientific method which is objective:
Because communication is an interactive process, a researcher's be-
haviour or interpretations may influence the process of collecting and
interpreting research data. The objectivity of a scientific method therefore
requires that such subjectivism be avoided. You should take particular
note of the argument in the prescribed book that we should treat scientific
``truth'' as being `ìntersubjective'', rather than `òbjective''. The whole
issue of intersubjectivity is also one of the reasons why scientific research
findings should be made public.
One of the characteristics that illustrates the objective nature of a
scientific method is found in option (i): A researcher's assumptions are
tested by comparing them with factual evidence.
(8) A scientific method which is predictive:
The predictive nature of a scientific method can be explained by referring
to deductive and inductive ways of reasoning. When applying deductive
reasoning, you begin with a particular theory or argument that you as-
sume to be true and which, you predict, will be confirmed by your actual
observations or measurements. When applying inductive reasoning, you
begin with observations or measurements of particular instances and, on
the basis of these, you predict that the data will enable you to draw
generalised conclusions about the phenomenon you are researching. The
predictive nature of a scientific method is best illustrated by option (f):
Communication research is guided by theory; and/or consistencies in the
data are used to formulate a theory.
(9) A scientific method which is public:
Scientific research has a self-correcting quality because new ideas are
generated; these new ideas can be used to guide contemporary research of
older ways of behaving or believing. These new ideas are also used to
research changing circumstances. However, to encourage this self-cor-
6
recting quality, and to promote the cumulative and intersubjective nature
of science (discussed above), the research has to be made public.
public That is
why the most appropriate option is (c): The methods used to collect and
analyse data should be published, together with the findings and con-
clusions of the research.
The above discussion of the different ways of knowing demonstrate that a scientific
enquiry has specific characteristics that are not shared by the other ways of knowing.
Smith (1988:6) defines the scientific method of knowing as `à systematic investigation
of the relationships among and explanations for the empirical phenomena with which a
discipline is concerned''. This definition offers a bridge to the next section in the
prescribed book, because the procedure which you follow and the kind of
`èxplanations'' which you aim to find will depend on your assumptions as a
researcher.
1.3 A conceptual model of assumptions

You learnt in previous communication modules that, in the 1940s and 1950s,
communication was regarded to be a one-way process, with powerful
communicators Ð such as the mass media Ð on the one side and passive recipients
on the other. Contemporary views of communication regard communication as an
active form of choice-making behaviour which is influenced by cultural, social and
situational circumstances. These two opposing descriptions of communication illustrate
the ontological assumptions of communication. Please note that ontology refers to the
nature of something Ð in our case, communication.
In a previous module which you studied, entitled Research in the Social Sciences, you
were introduced to operationalisation. Operationalisation enables us to redefine
abstract concepts in theoretical statements so that we can observe or measure these
concepts in ``real life''. The procedure of operationalising abstract concepts is based on
an epistemological assumption that there is no meaningful distinction between
indicators (such as scales in a questionnaire) and the abstract concept being tested
(such as ``credibility of a speaker''). Please note that epistemology refers to how we
come to know something and involves assumptions about how we get to ``know'' the
world. In the case of research, scholars accept that there are certain appropriate ways
in which to conduct research.
The way in which you view the reality of communication (ontology) and the ways
which you regard as appropriate for investigating communication phenomena are
interlinked with the theoretical explanations which you regard as suitable. If you
support epistemological assumptions that regard the world as an objective reality which
functions like a machine, then your theoretical explanation of communication will be
based on cause-and-effect relationships. On the other hand, if you support
epistemological assumptions that regard the world as a socially constructed system of
ever-changing actions and meanings, then your theoretical explanation of
communication will focus on people's personal and social reasons (goals and
intentions) for communicating.
COM306-D/1 7
There is one, other, set of assumptions that guide your research: methodological
assumptions. It is the methodological assumptions that will determine your choice of a
research strategy or design for studying a communication phenomenon.
In the next activity you are asked to consider the meanings and implications which
these different assumptions have for you as a researcher.
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ACTIVITY 2
Study-read Study-read the following statements, which relate to the different

section 1.3 in the assumptions and, in the space provided, indicate whether the
prescribed book statement is ``true'' or ``false''. Then write down one reason for your
decision.
(1) The selection of a particular research method is based on the researcher's
ontological assumptions.
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
(2) ``Radio news fulfils certain agenda-setting functions. What are these
functions?'' This research question relates to a communication re-
searcher's methodological assumptions.
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
(3) Theoretical assumptions are either true or false.
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
(4) The basis of methodological assumptions is a generalisation which pro-
vides a particular explanation of communication as a human phenomenon.
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are (1) The selection of a particular research method is based on the researcher's
based on section ontological assumptions.
1.3 in the This statement might be true if the researcher's assumptions about the
prescribed book nature of human communication and the processes involved in commu-
nication prompts him or her to consider a particular research method.
However, the statement is false, because ontological assumptions, toge-
ther with epistemological and theoretical assumptions will determine
which method is selected.
selected
(2) ``Radio news fulfils certain agenda-setting functions. What are these
functions?'' This research question relates to a communication research-
er's methodological assumptions.
This statement is false, because the researcher's choice of a research
design is based on the methodological assumptions. Statement (2) relates
to ontological assumptions. In other words, the researcher has a particular
assumption about reality Ð in this case, about the functions fulfilled by
radio news.
8
(3) Theoretical assumptions are either true or false.
This statement is false, because any assumption consists of beliefs that are
yet unproven and are therefore neither true nor false.
(4) The basis of methodological assumptions is a generalisation which pro-
vides a particular explanation of communication as a human phenomenon.
This statement is false, because a generalisation which explains com-
munication provides a particular viewpoint of the phenomenon, and
therefore refers to theoretical assumptions, and not methodological as-
sumptions.
Now that you have thought about the meanings and implications of the various
assumptions, the next step involves considering how these assumptions differ,
depending on whether we are doing quantitative or qualitative communication
research.
1.4 Quantitative versus qualitative research approaches

Situations often occur when we ``see'' the world through lenses that are coloured by
our preconceptions, needs and expectations. By making a distinction between
``quantitative'' and ``qualitative'' approaches to research, we are doing exactly that Ð
looking at the world through different lenses. When you describe communication
events, and you explain those events and verify those explanations by using either
quantitative or qualitative research, you are basing your research procedure on certain
assumptions. If you use a quantitative approach, you are assuming that communication
phenomena can be counted and numerically measured. However, if you adopt a
qualitative approach, you will probably use narrative data. Examples of narrative data
include verbatim transcripts of conversations or public speeches and artefacts, such as
recordings of radio and television programmes or printed magazines and newspapers.
Numerical data and narrative data differ greatly Ð this is because of the sharp
distinction that exists between the assumptions underlying these two approaches. The
next activity gives you the opportunity to come to grips with these different
assumptions.
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ACTIVITY 3
Study-read Study-read the following statements/views/assumptions and decide

sections 1.4 and whether they belong to a quantitative or a qualitative approach to
1.5 in the communication research.
prescribed book
Quantitative Qualitative
approach approach
(1) Ethnomethodology and cultural studies are
examples of applications of this particular
approach to communication research. t t
(2) The mass media can fulfil positive,
educational and informative functions. t t
(3) Reality can be reconstructed from the
viewpoint of the subjects involved in the
communication process. t t
COM306-D/1 9
Quantitative Qualitative
approach approach
(4) Research in the 1940s and 1950s into the
mass media was undertaken on the basis
that a democratic society is liberal, free,
pluralistic and orderly. t t
(5) Mass-media messages should be analysed
within their ideological contexts. t t
(6) Historically, this approach was followed in
the effects tradition in media studies. t t
(7) Research into meanings shared in particular
sociocultural contexts requires in-depth
analyses. t t
(8) The goal of the research is to obtain valid
knowledge that can be verified by external
evidence. t t
(9) Surveys, experiments and the use of statistics
are usually the methods and techniques used. t t
(10) Inductive reasoning is used to interpret
patterns that occur when observing the
interactions in interpersonal communication. t t
(11) Thematic categories are developed to analyse
the content of messages. t t
(12) The effects of the mass media are researched
by means of methods previously used in the
natural sciences. t t
(13) This approach was initially based on the
information theory and the stimulus-response
theory. t t
(14) Methodological assumptions are traditionally
linked to a deductive form of reasoning. t t
(15) More than one source of knowledge can be
used to support epistemological assumptions. t t
(16) Reality is objective and value-free. t t
(17) In the 1930s the view of mass-media
audiences changed Ð mass media audiences
were no longer regarded as being composed
of isolated individuals, but of people with
small-group ties. t t
(18) The research process is guided by
formulating hypotheses. t t
(19) Communication interactions are described by
analysing the meanings people attach to
their experiences. t t
(20) A content analysis is undertaken of media
texts (eg television news programmes) that
have been selected as a representative
sample of the target population, and the
number of times that pro-governmental
items are broadcast are counted. t t
OUR COMMENTS
The following statements/views/assumptions describe a quantitative approach
to doing communication research: 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18 and 20.
10
Our comments are The following statements/views/assumptions describe a qualitative approach
based on sections to doing communication research: 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 15 and 19.
1.4 and 1.5 in the If your interpretations differ from the above comments, we suggest that you
prescribed book revise sections 1.4 and 1.5 in the prescribed book.
Despite these differences, you do need to realise that any research study may
involve a combination of approaches. For example, after conducting inter-
views, respondents' opinions and attitudes can be summarised in the form of
qualitative descriptions. And then, if the researcher needs to summarise
similarities and differences between responses, he or she can quantify these
similarities and differences as percentages.
In view of our above comments, it is important to note that, although there is a

difference between a quantitative and a qualitative approach to communication
research, we are not suggesting that a researcher has to choose between these two
approaches. The main point is that you should be aware that they are based on
different assumptions. In reality, you would find yourself using a combination of both
approaches, depending on the nature of the problem and the nature of the population
being investigated.
We discuss these points again in study units 5 and 6, when we deal with practical
examples of advertising and research into mass media audiences, as well as research
into organisational and development communication. For the moment, however, it is
worthwhile considering how these two approaches influence our views of changing
organisational cultures.
1.5 An application of quantitative and qualitative approaches

Read section 1.6 Since 1999, the South African parliament passed a number of laws that have a direct
in the prescribed impact on organisations' social responsibilities. These laws also have a direct impact on
book employment issues such as conditions of employment policies, promotion, transfer
and demotion policies, performance appraisal policies and training and development
policies. Also, other changes, such as an increased labour union power, individuals'
greater awareness of their rights and the use of the Internet, will inevitably continue to
influence the following:
& the way in which we communicate
& the kind of communication problems to be researched
Section 1.6 in the prescribed book discusses the changes occurring in organisational
cultures and makes propositions as to how the nature of organisations (ontology) and
the ways in which knowledge is acquired (epistemology) differ, depending on whether
we emphasise a quantitative or a qualitative approach.
You need not study-read this comparison (in the prescribed book), but you should at
least read the propositions and comparisons that are made because they demonstrate
that, by approaching a topic (eg organisational communication) from two approaches,
researchers ``paint'' two different ``pictures''.
This brings us to the last section of this study unit, namely asking the question: ``What
about future research?''
COM306-D/1 11
1.6 What about future research?
Study-read Changes are taking place in both the systemic nature of organisations, and in the
section 1.7 in the functions fulfilled by management in organisational settings. Developments in
prescribed book information technology and telecommunications will mean that, in future, researchers
will be doing their communication research in a social context characterised by change
(eg globalisation). These, and other changes, are briefly discussed in section 1.7 in the
prescribed book.
Despite these changes, however, and especially in South Africa, we are still faced with
development goals, such as the need to become self-reliant and the realisation of
human potential through equity, empowerment and an increase in human potential.
Social changes, goals and needs call for new ideas and approaches to the role of
communication in development. Longitudinal studies are also needed into the social
and cultural impact of communication.
1.7 Conclusion
This study unit started by discussing tenacity, authority, a priori and scientific
methodology as different ``ways of knowing''. We then explained the difference
between a qualitative and quantitative approach to communication research, based on
a conceptual model of:
& ontological assumptions
& epistemological assumptions
& theoretical assumptions
& methodological assumptions
After having applied some of these assumptions to research into changes in

organisational structures and functions, the study unit ended by arguing that future
research should consider a pluralistic approach, and that this approach should combine
qualitative and quantitative procedures.
In the next study unit, we consider the steps and procedures which are followed
when doing research in practice. However, before continuing with study unit 2, we
suggest that you do the following self-evaluation and portfolio tasks.
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SELF-EVALUATION AND PORTFOLIO TASKS
Task 1.1
Study-read A research study which is based on a quantitative approach will be based

sections 1.2±1.6 on ontological and theoretical assumptions; the research design of this
in the prescribed research study will differ from a study that is based on a qualitative
book approach.
Write brief notes to describe these differences by using the following
headings:
& The view of reality and human behaviour
& The goal or objective of the research
& The form of reasoning usually used
& The research design (the role of the researcher; how meaning is de-
termined, how data are collected and interpreted)
12
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are In unit 1 (in the prescribed book) you were introduced to a conceptual model
based on sections of the assumptions on which a particular research approach is based. This
1.2±1.6 in the self-evaluation and portfolio task gives you the opportunity to compare the
prescribed book assumptions on which quantitative and the qualitative approaches to com-
munication research are based.
We have used the headings suggested for this task to structure our comments.
The view of reality and human behaviour
The quantitative approach views reality (ontology) as being objective;
objective accor-
ding to this view, human behaviour is explained in terms of generalisations or
universally valid laws (that can be determined quantitatively). Units of ana-
lysis are variables that are treated as elements which form part of a whole
population Ð for example, individuals, organisations and artefacts (eg tele-
vision programmes).
The qualitative approach views reality (ontology) as being subjective;
subjective accor-
ding to this approach, human behaviour is explained in terms of interpreting
and understanding the meanings and intentions that underlie communication.
Units of analysis may also be individual elements, such as people, but they are
treated holistically.
holistically Examples are: the interpretation of relationships between
people; interactions between people; and the fact that people's communica-
tion behaviour is studied in a particular context.
The goal or objective of the research
The goal or objective of research based on the quantitative (positivist) ap-
proach is to measure, compare, predict and/or control hypotheses about a
particular communication-related issue (in quantitative terms).
The goal or objective of research based on the qualitative approach is to
understand (explore or describe) the meaning that subjects attach to a par-
ticular communication-related issue (in qualitative terms).
The form of reasoning usually used
The quantitative (positivist) approach mainly uses a deductive form of
reasoning. In other words, preconceived assumptions, theories, abstract
models and hypotheses are measured by collecting quantitative data.
The qualitative approach uses mainly an inductive form of reasoning. In other
words, patterns and tendencies in data lead to insights and (qualitative) un-
derstanding. Research questions (instead of hypotheses) are based on real-
world observations, dilemmas or problems Ð often dealing with complex
issues.
The research design (the role of the researcher; how meaning is determined,
how data are collected and interpreted)
In the case of a quantitative (positivist) approach, it is the researcher who
attributes meaning to the research study. The researcher regards his/her role
(epistemology) as being objective and separate from what is being researched.
The researcher can collect data `àt a distance'' and regard him-/herself as being
detached from what is researched. An example of this detachment is conducting
a survey by means of self-administered questionnaires. In other words, reality is
examined from the perspective of the researcher as an `òutsider''.
`òutsider''
Meaning is measured (in quantitative terms) by means of hypotheses (or re-
COM306-D/1 13
search questions) with which the researcher starts. Concepts are demarcated
(defined) in the form of distinct variables (eg dependent and independent va-
riables); and concepts are operationalised in items that are used in the measu-
rements (eg statements and questions in a questionnaire).
The research design (method, collection of data, and interpretation of data) is
applied using a standardised (fixed) procedure. Given this standardised pro-
cedure, the study can be replicated (repeated) by another researcher. Mea-
surements, observations and/or questioning are conducted in a systematic and
standardised way. From the measurements, data are presented in the form of
exact figures (including percentages and using statistical calculations). In-
terpretations and conclusions are then based on these figures.
When applying the qualitative approach,
approach the meaning of the research study is
derived from the subjects' (participants' or respondents') perspective. De-
pending on the research design being used in a particular (qualitative) study,
the researcher may have to acknowledge that his/her role is subjective,
subjective and
that he or she had personal interaction with the research subjects Ð this is
the epistemology of a qualitative approach to research. (Please note that
``subjectivity'' does not necessarily imply ``bias'' on the part of the researcher.)
Research is usually undertaken in subjects' normal context, which means that
the researcher is in close proximity, and interacts with, subjects. In other
words, reality is explored (and discovered) from the perspective of an `ìn-
sider'' (the subjects' accounts of experiences, perceptions, meanings, beliefs
or values).
Meaning is ``discovered'' as the researcher starts collecting data (eg by means
of observations). Concepts are demarcated (defined) in the form of themes and
categories.
categories Concepts are not `òperationalised'', but the initial demarcation of
themes and categories are refined during and at the end of the study using
different types of coding.
coding
The research design (method, collection of data, and interpretation of data) is
unique and, because it evolves as the research progresses, it is flexible.
flexible In the
absence of standardised or fixed steps to be followed, the study cannot be
replicated exactly. Observations and/or questioning are determined by the
setting (context). The types of observations and questioning that are used are
adapted to the nature of understanding (meaning) which the study aims to
reach. Data are presented in words.
words This may include transcripts of audio
recordings, summaries of transcripts and quotations from transcripts or from
printed documents.
Task 1.2
Your employer has asked you to research the effectiveness of the com-
munication within the organisation for which you work. Based on the
epistemological and methodological assumptions discussed in this study
unit, which approach would you use to conduct this research, and why?
OUR COMMENTS
Ontological assumptions will guide the type of research approach that you
choose, and the type of questions (hypotheses) that you use, because these
assumptions determine the way you regard reality and the nature of the
communication process. Epistemological and methodological assumptions will
14
guide the planning of the research process, the collection and interpretation of
data, and the evaluation of your findings.
A question which arises in task 1.2 is whether the effectiveness of commu-
nication in the organisation can be precisely measured and quantified. Certain
communication experiences can be quantified, such as the frequency with
which employees send and receive internal communication and the frequency
with which certain media (eg electronic mail) are used. If quantification is the
main goal of your research, then it is this sort of communication (ie number of
e-mails sent and received by employees) that you will emphasise in your
research.
However, if your goal is an in-depth understanding, involving explaining,
analysing and interpreting the communication experiences as experienced by
the employees themselves, then a qualitative approach would obviously be
more suitable.
If you revise table 1.1 in the prescribed book, and study-read section 1.7, it is
clear that the best option would be to use a combination of both approaches.
Before you continue with study unit 2, you are encouraged to evaluate the
achievement of your learning outcomes by applying the guide (for the assessment of
learning outcomes) given at the end of unit 1 in the prescribed book. We suggest you
do this at the end of each study unit.
COM306-D/1 15
S T U D Y U N I T
2
STEPS IN THE
RESEARCH PROCESS
OVERVIEW
This study unit discusses the specific steps and procedures followed in research.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this study unit, you should be able to demonstrate your knowledge and
understanding of
& the procedures involved in the identification and analysis of a communication
research problem
& how to analyse and evaluate the planning of your own research project
& the steps to be followed when undertaking communication research
2.1 Introduction
The process of doing research can be divided into a number of steps or stages.
Although the eight steps dealt with in this study unit are discussed in a particular order,
please note that, in practice, the researcher may well not follow this particular order.
There are many reasons for this, of which the following is just one example. Supposing
you are the researcher and you begin a research study with a specific theoretical model
in mind. However, whilst doing a literature survey, you discover that your assumptions
have already been tested and rejected by previous research. This discovery forces you
to re-think your theoretical reasoning, which will eventually also affect your research
design.
Since developing problem-solving skills is one of the critical learning outcomes of this
module, the activities included in this study unit are specifically linked to real-life
situations and research studies. You are therefore not only encouraged to do the
activities, but to keep a communication research project in mind that interests you as
you work through the different steps.
Figure 2.1 gives a graphic summary of the steps.
16
Step 1
Step 8 Identification
Writing the and analysis
research A of the
A
report problem
A
Step 7 Step 2
Analysing and Reviewing the
interpreting the B literature
data B
A
Research
B
A
process
B
Step 3
Step 6
Formulating
Pretesting the B hypotheses or
research design
research
and
questions
collecting Step 4
Selection
A
the
A
data Step 5 or
Writing a development
research of the
proposal
A research
design
FIGURE 2.1
Steps in the research process
2.2 Step 1: Identification and analysis of the problem

Figure 2.2 gives a graphic summary of the variables involved when you identify and
analyse a communication research problem or issue.
COM306-D/1 17
Sources of
L
" problems
Step 1
8
1 Identification
a
and analysis of "
a
the problem Goals

7 B 2
B
a
Research
a
process
B
"
B
3 Objectives
6
a
a
5 a 4
"
Main
research
problem
"
Subproblems
FIGURE 2.2
Identification and analysis of the problem
Communication researchers find themselves in diverse occupational sectors, such as

health; the mass media; education; tourism; the business world and so on. Each of
these occupations has certain norms and standards that define our codes of conduct
which Ð if breached Ð can create a communication problem that needs to be
researched. This is one of six possible sources of communication research problems
that are discussed in the prescribed book.
The following activity asks you to consider the other five sources of communication
problems and to match them with practical examples of research studies.
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ACTIVITY 1
Study-read Study-read the terms/phrases listed numerically in the left-hand

section 2.2 in the column and link each to one of the phrases that are listed
prescribed book alphabetically in the right-hand column.
Sources of
Fill in your Practical examples of research
communication
link studies
research problems
(1) personal interest (a) A content analysis to determine
which politicians are quoted in
the Sunday newspapers over a
six months period.
18
Sources of
Fill in your Practical examples of research
communication
link studies
research problems
(2) a need in my (b) A public relations audit of
community internal communication in a
particular organisation.
(3) the agenda-setting (c) How can the use of computers
theory improve our ability to
communicate as teachers?
(4) previous research (d) A replication that analysed the
gratifications sought and
obtained by Egoli soap-opera
viewers.
(5) communication (e) A survey to determine the
practitioners effectiveness of anti-crime
pamphlets distributed by the
local South African Police
Services.
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are (1) Our own personal interests can motivate us to select and research a
based on section particular research problem. Although we have linked this source to (c) Ð
2.2 in the How can the use of computers improve our ability to communicate as
prescribed book teachers? Ð you personally may have been interested in other issues; for
example, the local South African Police Services, the content of Sunday
newspapers, Egoli as a soap opera or the work done by a public relations
officer. In other words, you could have linked your personal interest as a
source of communication research to any of the other options.
(2) A community's need may vary from increasing the circulation of a com-
munity newspaper to improving literacy levels. Of the options given, we
linked this source to (e) Ð A survey to determine the effectiveness of anti-
crime pamphlets distributed by the local South African Police Services;
this is because a communication campaign that is aimed at combatting
local crime is a need in a community.
(3) We linked the agenda-setting theory to (a) A content analysis to determine
which politicians are quoted in the Sunday newspapers over a six months
period. To make this link, you had to think back to your Communication I
studies, where you learnt that the agenda-setting theory refers to one of
the functions fulfilled by the mass media. That is, not only to tell reci-
pients what to think, but, especially, what to think about. In our example,
the content analysis over six months will indicate which politicians' views
readers were ``told'' to think about.
(4) ``Replication'' means that an independent study is undertaken to verify the
findings of a previous research study. Therefore previous research as a
source of communication research should logically be linked to (d) Ð A
replication that analysed the gratifications sought and obtained by Egoli
soap-opera viewers.
If a previous public relations audit has been undertaken in a particular
organisation, such an audit can also be treated as ``previous research''.
However, in order to make the link to (b), the objective of ``replicating the
study'', should have been specified by us.
COM306-D/1 19
(5) A public relations officer is a communication practitioner who would be the
most likely person to identify the need to undertake an audit of internal
communication in an organisation. Therefore (5) should be linked to (b).
Having a clear idea about the source of a communication research problem, you need
to clarify the goals and objectives of your research study. As indicated in the prescribed
book, researchers use terms such as ``goals'', `àims'', ``purposes'' objectives'' and
`òutcomes'' interchangeably. For the sake of clarity, while we refer to both ``goals'' and
`òbjectives'', we distinguish between the two throughout this module.
In the next activity you are asked to think about different goals and objectives and to
match these goals and objectives to practical examples. It is important, in the research
process, to begin by clearly formulating your goal and objectives.
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ACTIVITY 2
Study-read Carefully consider the research goals and objectives listed

section 2.2.1 in numerically in the left-hand column and link each to at least two
the prescribed of the examples that are listed alphabetically in the right-hand column.
book
Communication Fill in your
research goals and two Practical examples
objectives examples
(1) basic goals (a) Part of a community develop-
ment study to find out whether
the citizens who are involved are
representative of all the
subgroups in the community.
(2) applied goals (b) An investigation to determine
whether our company's printed
advertisements should contain a
phrase that summarises the
company's equity employment
policy.
(3) exploratory (c) To determine the relation
objectives between subscribers' income and
the increase in circulation of
Sunday newspapers.
(4) descriptive (d) To develop a conceptual model of
objectives the communication process via
the Internet.
(5) explanatory (e) To determine why employers and
objectives employees in an organisation
have different attitudes to
affirmative action.
(f) To measure whether there is a
positive relationship between the
time when daily radio phone-in
programmes are broadcast and
listeners' ratings.
20
Practical examples (continued)
(g) An investigation of the under-
lying motives of people who buy
cars which appear in
advertisements containing
sexual symbolism.
(h) To find out why the govern-
ment's public relations
campaign to promote safety on
the roads has failed.
(i) To establish whether manage-
ment of an organisation
recognises the diversity of
individual employees' basic
values, aspirations, expectations
and fears.
(j) To develop a theoretical model
for the analysis of leadership
styles.
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are (1) The basic goals of communication research apply to those research studies
based on section which investigate and/or develop theories or conceptual models to explain
2.2.1 in the a communication phenomenon. Of the examples given, only two clearly
prescribed book deal with such a goal, namely:
& (d) to develop a conceptual model of the communication process via
the Internet
& (j) to develop a theoretical model for the analysis of leadership styles
(2) Unlike basic research, applied goals of communication research in-
vestigate practical issues, such as exploring solutions for problems, as-
sessing and describing communication needs, policies and practices and/
or evaluating the effectiveness of communication. Since all the examples,
except (d) and (j) are examples of applied research, you could therefore
have linked `àpplied goals'' to several examples.
(3) Research which is undertaken with exploratory objectives, is directed at
investigating and obtaining an understanding of an unknown area of re-
search. In other words, in this type of research, you are not sure of the
needs, stakeholders, situation, conditions, policies and/or behaviours
which may apply in a certain communication process. The following are
three examples of this sort of uncertainty:
& (a) Part of a community development study to find out whether the
citizens who are involved are representative of all the subgroups in
the community.
& (b) An investigation to determine whether our company's printed
advertisements should contain a phrase that summarises the
company's equity employment policy.
& (i) To establish whether management of an organisation recognises
the diversity of individual employees' basic values, aspirations,
expectations and fears.
COM306-D/1 21
(4) A research study that is based on descriptive objectives will include de-
scriptions of characteristics of certain communication phenomena (eg the
communicator, medium, recipient, process) and/or descriptions of the
relations between two or more variables. These descriptions are given in
narrative form, and are sometimes also based on statistical analyses. The
following are examples of descriptive objectives:
& (e) To determine why employers and employees in an organisation
have different attitudes to affirmative action.
& (g) An investigation of the underlying motives of people who buy cars
which appear in advertisements containing sexual symbolism.
& (h) To find out why the government's public relations campaign to
promote safety on the roads has failed.
Before you can describe ``what is'', you need to have a clearer idea of the
phenomenon being studied (unlike in the case of exploratory objectives).
In the above examples you either know for a fact, or you assume that:
& In an organisation, employers and employees have different attitudes
to affirmative action.
& People who buy cars which appear in advertisements containing sexual
symbolism have underlying motives for buying these cars, and these
motives differ from those of other buyers.
& The government's public relations campaign to promote safety on the
roads has failed.
However, assuming that you are unsure about the reasons behind these
phenomena, finding answers to the ``why?'' in each case will enable you to
describe ``what is'' more accurately and will result in the confirmation or
rejection of your assumptions.
(5) Explanatory objectives deal with a cause-and-effect relationship between
an independent variable (X) and a dependent variable (Y). Of the examples
listed, only the following two reflect such a relationship:
& (c) To determine the relation between subscribers' income and the
increase in circulation of Sunday newspapers.
& (f) To measure whether there is a positive relationship between the
time when daily radio phone-in programmes are broadcast and
listeners' ratings.
In the first example, the direction of the relationship between subscribers'
income (X) and the increase in circulation of Sunday newspapers (Y) is not
specified in the explanatory objective. The objective simply states that
there is a causal relationship between X and Y. In the second example,
however, the explanatory objective specified that there is a positive re-
lationship between the independent and dependent variables. In other
words, the objective states that the time of day (eg in the evening when
more people are home and able to use the telephone) will positively in-
fluence the ratings (eg phone-in programmes broadcast in the evening will
receive higher ratings than those broadcast during mornings or af-
ternoons).
Having identified the source(s) of your research, and having formulated the goals and
objectives of a particular study, you are now faced with the task of formulating the main
problem, the subproblems and the assumptions.
22
Let us start with the main problem.
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ACTIVITY 3
Study-read section Study-read the examples of communication research problems listed

2.2.2 in the numerically in the left-hand column and link each to a characteristic
prescribed book listed alphabetically in the right-hand column.
Examples of main Fill in your Characteristics contained in the

research problems links formulation of the main problem
(1) A comparative (a) It is written as an open-ended
analysis of rural and question.
urban voters'
evaluations of
political candidates'
different
communication
styles.
(2) A survey to (b) The method to be used is
determine voters' specified.
evaluations of
political candidates'
different styles of
communication.
(3) A study to (c) The action or intervention that is
determine whether part of the research is specified.
there is a positive
relationship
between politicians'
different styles of
communication and
voters' different
evaluations.
(4) How do political (d) Dependent and independent
candidates' variables are identified.
different styles of
communication
influence voters'
evaluations?
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are (1) A comparative analysis of rural and urban voters' evaluations of political
based on section candidates' different communication styles.
2.2.2 in the In this example the phrase `à comparative analysis ...'' is an indication of
prescribed book the action or intervention (c) which will be undertaken when researching
this main problem.
(2) A survey to determine voters' evaluations of political candidates' different
styles of communication.
`À survey'' specifies the method to be used (b) to investigate this main
problem. Other examples of methods include a historical research, a
content analysis, field research and experimental research.
COM306-D/1 23
(3) A study to determine whether there is a positive relationship between
politicians' different styles of communication and voters' different eva-
luations.
This problem-formulation identifies (d) the independent variables (politi-
cians' different styles of communication) and the dependent variables
(voters' different evaluations).
(4) How do political candidates' different styles of communication influence
voters' evaluations?
Unlike the above problem formulations, which are made as statements,
statements
this fourth formulation consists of (a) an open-ended question.
question It is often
easier to start with an open-ended question, because this type of question
can subsequently be reformulated as statements containing all the other
characteristics listed alphabetically above.
Each research problem should be broken down into subproblems, which should also
be linked to particular assumptions which you want to confirm or reject. Let us take
the following research problem as an example:
What are the audience ratings and programme appreciation level of a particular
television channel?
Subproblems must be logically linked to underlying assumptions. In Activity 4 you are

asked to consider the possible subproblems that relate to the above main problem,
and the assumptions that guide how the researcher formulates these subproblems.
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ACTIVITY 4
Study-read Study-read the subproblems that are formulated numerically in the

section 2.2.2 in left-hand column and link each to an assumption (in the right-hand
the prescribed column) that contains a principle or point of view that ``matches'' the
book subproblems.
Fill in your
Subproblem(s) Assumption(s)
links
(1) Is the size of the (a) There is a relation between
audience (ratings) viewers' evaluations of
an indicator of the television's entertainment value
entertainment and viewers' demographic
value of a particular characteristics.
television
programme?
24
Fill in your
Subproblem(s) Assumption(s)
links
(2) Can a self- (b) Television programmes that are
administered broadcast during prime time will
questionnaire be receive higher ratings than
used to measure the programmes broadcast in the
entertainment morning.
value of television
programmes?
(3) Will regular and (c) Audience ratings, or the number
nonregular viewers of people who watch a particular
give significantly programme on a specific
different ratings of channel, is an indication of the
the entertainment entertainment value of that
value of a specific television programme.
television
programme?
(4) Do viewers from (d) Viewers who watch a particular
different age groups television programme regularly
have different will allocate a higher
appreciation index appreciation index to such a
levels for the same programme.
television
programme?
(5) Is there a positive (e) The constructs that are
relationship operationalised as items to
between television measure television programme
programmes' entertainment value will
ratings and the time correlate with the appreciation
when they are index provided by viewers.
broadcast?
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are Now that we have considered the following main research problem:
based on section What are the audience ratings and programme appreciation level of a
2.2.2 in the particular television channel?
prescribed book.
we have formulated five subproblems; each based on a particular assumption.
(1) Subproblem: Is the size of the audience (ratings) an indicator of the en-
tertainment value of a particular television programme? The key concepts
in this subproblem are ``size of the audience'' and `èntertainment value''.
The question arises whether the first can function as an indicator of the
second. The assumption on which we base this subproblem is therefore
(c): Assumption: Audience ratings, or the number of people who watch a
particular programme on a specific channel, is an indication of the en-
tertainment value of that television programme.
(2) Can a self-administered questionnaire be used to measure the enter-
tainment value of television programmes? A subproblem that focuses on
whether or not a measuring instrument can be used to measure a parti-
cular communication phenomenon is characteristic of exploratory re-
search. Such a subproblem should ideally be resolved during a pretest
COM306-D/1 25
before the main study, because it will be a waste of both time and money
to use a measuring instrument in a large-scale survey only to find that the
instrument is neither reliable nor valid.
Nevertheless, this subproblem is based on assumption (e): The constructs
that are operationalised as items to measure television programme en-
tertainment value will correlate with the appreciation index provided by
viewers.
(3) Will regular and nonregular viewers give significantly different ratings of
the entertainment value of a specific television programme? This sub-
problem will involve a comparison between regular viewers and nonre-
gular viewers, which suggests that we are working with a particular
viewpoint Ð namely, that these two groups of viewers rate the enter-
tainment value of a television programme differently. The most relevant
assumption is therefore (d): Viewers who watch a particular television
programme regularly will allocate a higher appreciation index to such a
programme.
(4) Do viewers from different age groups have different appreciation index
levels for the same television programme? The key concept in this sub-
problem is ``different age groups''. Age, like gender, educational level,
language preferences and living areas, is an example of a demographic
characteristic (in our case, of viewers). The subproblem is therefore based
on assumption (a): There is a relation between viewers' evaluations of
television's entertainment value and viewers' demographic characteris-
tics.
(5) Is there a positive relationship between television programmes' ratings
and the time when they are broadcast? ``Time when they are broadcast'' is
the independent variable (X), whilst ``programmes' rating'' is the de-
pendent variable (Y). Since the subproblem specifies a positive rela-
tionship between these variables, such a relationship should also be
contained in the assumption; assumption (b) is therefore the correct
choice here: Television programmes that are broadcast during prime time
will receive higher ratings than programmes broadcast in the morning.
The five subproblems in Activity 4 illustrate that subproblems should not only be based
on specific assumptions. In addition, subproblems
& Can be based on population parameters when the research involves people Ð
population parameters include, for example, the size of the audience, regular and
nonregular viewers, and age.
& Can be formulated as open-ended questions.
& Should be formulated so that they help the researcher to solve the main problem.
2.3 Step 2: Reviewing the literature

The next step in the research process involves collecting existing information about a
particular research problem or research question. The process of reviewing the
literature involves at least five stages; these five stages are graphically summarised in
figure 2.3.
26
Identify what has
been published
in the topic area
"
Distinguish
" primary, secondary
a 1
8 and tertiary
sources
L
Step 2
a
Reviewing the
2
B
7 literature
B
A
Research
a
process
B
"
B
3
6 Do a critical
a review
a
5 a 4
"
!
Write
Record summaries and
bibliographic do comparisons
information
FIGURE 2.3
Reviewing the literature
When starting a literature review, the researcher needs to keep the main problem,
subproblems, assumptions, goals and objectives in mind. It is also advisable to keep the
following two general questions in mind:
& What am I looking for whilst doing a literature review?
& How will I use the information which I obtained from the literature review?
By answering these questions, you will be specifying the concepts and variables related
to your research study, and these will function as guidelines to help you distinguish
between relevant and irrelevant information. Your search could start with a conceptual
definition of the problem area and, as you continue working, you can exclude, filter and
redefine the concepts from different perspectives. Although it is very tempting to
ignore information which contradicts your preconceived ideas, you should always keep
an open mind and be prepared to thoroughly study those sources which deal with the
specified problem from different viewpoints.
The following are examples of valuable sources:

& The most recent publications, because they contain summaries and criticisms of
earlier works.
& A few standard books, to identify the theorists, authors and researchers whose
names are repeatedly linked to research in a particular field.
COM306-D/1 27
& Computer searches, including the Internet, because this saves time and gives the
researcher access to international sources.
& Manual searches of card catalogues, indexes and abstracts, because these provide
the researcher with access to sources which may not be available via the computer.
& Letters, diaries and eyewitness accounts, because these are primary sources and
therefore do not contain errors that may be included in secondary and tertiary
sources.
The distinction made between primary and secondary (and even tertiary) sources
and/or data is particularly important, because secondary and tertiary sources and/or
data can contain errors. For example, an author publishes a paper which examines the
manipulation of perpetrator and victim roles assigned to the South African Truth and
Reconciliation Commission (TRC). This is an example of a secondary source and, as
such, this source may contain errors based on the author's subjective judgments.
However, the documentation containing verbatim quotations from victims and
perpetrators, as part of the TRC's report, could be regarded as primary data.
A literature survey means that you have to do a systematic and thorough survey of
existing publications and determine their strengths and weaknesses. A literature review
therefore involves deliberately asking and answering certain questions.
The following activity asks you to think about certain questions.
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ACTIVITY 5
Study-read When you do the literature review, what will you be looking for?
sections 2.3.1 and Study-read the questions that are numerically listed in the left-hand
2.3.2 in the margin and link each question to the most appropriate answer (listed
prescribed book alphabetically in the in the middle column).
By asking these
questions whilst Fill in your
You will be searching to find out ...
critically reading the link
literature ...
(1) Can I use labelling? (a) how the meanings of the key
concepts are defined?
(2) What intellectual (b) if there are any issues, such as
and research the results generated or the way
traditions are findings are applied, on which
represented? you can improve or elaborate in
your own study?
(3) What are the (c) whether the author uses a
assumptions? repetitive style of writing; and
whether to make marginal notes
of specific sections that are
relevant to your study?
(4) What is the (d) whether you have a complete
research design? record of bibliographic details?
28
By asking these
questions whilst Fill in your
You will be searching to find out ...
critically reading the link
literature ...
(5) What are the (e) which methods are used to
theoretical collect the data and to analyse
definitions? the data?
(6) What are the (f) how constructs were directly
operational observed or, alternatively,
definitions? indirectly measured?
(7) What are the (g) if your viewpoints are supported
shortcomings? or contradicted and/or to cross-
check the findings?
(8) Are the data (h) which perspective or approach to
authentic? communication is followed?
(9) Where will I find (i) if primary, secondary or tertiary
this source in sources of data were used and
future? whether the sources were
credible?
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are You will use certain key terms when you ask these questions as you critically
based on sections read the literature. These key terms are discussed and illustrated in section
1.2; 2.3.1 and 2.4 in the prescribed book: ``research design''; ``theoretical definitions''; and
2.3.2 in the `òperational definitions''. However, they are introduced in this activity be-
prescribed book cause you have already passed a module called Research in the Social
Sciences, and you should therefore be reasonably familiar with the meanings
of the terms. Nevertheless, if you feel unsure about the meaning of these
terms, you will have the opportunity to study their use in communication
research in section 2.4 below.
(1) Can I use labelling?
labelling
Labelling segments of a text enables you to become actively involved with
the content and structure of what you are reading which, in turn, will help
you to become a more critical reader. Examples of labels which are useful
when reading texts that report on communication research include the
following: ``main problem''; ``subproblems''; `àssumptions''; ``theoretical
definitions''; `òperational definitions''; ``hypotheses''; ``measuring in-
strument''; ``findings'' and limitations''.
When asking the question: can I use labelling? you will therefore be
searching to find out (c) whether the author uses a repetitive style of
writing; and whether to make marginal notes of specific sections that are
relevant to your study.
(2) What intellectual and research traditions are represented?
One of the basic characteristics or requirements of applying a scientific
method (discussed in unit 1 in the prescribed book) is that science is
cumulative. In other words, you do a literature review to benefit from and
build on past research. By asking above question, you will therefore be
searching to find out (h) which perspective or approach to communication
is followed.
COM306-D/1 29
(3) What are the assumptions?
assumptions
Another basic requirement of applying a scientific method (also discussed
in unit 1 in the prescribed book) is that science is objective. Before you
undertake a particular research study to obtain external evidence in
support of your own beliefs, assumptions or theories you should make a
point of deliberately trying to find out (g), that is, if your viewpoints are
supported or contradicted (by previous research). In addition, questioning
the assumptions on which published research is based, serves as a cross-
check on how the findings Ð as reported by the author Ð relate to the
stated assumptions.
Throughout the entire process of reviewing the literature and other
sources of information, you have to continuously question whether the
information you are reading is relevant and applicable. Does it relate to
the problem area, the goal, the objectives, and the assumptions on which
your research design is based?
(4) What is the research design?
design
The predictive characteristic of the scientific method requires that the
researcher measures the communication phenomenon, behaviour or event
to determine what actually happens in reality. By asking the above
question you will be searching to find out (e), that is, which methods are
used to collect the data and to analyse the data. At the same time, you will
be establishing whether these data-collection and data-analysis methods
are relevant to your intended study; and/or whether you can replicate a
previous study.
(5) What are the theoretical definitions?
Theoretical definitions explain the connotative meanings which a re-
searcher ascribed to certain constructs, so that other researchers can
subsequently understand, criticise and replicate the observations or
measures. Connotative meanings are in addition to a literal or denotative
meaning given to an abstract construct. It is therefore more difficult to
obtain agreement on a theoretical definition of an abstract construct such
as ``stress'' than it is to define the theoretical meaning of ``height''. By
questioning theoretical definitions, you will therefore be searching to find
out (a) how the meanings of the key concepts are defined.
(6) What are the operational definitions?
Operational definitions provide a link between theoretical definitions and
the thing that the researcher wants to observe or measure. By reformu-
lating the theoretical definitions as operational definitions, the researcher
is, in effect, creating more concrete items that can be incorporated into a
measuring instrument (eg a questionnaire). By asking the above question
you will be searching to find out (f), that is, how constructs were directly
observed or, alternatively, indirectly measured. At the same time, you will
be establishing whether these operational definitions are of relevance or
value to your intended study; and/or whether you can replicate them.
(7) What are the shortcomings?

shortcomings
In both basic and applied research, the methods used to perceive, ex-
perience, observe and/or predict the real world have to follow a systematic
and logical order. Researchers are therefore likely to try to find order,
consistencies and patterns among the data collected. Since the scientific
method is also objective and public (discussed in unit 1 in the prescribed
30
book), the procedures, methods, findings and shortcomings ought to be
objectively reported. By asking the above question, you will therefore be
searching to find out (b), that is, if there are any issues, such as the results
generated or the way the findings are applied, on which you can improve
or elaborate in your own study.
(8) Are the data authentic?

authentic
The authenticity of data refers to whether or not the data are genuine,
true and factual. For example, a verbatim eyewitness account of an
event Ð primary data Ð will be more authentic than a newspaper report
about the event, which could well contain bias or distortion. You can
therefore argue that data collected using self-reporting procedures
(whereby participants verbalise their opinions from their point of view)
will be more authentic than data based only on the researcher's ob-
servations. Authenticity can usually be evaluated by questioning whether
the research design is reliable and valid, whether there are any signs of
bias and whether the published work was scrutinised by peers, editors or
examiners.
Since secondary sources (eg literary reviews) tend to be more readily
available, it is very tempting to rely on such sources, but every effort
should be made to access and use primary sources. In communication
science, it is primary sources that give the details of the measuring in-
struments used, as well as details of the procedures the researcher fol-
lowed to collect and analyse data (including the use of statistical tests).
When questioning whether the data are authentic, you will be searching to
find out (i), that is, if primary, secondary or tertiary sources of data were
used and whether the sources were credible. Answering this question
(`Àre the data authentic?'') is also crucial when you critically evaluate the
actual content of the literature.
(9) Where will I find this source in future?

To organise and synthesise the information they have collected,
researchers usually develop a personal filing system. The methods used to
sort and combine information include cards or coding sheets, filing
photocopied articles and/or entering the information into a computer. By
asking the above question, you will be searching to find out (d), that is,
whether you have a complete record of bibliographic details.
You need to keep an accurate record of all relevant bibliographical details.
In the case of books, these details include the author's name(s), date of
publication, title of publication, publisher's name, the place where
published, access number or source. In the case of an article that appears
in a journal, these details include the author's name(s), date of
publication, title of article, name of journal, volume number, issue
number, page numbers and access source. In the case of information
drawn from the Internet, these details include the author(s) name(s), and
initials, year, title, http (on-line address) and the date on which the
information was accessed. This last date is important, because on-line
information is notorious for disappearing and no longer being accessible.
Because one of the main purposes of the literature review is to classify or categorise
information, you could also keep the following record:
COM306-D/1 31
& whether or not the source is published (because the titles of unpublished works are
not italicised in the list of sources consulted)
& type of work (eg Master's dissertation)
& purpose of the study (exploratory, descriptive, explanatory)
& theoretical or conceptual approach used
& method applied (eg qualitative content analysis)
& how the data were collected (in the reported study)
& sampling procedure used
& if applicable: the type of dependent and independent variables and how they were
assessed
& if applicable: statical tests used
& any other information that is relevant to your particular study (eg findings,
conclusions, shortcomings)
Once you have made brief notes about these details, you are in a better position to file
the information in themes or categories that apply to your research. For example, if an
article contains a measuring instrument that meets the criteria for reliability and validity,
and which measures a problem which is similar to the one you want to investigate, you
could file this information under ``measuring instruments'', or ``methodology'' or ``data
collection'' Ð depending on the headings which you use to outline your research plan.
In other words, filing the information you find into certain categories will enable you to
work systematically and deliberately.
Once you have recorded and organised the information systematically (eg according to
themes derived from the key concepts) you will need to critically evaluate and
synthesise this information. This critical evaluation and synthesis is both an
interpretative and a creative process which will continue during the remaining steps of
the research process.
2.4 Step 3: Formulating hypotheses or research questions

The following diagrammatic summary gives an overview of the steps that you should
have undertaken before you continue with the next step, namely, to formulate either
hypotheses or research questions.
32
Step 1
Identification and analysis

of the problem
Sources of problems
Goals Basic
Applied
Objectives Exploratory
Descriptive
Explanatory
Main research
problem Open-ended
question
Method
Action
Variables
Subproblems Relevant factors
Assumptions
Open-ended
questions
Linked to main
problem
Step 2
Reviewing the literature
Identify what has been published in the topic

area
Distinguish primary, secondary, tertiary

sources
Do a critical review
Write summaries and do comparisons
Record bibliographic information
COM306-D/1 33
The choice between formulating a hypothesis (-es) versus a research question(s) depends
on a number of issues; whatever choice you make will directly influence how you collect
and analyse your data. These issues are graphically summarised in figure 2.4.
Step 3 " Elements
a 1 Formulating
8
hypotheses or
"
a
research
a
Variables
B 2 questions
7
B
L
Research a
a
process
B
"
3
B
6 Research
a questions
A
5 a 4
!
Criteria
"
Hypotheses
"
!
Types
Relationships
FIGURE 2.4
Formulating hypotheses or research questions
``Connecting'' the formulation of a research problem and the actual collection of data
involves two process. These processes, in turn, involve formulating theoretical
definitions (conceptualisation) and operational definitions (operationalisation). The
theoretical definitions of abstract concepts such as ``power'', ``values'', ``culture'',
``democracy'' or ``group cohesion'' are based on denotative and cognitive definitions
that may well differ, depending on the theoretical perspective you follow. For example,
if you adopt an ethical perspective to film analysis, your focus will be on the theoretical
definitions of concepts such as ``stereotypes'', ``sexual explicitness'' and ``violence''. On
the other hand, if you adopt a cultural perspective to film analysis, you will concentrate
on defining theoretical concepts such as ``myths'', `'archetypes'' and ``popular culture''.
These abstract concepts, which are defined within a particular conceptual framework,
are usually called ``constructs''.
Operationalisation means that you have to reconsider the theoretical definitions and
formulate criteria or items that will enable you to observe or measure the abstract
construct. Let us assume that the construct ``family '' is theoretically defined as follows:
A family is a husband, wife and one or more children who have defined roles,
34
recognised responsibilities, who have a temporal regularity and who share living
space.
The above definition includes several characteristics, each of which you would have to
consider and reformulate into definitions or items that you could then use in your
research observations or measurements. If your research was quantitative research,
you would probably use the most common measurement technique of indirect
measurement. Examples of this type of measurement are the construction of scales,
such as ranking or Likert scales, or semantic differential scales. (These scales are
discussed in unit 3 in the prescribed book and in study unit 3 in this study guide.)
By taking ``temporal regularity '' as an example, we could reformulate it as `à group of

people who share daily activities''. Once it has been formulated as items on a
questionnaire, this last operational definition (ie `à group of people who share daily
activities'') can be measured by making the following Likert scaled statements.
Respondents are asked whether they agree or disagree with each of these statements:
(1) When we eat meals at home, we do so at the same time every day.
(2) We all share the washing and cleaning chores in our home.
(3) Our family timetable during weekdays is fairly regular.
(4) We start each day with a period of collective meditation.
(5) Whenever problems arise, we solve them as a family.
Once you have formulated operational definitions, you then have to consider the
different variables that apply to the object or subject being researched. Variables
include ``characteristics'' such as age, gender, educational levels, et cetera. Variables can
be classified or grouped as different types, depending on their characteristics and
relations to other variables. Theoretical and operational definitions, together with
clearly identified variables, are the so-called ``building blocks'' of any research design.
You therefore need to make sure that you thoroughly understand these definitions and
variables before you start thinking about the difference between formulating
hypotheses and formulating research questions.
The next activity asks you to differentiate between the different variables in terms of
how they can be described and in relation to practical examples.
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ACTIVITY 6
Study-read Before you can formulate research questions or hypotheses, you

sections 2.4.1 and have to identify the different variables which you want to observe
2.4.2 in the or measure. Below is a numerical list of the types of variables
prescribed book encountered in research. Study-read the descriptions of these variables, and the
practical examples of research studies that follow below (given alphabetically).
Link each type of variable with at least one description and one example.
We encourage you to write down your own examples of each of the variables
as they apply to your selected research project, or as they apply to commu-
nication contexts that differ from our examples. This will help you practise
both your research and writing skills. We trust that, by now, you have opened
a research portfolio file for your personal notes, as we suggested in the in-
troduction to the study guide.
COM306-D/1 35
Types of variables Fill in at least Fill in at least
one appropriate one appropriate
description example
(1) dichotomous variables
(2) polytomic variables
(3) continuous variables
(4) independent variables
(5) dependent variables
(6) characteristic variables
(7) extraneous variables
Description of variables
(a) Variables that are manipulated so that their effects can be measured.
(b) Variables that intervene or interfere with a research study.
(c) Variables that assume a continuum of possible values.
(d) Variables that can assume only one of two values.
(e) Variables that represent an effect or response.
(f) Variables that can assume more than two values.
(g) Variables that denote people's attributes.
Examples of research studies

(a) The use of humour in advertising can be investigated by using the fol-
lowing content categories: pun, irony, joke, understatement, ludicrous and
satire.
(b) In marketing research, consumers are divided into categories such as age,
gender and income.
(c) The genre to which television programmes belong is used as an in-
dependent variable to determine viewers' entertainment ratings. How-
ever, genre becomes an unwanted variable if the time of broadcast is
being studied to determine its influence on viewers.
(d) In broadcasting research we measure viewers' perceived credibility of a
television announcer.
(e) The construct `ìnvolvement'', which includes concepts such as attention,
interest and arousal, is researched in small-group settings.
(f) An evaluation of two groups of children admitted to school Grade 1 Ð one
group of children has attended preschool, the other group of children has
not attended preschool.
(g) A television announcer is filmed three times to test how camera angle
influences viewers' perception of the announcer's credibility.
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are (1) Dichotomous variables can be categorised into one of two groups. For
based on sections example, a household either has a television set, or does not. A married
2.4.1 and 2.4.2 in couple either have children or do not. An employee either has personal
the prescribed access to the organisation's internal electronic mail, or does not. There are
book no grey `ìn-betweens''.
According to the above summary, the appropriate description option is (d):
Variables that can assume only one of two values; and the research
example is (f): An evaluation of two groups of children admitted to school
36
Grade 1 Ð one group of children has attended preschool; the other group
of children has not attended preschool. In other words, irrespective of
whether the Grade 1 children are being evaluated in terms of their verbal
communication abilities, or abilities to read and write, each subject (child)
would be grouped into one of two groups, either
& Grade 1 learners who have attended preschool.
or
& Grade 1 learners who have not attended preschool.
Since dichotomous variables are mutually exclusive, we would have to

operationally define the meaning of ``preschool'' simply because, other-
wise, it would be difficult to categorise a child to the correct group. A clear
definition is necessary, because we need to know whether only govern-
ment approved preschool facilities are regarded as ``preschools'' or
whether other forms of teaching and training provided by churches,
community centres, hospitals, and parents at home are also regarded as
``preschool''.
(2) Polytomic variables are described by (f): Variables that can assume more
than two values; and an appropriate example would be (a): The use of
humour in advertising can be investigated by using the following content
categories: pun, irony, joke, understatement, ludicrous and satire. Other
examples of variables that can assume more than two values, are:
& political parties, such as the Democratic Alliance, African Christian
Democratic Party, the African National Congress et cetera
& news sources, such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio, word
of mouth, et cetera
(3) Continuous variables are best described by (c): Variables that assume a
continuum of possible values; and illustrated by the example (e): The
construct `ìnvolvement'', which includes concepts such as attention, in-
terest and arousal. Because continuous variables can assume any value
within a specified range of values, the following are additional examples:
``communication anxiety''; `èconomical status''; `àggression'' and ``shy-
ness''. In other words they can vary from very little to a great deal.
``Communication anxiety'' is a continuous variable because it can follow a
continuously ordered progression that ranges from no anxiety, to a total
fear of speaking. The same applies to example (e) where `ìnvolvement''
can range from no involvement, degrees of involvement, to maximum or
total involvement.
Important note:
Before we comment on the remaining four variables it is important to note
that dichotomous, polytomic and continuous variables can also be linked
to the descriptions given in (a), (b), (e) and (g). This is because, in some
cases, they can be used to, or fulfil, the functions of independent, de-
pendent, characteristic and extraneous variables. Let us illustrate this
`òverlap'', by revising these three variables:
(1) Dichotomous variables assume only one of two values, such as male
versus female gender. These values are also examples of characteristic
variables.
(2) Polytomic variables can assume more than two values, such as dif-
COM306-D/1 37
ferent content categories of humour. These values can also be studied
as independent variables.
(3) Continuous variables assume a continuum of possible values, such as
degrees of involvement. These values can also be tested as dependent
variables.
In short, the above three variables can also, and at the same time, be
extraneous variables. However, this is true only if they intervene or in-
fluence the relation between the independent and dependent variables.
So, although we linked above three variables to examples (f), (a) and
(e) the following examples can also be linked to these three variables:
(1) dichotomous variables Ð example (b): dividing consumers into high-
and low-income groups
(2) polytomic variables Ð example (g): three camera angles of a televi-
sion announcer
(3) continuous variables Ð example (d): perceived credibility
(4) Independent variables. Independent variables are sometimes called `èx-

perimental'', ``causal'', ``stimulus'', `ìnput'' or ``treatment'' variables.
These variables are manipulated by the researcher to see if the manipu-
lation made a difference to whatever is being tested. The appropriate
description would be (a): Variables that are manipulated so that their
effects can be measured; and (g) is a good example,
example namely: A television
announcer is filmed three times to test how camera angle influences
viewers' perception of the announcer's credibility. The independent va-
riables in this example are the three different camera angles used to
record a television announcer. In other words, the researcher could have
manipulated the camera angles by taking a shot from above-eye level, on-
eye level and below-eye level to test how these different angles influence
viewers' perception of the television announcer's credibility.
As indicated in the `Ìmportant
Important note'' above, polytomic variables, such as
testing the effects of different categories of humour in advertising, ex-
ample (a), is another example of an independent variable.
(5) Dependent variables are described by option (e): Variables that represent
an effect or response; and are illustrated by example (d): To measure
viewers' perceived credibility of a television announcer in broadcasting
research.
If you linked dependent variables to example (g), this is perfectly accept-
able, providing you selected and emphasised the phrase: ``...influences
[on] viewers' perception of credibility''. As indicated in the `Ìmportant
note'' above, continuous variables, such as degrees of involvement in
reaction to particular stimuli, example (e), can also be tested as dependent
variables.
(6) Characteristic variables are described by (g): Variables that denote
people's attributes, and an appropriate example is (b): Consumers are divided
into categories such as age, gender and income. As indicated in the
`Ìmportant note'' above, dichotomous variables (eg male versus female)
are examples of characteristic variables. However, characteristic variables
need not be limited to dichotomous variables, but can include continuous
variables such as a continuum of educational levels. Characteristic
variables are also sometimes called `àttribute variables'' and `òrganismic
38
variables''. In essence, these variables include subjects' different demo-
graphic characteristics.
(7) Extraneous variables can be described by option (b): Variables that in-
tervene or interfere with a research study. However, you may not have
found it easy to select an appropriate example. As indicated in `Ìmportant
note'' above, the first three variables listed in this activity Ð di-
chotomous, polytomic and continuous Ð can, at the same time, function
as extraneous variables, that is if they intervene in, or influence, the
relation between the independent and dependent variables. If, therefore,
you have selected options (a), (e), (f) or even (b) as examples, this is
arguably acceptable. However, having compared the seven examples, you
should ideally have selection option (c): The genre to which television
programmes belong is used as an independent variable to determine
viewers' entertainment ratings. However, genre becomes an unwanted
variable if the time of broadcast is being studied to determine its influence
on viewers. The reason why option (c) is more appropriate is because
``genre as an unwanted variable'' is specified and it being `ùnwanted''
represents the essence of extraneous variables.
Study-read You have now identified the key concepts and formulated theoretical and operational
section 2.4.3 in definitions of these concepts as constructs. You have also identified the types of
the prescribed variables that apply to your research study. You are now faced with the decision
book whether you should formulate research questions or research hypotheses. There
are various reasons (listed in section 2.4.3 in the prescribed book) for formulating
research questions (rather than hypotheses). Examples are being unsure about the
extent or nature of the problem and whether your objective is to explore, rather than
to describe or explain.
Using the first five examples of research given in Activity 6 above, your research
questions could be formulated as follows:
& In a cell phone advertisement, how will the use of irony, rather than
understatement, influence the potential buyers of this cell phone?
& Which age groups should we target in marketing this new postgraduate programme
in tourism?
& Does the time-slot when this documentary is broadcast influence viewers' ratings?
& Does the television announcer's personal appearance influence viewers' perceived
credibility of this announcer?
In the next example, we shall evaluate the extent of people's involvement in small-
group communication by using the categories of nonverbal communication such as
eye-contact, facial expressions and gestures. In a research undertaking, these
observations would be recorded onto videotape from all four angles of the group and
analysed afterwards. After this, we would conduct in-depth interviews with selected
participants to determine whether our interpretation of nonverbal communication as
indicators of ``non-involvement'', ``neutrality '' and `èxtensive involvement'' correspond
with their experiences. See the following research question:
& Can nonverbal categories be used to measure the levels of people's involvement in
communication in a small-group setting?
The above examples illustrate the fact that research questions are usually asked when
COM306-D/1 39
you are unsure of the phenomenon being studied and, especially, if you simply want to
collect more information about something. This ``something'' may be an artefact (eg an
advertisement), subjects (eg future students) and/or measuring instruments (eg
categories to be used during observations).
In contrast, research hypotheses consist of statements that predict the specific effect of
something on dependent variables (experimental outcomes). These effects can be
tested statistically. Because hypotheses are more `èxact'' and because they have
important implications for the type of research design you will select, they need to
meet five specific criteria. These criteria are, briefly, as follows:
(1) The hypothesis must correspond with current knowledge about the topic. For
example, a hypothesis about the effects of the Internet on economic development
must take into account the latest theories about globalisation.
(2) Abstract constructs must be operational. For example, if we are formulating a
hypotheses about people's `ìnvolvement'' in a small-group setting, the meanings of
``non-involvement'' and `èxtensive involvement'' must be operationally defined in
quantifiable terms. If this is not possible, then we should formulate a research
question rather than a research hypothesis.
(3) Linked to this last criterion is the requirement that a hypothesis must be testable.
For example, to determine whether a change in radio programme scheduling led
to an increased number of listeners, the number of listeners has to be measured
before and after the schedule change.
(4) A hypothesis must be logically consistent. For example, a hypothesis suggests that:
If (A) the decision-making processes in an organisation is based on the principle of

inclusivity, then this implies
If (B) that management in the organisation consults with all stake-holders; and if
management in the organisation consults with all stake-holders; this means
If (C) that interpersonal conflict is reduced.
(Then)
If (A) the decision-making processes in an organisation, based on the principle of

inclusivity, should also mean
(C) that interpersonal conflict is reduced.
(5) A hypothesis must be stated as briefly and clearly as possible. You can improve the
clarity of such a hypothesis by specifying the independent and dependent variables
to be tested or measured.
As we have said, a hypothesis makes a prediction about variable(s). This implies that
such a prediction can deal with different relationships between variables. That is why
you can identify and consider different types of hypotheses when you are formulating
hypotheses for your research study. The next activity asks you to critically evaluate
examples of hypotheses and to differentiate between types of hypotheses at the same
time.
40
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Activity 7
Study-read Study-read the examples of hypotheses listed numerically below and

section 2.4.3 in link them to one or more of the type(s) of hypothesis(-es) that follow
the prescribed in the alphabetical list.
book
Type(s) of
Examples of hypotheses hypothesis(-es)
(fill in)
(1) H1: There is a relation between audience size
(ratings) and the entertainment value of a
particular television programme. ......................................
(2) H1: The appreciation index levels for the same
television programme differ significantly
between viewers of different age groups ......................................
(3) H1: There is a positive relationship between
the entertainment value of a television
programme and regular viewers (versus
nonregular viewers). ......................................
(4) H 0 : There is no relationship between
television programmes' ratings and the time
when these programmes are broadcast. ......................................
Link one or more of the type(s) of hypothesis(-es) listed below with the
examples given above.
(a) a null hypothesis
(b) a research hypothesis
(c) a relationship hypothesis
(d) a directional hypothesis
(e) a comparative hypothesis
(f) a nondirectional hypothesis
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are (1) H1: There is a relation between audience size (ratings) and the enter-
based on section tainment value of a particular television programme.
2.4.3 in the This is a relationship hypothesis (c) that predicts that a relationship will
prescribed book be found between the size of a television audience (eg a large size) and the
entertainment value or level of a television programme (eg very enter-
taining). We have added `à large size'' and ``very entertaining'', but you
should note that this positive relationship is not included in the formu-
lation of the hypothesis. That is why this is also an example of (f): a
nondirectional hypothesis. Lastly, as in the case of examples (2) and (3),
this is also a research hypothesis (b) which in all three examples are
.
signified by the H1
(2) H1: The appreciation index levels for the same television programme
differ significantly between viewers of different age groups. .
As in the case of example (1), this is also a nondirectional hypothesis
(f) and a research hypothesis (b). However, this differs from example
(1) in that it is also a comparative hypothesis (e). In other words, a
COM306-D/1 41
comparison will be done between two or more groups of viewers, grouped
according to their ages; and it is predicted that the amount of appreciation
for the same television programme will differ between or among the
different age groups. Because a relation between two variables (age and
appreciation index levels) is predicted, this example is also a relationship
hypothesis (c).
(3) H1: There is a positive relationship between the entertainment value of a
television programme and regular viewers (versus nonregular viewers).
As in the case of examples (1) and (2), this is also a research hypothesis
(b). However, this example differs from the others in that a positive re-
lationship is being predicted between regular viewers and (high) enter-
tainment value. This positive relationship implies that there is a negative
relationship between nonregular viewers and (high) entertainment value.
Because of this proposed positive relationship, this hypothesis is also a
directional hypothesis (d).
(4) H0: There is no relationship between television programmes' ratings and
the time when these programmes are broadcast.
This is a null hypothesis (a), which is an antithesis (opposite) of a research
hypothesis. A null hypothesis predicts that there is no relation between
the specified variables, in this case ``ratings'' and ``broadcast time''. The
research hypothesis could have read as follows:
H1: There is a positive relationship between television programmes' ra-
tings and the time when these programmes are broadcast.
You have now decided whether your research study will be guided by asking either
research questions or by stating hypotheses. This brings you to the next step, namely
the selection or development of a research design.
42
2.5 Step
Step 4: Selection or development of the research design
a 1
8
a
Characteristics
a
7
B 2 of quantitative
B
designs
a
Research
a
~
B
process
B
B
3
6 Characteristics
L
a " of qualitative
a
designs
Step 4
5 A
4 Selection or
! "
development
of the 'n Bedreiging
research
vir geldigheid Threats to
design
validity
FIGURE 2.5
Selection or development of the research design
You were introduced to the quantitative and qualitative approaches to communication

research in unit 1 in the prescribed book. By now, you will have realised that the
nature of the research problem, its goals, objectives, and variables, research questions
asked or hypotheses formulated, will direct your selection of mainly one or the other
approach. The selection of mainly a quantitative or mainly a qualitative design will have
implications for (or conversely can be guided by) the four factors listed in the graphic
summary below.
Type of
reasoning Goal/
3 " objectives
Characteristics of the
research design
"
!
Data-
Data-analysis
collection methods
methods
COM306-D/1 43
These factors are discussed in further detail in units 3 and 4 (in the prescribed book).
Nevertheless you need to understand the characteristics of these four factors before
making a final decision about your research design. The following activity asks you to
critically compare the two approaches with reference to the above four factors; and to
tentatively decide which approach (or combination of approaches) you would adopt in
your research study.
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Activity 8
Study-read Study-read the following statements about quantitative and

section 2.5 in the qualitative research designs and decide whether they are ``true'' or
prescribed book ``false''. In the space provided, or in your portfolio file, write down
the reason for your decision.
(1) Qualitative and quantitative designs are mutually exclusive.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
(2) A qualitative research design is suitable when we want to measure nu-
merical data.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
(3) Deductive reasoning means that we start a research study by making
observations of a communication phenomenon and then describe what
we observed.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
(4) If the goal of the study is basic research (not applied research), we would
use inductive reasoning.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
(5) The formulation of operational definitions is a characteristic of a quan-
titative research design.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
(6) Explanatory objectives are usually part of a qualitative research design.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
(7) Voters are asked whether they agree or disagree with a political party's
policy on the death penalty. This is the kind of question we would use to
collect data in a quantitative design.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
44
(8) Triangulation applies when we formulate three subproblems in order to
solve the main problem.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
(9) Categories have to be developed while the researcher is collecting the
data. This process applies to qualitative designs.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
(10) Quantitative researchers place greater emphasis than qualitative re-
searchers on the importance of understanding their subjects' perspec-
tives.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
(11) If 30% of the sampled listeners listen to a particular radio programme,
we can infer that approximately the same percentage of the population
listen to the programme. This deduction is appropriate to a quantitative
design.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
(12) In a qualitative research design, the researcher should always use the
national census figures to draw a representative sample of subjects.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are (1) Qualitative and quantitative designs are mutually exclusive.
exclusive
based on sections This statement is false, because we often use a combination of both
1.5 and 2.5 in the designs. For example, in a survey questionnaire, demographic
prescribed book characteristics can be quantified, whereas responses to open-ended
questions are qualitatively interpreted and described.
(2) A qualitative research design is suitable when we want to measure

numerical data.
This statement is false, because collecting and measuring numerical data

is a typical characteristic of a quantitative design. There may be cases
where a researcher uses focus-group interviews to obtain qualitative
descriptions of participants' opinions about a certain topic. However, the
researcher could interpret the responses and summarise the responses in
frequencies or percentages. These frequencies or percentages are ex-
amples of numerical data, but the responses themselves do not represent
numerical data. The responses are qualitative or descriptive data.
(3) Deductive reasoning means that we start a research study by making

observations of a communication phenomenon and then describe what
we observed.
COM306-D/1 45
This statement is false, because it applies to inductive reasoning (not
deductive reasoning).
(4) If the goal of the study is basic research (not applied research), we would
use inductive reasoning.
This statement is true because interpretations and summaries of data
can lead to the formulation of a theoretical or conceptual model. When
this occurs, we use inductive reasoning and the main goal of the basic
research is to develop theories.
(5) The formulation of operational definitions is a characteristic of a quan-
titative research design.
This statement is true, because operational definitions provide measur-
ing instruments that can be used to measure specific variables and re-
lationships in a quantitative (numerical) way. It is often impossible, in
qualitative research, to formulate operational definitions, because the
researcher first has to explore and establish the concepts, constructs and
variables that apply in a particular study.
(6) Explanatory objectives are usually part of a qualitative research design.
This statement is false, because explanatory objectives deal with cause-
and-effect relationships, which are appropriate in a quantitative design.
Such cause-and-effect relationships are also formulated in the form of
hypotheses, and such hypotheses are not characteristic of a qualitative
design.
(7) Voters are asked whether they agree or disagree with a political party's
policy on the death penalty. This is the kind of question we would use to
collect data in a quantitative design.
This statement is true, because the frequency of responses (the number
of voters who agree versus those who disagree) can be quantified.
(8) Triangulation applies when we formulate three subproblems in order to
solve the main problem.
This statement is false, because triangulation is not about the number of
subproblems identified. Triangulation is normally used when methods
and techniques that are mainly quantitative (eg counting variables) are
combined with methods and techniques that are mainly qualitative (eg
interpreting responses to open-ended questions). If we analyse the
meaning of the term in greater detail, triangulation refers to the com-
bination of two or more of the following:
& data-collection techniques/methods, and/or
& sources of information, and/or
& types of sampling, and/or
& theoretical perspectives, and/or
& investigators (eg interviewers)
(9) Categories have to be developed while the researcher is collecting the
data. This process applies to qualitative designs.
Irrespective of the data, this statement may be true if you did not begin
the research process with as many categories as possible. The analytical
categories that you develop (define) in order to eventually analyse the
data must not only relate to the research question, but must also be able
to make sense of the nature of the data. Categories can, therefore, be
developed while the researcher is collecting the data.
46
(10) Quantitative researchers place greater emphasis than qualitative re-
searchers on the importance of understanding their subjects' perspec-
tives.
This statement is false, because understanding the subjects' perspective

requires the use of a qualitative design and method (eg an in-depth
analysis of recorded conversations or conducting unstructured inter-
views).
(11) If 30% of the sampled listeners listen to a particular radio programme,

we can infer that approximately the same percentage of the population
listen to the programme. This deduction is appropriate to a quantitative
design.
This statement is true, because ``head counting'' or ratings are measured

in quantitative terms. However, whether such a specific inference can be
drawn will depend on the type and size of listener sample that was
drawn. The accuracy, level of confidence and representativeness of the
sample (discussed in the next study unit) will determine whether such a
specific inference can be made.
(12) In a qualitative research design, the researcher should always use the
national census figures to draw a representative sample of subjects.
This may be true, depending on the goal and objectives of the research.
However, generally speaking this is false, because qualitative designs are
less concerned about drawing a representative sample of a population,
than with understanding, interpreting and describing phenomena.
2.6 Step 5:
5: Writing
Writing a research proposal
a 1
8
a
a
7
B 2
B
Step 5
a
Research
a
process
B
Writing a
research proposal
B
3
6
L
a
4
5 a
FIGURE 2.6
Writing a research proposal
COM306-D/1 47
Study-read As indicated in the prescribed book (section 2.6) a research proposal should contain
sections 2.6±2.9 in answers to the following questions:
the prescribed
book (1) What is to be researched?
(2) What is the reason for the research study?
(3) What are the goal(s) and objectives(s)?
(4) What are the research questions or hypotheses?
(5) What are the ethical implications?
(6) How is the research going to be conducted?
(7) Who are involved?
(8) Where will the study take place?
(9) When will the research take place?
Some of these questions, especially the last four, can only be answered after the
researcher has considered issues such as drawing a sample of units of analysis, the
methods used to collect and analyse the data, and the specific research method to be
used (eg conducting a survey versus conducting an experiment). These issues and
decisions are discussed in the next two study units.
2.7 Remaining steps in the research process
Step 8
Writing the
Step 7 research report
Analysing and
L
interpreting the
data
Step 6
L 8
A
1
a
Pretesting the
7
A
research design B 2
and B
a
Research
collecting
B
A
process
B
the data
L 6 B
3
a
5 a 4
FIGURE 2.7
Remaining steps in the research process
48
We have included the remaining steps in the research process in this study unit to give
you an overview of the whole research process. Please note that they are dealt with in
greater detail in the study units that follow.
2.8 Conclusion
The ratings evaluations included in the prescribed book, in sections 2.2.2 and 2.4.4,
and the activities in this study unit should have helped you to achieve the first learning
outcome of this study unit, namely to formulate and evaluate your own
& research problem
& subproblems
& assumptions
& hypotheses and/or research questions
In other words, by now you should be in a position to formulate exactly what you
want to research, and you should be able to justify why you made certain decisions. In
so doing you will have achieved the second learning outcome (knowing how to analyse
and evaluate the planning of your own research project).
The study unit as a whole concentrated on achieving the third learning outcome, by
examining the different procedures and/or steps to be followed when you undertake
research.
In unit 2 of the prescribed book, we also gave you some guidelines about the kind of
questions that ought to be considered if ever you have to write a research proposal,
whether for postgraduate study purposes, or when applying for research grants or
bursaries.
In the next study unit we shall concentrate on the research ``tools'' used to collect
data. However, before you continue with study unit 3, we suggest that you do the
following self-evaluation and portfolio tasks. Since these tasks involve practical research
issues, you are encouraged to do them with one or more of your fellow-learners. This
sort of group work will give you the opportunity to discuss and critically evaluate and
justify your own decisions and formulations.
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Task 2.1
Study-read You have been granted funds to study a communication problem of your
section 2.2 in the own choice. What problem will you study?
prescribed book If you are unsure about what to study, describe three potential sources
that will give you some ideas about what communication problems you
could study.
COM306-D/1 49
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are The communication problem you choose to study would probably relate to an
based on section issue that involves you as an individual in the context of your family, work or
2.2 in the community. As we said in section 2.2, your own personal interest is one of six
prescribed book possible sources of communication research problems. If this did not help you
to select a communication problem to study, you could turn to any of the
following sources:
& a known discrepancy in a certain group's behaviour
& a community or social problem
& literature and communication theories
& recommendations and questions in previous research
& problems identified by a communication practitioner
Task 2.2
Study-read Consider each of the following studies and decide on (1) the units of
section 2.5 in the analysis; (2) the objective of the study; and (3) a cross-sectional and/or
prescribed book one of the three longitudinal designs.
(1) An investigation to determine whether women who were newly ap-
pointed in an organisation during the past six months are ex-
periencing communication problems in that specific organisation.
(2) A survey of television and radio news editors' views of the freedom (or
lack) of information measured annually between 2002 and 2007.
(3) An evaluation of employees' views in South Africa's top 10 private
companies on the effectiveness of their companies' affirmative action
programmes.
(4) An analysis of policy documents of the Department of Posts and
Telecommunications to determine what provisions are made for
employees' in-service training.
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are (1) An investigation to determine whether women who were newly appointed
based on section in an organisation during the past six months, are experiencing commu-
2.5 in the nication problems in that specific organisation.
prescribed book The units of analysis would be women as individuals, and specifically
those who were appointed during the past six months. All men, as well as
other women who have been appointed for periods longer than six
months, would be excluded from the study. The question ``whether?'' is an
indication that the researcher is unsure if these women are in fact ex-
periencing communication problems. The objective is therefore ex-
ploratory. The phrase `àre experiencing'' indicates that the researcher is
concerned with the present and is not concerned with changes that have
taken place over a period of time. A cross-sectional design would therefore
be appropriate as a time-dimension.
(2) A survey of television and radio news editors' views of the freedom (or
lack) of information measured annually between 2002 and 2007.
The units of analysis are television and radio news editors as individual
men and women. The formulation of the study does not ask ``whether''
information is freely available or inhibited. Instead, it assumes that there
are and have been instances where freedom of information is not pro-
50
blematic. But it also assumes there have been other instances where news
editors experienced barriers in obtaining information or disseminating
information. The objective of the research study is not, therefore, ex-
ploratory, but descriptive Ð a description of news editors' views. Since
the time period (2002 to 2007) is specified, this study will obviously
require a longitudinal design. Which one? Ideally, a panel study. We have
selected a panel study for the following reasons:
& In a trend study, the members of the population can and do change.
& In a cohort study, the population remains the same, but different
samples are drawn. In neither of above instances, therefore, will we
have any form of continuity of views from the same news editors.
& In a panel study, a sample is drawn at the beginning of the research
and the same sample is surveyed annually.
If we find that changes have taken place during the years and if we can
determine the causes of these changes, then the research objective is both
descriptive and explanatory.
(3) An evaluation of employees' views in South Africa's top 10 private com-
panies on the effectiveness of their companies' affirmative action pro-
grammes.
Two units of analysis are mentioned in this study. First, the ``top ten
private companies'' have to be identified, which means that organisations
are the units of analysis. Secondly, once these companies have been
identified, the employees, as individuals, become the units of analysis.
The formulation does not include the questions `ìf'' or ``whether''
affirmative action is effective Ð therefore an exploratory objective does
not apply here. Instead, the mere fact the study is undertaken suggests
that the researcher assumes (or has proof) that it should be questioned.
The objective is therefore descriptive. Lastly, since a long period of time is
not specified, a cross-sectional design would be appropriate here.
(4) An analysis of policy documents of the Department of Posts and Tele-
communications to determine what provisions are made for employees'
in-service training.
This example is not concerned with people as research subjects, but with
artefacts as research subjects Ð in this case, policy documents. When a
researcher is doing a content analysis of printed documents, the units of
analysis can be defined as a paragraph, a sentence, a phrase, a clause, or
even an individual word. The level of measurement will depend on ``what''
the researcher wants to analyse; once the researcher has identified this,
he or she will find it easier to select the appropriate units of analysis. In
our example we are concerned with ``provisions for in-service training''.
Once you have analysed what you understand by such provisions, it will
make more sense to, for example, select `àssertions'' as a unit of analysis,
irrespective of whether these assertions are expressed in one phrase, a
sentence or a whole paragraph.
By consulting South Africa's Skills Development Act (97 of 1998) you
could compile the following checklist of content categories; you could then
analyse the policy documents on a nominal level by simply marking each
category as being ``present'' or `àbsent'':
& to develop employees' work-related skills
COM306-D/1 51
& to encourage self-development
& to use the workplace as a learning environment
& to provide employees/work seekers with the opportunity to learn new
skills
& to enable employees/work seekers to participate in learnership and
other training programmes
& to develop employees' communication skills (eg computer literacy
skills, or collective bargaining skills)
These content categories are only examples and do not represent all the
in-service training provisions normally found in policy documents.
We shall return to this topic again in study unit 6, where in-service
training and mentorship in organisational communication are dealt with in
greater detail.
Task 2.3
Study-read Think of a communication research problem which you want to in-

sections 2.2, 2.4 vestigate and write a brief description (in one paragraph) in answer to
and 2.5 in the each of the following questions. Also explain, in each case, why you be-
prescribed book lieve your answer is relevant.
& What is the main research problem?
& What is the extent of the problem? (For example, is it prevalent in one
organisation, or in a section of the community, or does it entail doing
research in the wider community?)
& What are the subproblems and underlying assumptions?
& What is the goal and what is/are the objective(s)?
& What are the research questions or hypotheses?
& Which research design would be appropriate for investigating the main
research problem?
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are We use the questions listed in this task as headings for our comments.
based on sections
2.2, 2.4 and 2.5 in What is the main research problem?
the prescribed A postgraduate diploma course has been introduced to improve teachers'
book leadership abilities, especially those teachers who find themselves in mana-
gerial positions (eg principals). The research problem is that we are not sure of
the effectiveness of the course Ð that is, whether it meets teachers' needs
and whether it should be revised.
As indicated in section 2.2.2 (in the prescribed book) a research problem can
be formulated
& as an open-ended question
& as a statement, which includes reference to the proposed method to be
used
& by including the action or intervention which is to be taken to solve the
problem
& by mentioning the dependent and independent variables, if such variables
apply to the study
52
Let us now use these suggestions to formulate our selected problem. Please
note that, in view of the fact that independent and dependent variables are
not being tested in our example, they are not included in the problem for-
mulation.
As an open-ended question:
How effective is the leadership diploma course in meeting the needs of
teachers?
As a statement in which the action and proposed method are included:

A qualitative evaluation of the effectiveness of a leadership diploma
course: a cross-sectional survey.
The above statement contains the following information:

& the proposed method Ð a survey
& the proposed time-dimension Ð cross-sectional, which is an indication
that the survey is conducted at one point in time
& the action to be taken Ð an evaluation
& the main emphasis of the research design Ð qualitative
What is the extent of the problem? (For example, is it prevalent in one or-
ganisation, or in a section of the community, or does it entail doing research in
the wider community?)
Although the diploma course is presented by a particular educational in-
stitution (Unisa), the teachers (who consist of former and current students)
live throughout the country. The problem is therefore not limited to a parti-
cular geographic area or community, but to a particular group of students.
What are the subproblems and underlying assumptions?

Before we can divide the main research problem into subproblems or link
these subproblems to specific assumptions, we need to list the population
parameters that apply to the subjects who will be surveyed. As we indicated
above, these teachers live all over the country, which is why a survey is
selected as the data-collection method. They also share the following cha-
racteristics: they are all adults; and they are all employed in educational
settings. However, they differ in terms of the following characteristics:
& gender (men versus women)
& status as students (past students who have completed the course, versus
present students)
& first-language choices (English, Sesotho, isiZulu, isiXhosa and Setswana)
& age (they fall in these age-groups 25±34; 35±44 and 45±54)
& years of experience in the teaching profession (which can be categorised as
follows: 0±10 years; 11±20 years; 21 and more years)
Now that we have listed the population parameters, it becomes easier to write
down our assumptions, because these are linked to the population parameters
(or characteristics). As a result, the assumptions and subproblems read as
follows:
COM306-D/1 53
Assumption 1:
1:
Past students who have successfully completed the course will feel more
positive about the value of the course than current students who have not yet
completed the course.
Subproblems:
Subproblems:
Do past students who have successfully completed the course feel more
positive about the value of the course compared with current students who
have not year completed the course?
If so, why?
Assumption 2:
2:
Leadership and fulfilling leadership roles are traditionally associated with men
(not women).
Subproblems:
Subproblems:
How do men's responses to the following issues differ from women's?
& possible relationship between effective leadership and gender
& the diploma course was beneficial
& certain sections of the course are more effective than others
& certain sections of the course are of more practical use than others
The researcher can formulate these kind of subproblems (in this case, linked
to gender) based on the other demographic differences and the following
assumptions:
Assumption 3:
3:
Younger respondents will find the course more effective than older
respondents, because of age differences and because of differences in years'
experience.
Subproblem:
Subproblem:
How should the course be adapted to provide for the different age groups and,
in particular, differences in years' experience?
Assumption 4:
4:
Respondents will differ in their evaluation of the course depending on their
first-language choices, because they do not necessarily share the same view of
meanings associated with leadership. (Note: this assumption is based on yet
another assumption, namely, that first-language choice is an indicator of so-
ciocultural differences.)
Subproblems:
Subproblems:
& How should the course be changed to accommodate sociocultural
differences?
54
& What leadership styles (authoritarian, democratic, laissez-faire and others)
do respondents experience in their work situations?
What is the goal and what is/are the objective(s)?

The goal is applied communication research, because we want to evaluate a
current practice (a diploma course) in order to adapt and improve its effec-
tiveness.
The objectives are twofold:

& The objectives are exploratory because we want to explore and prioritise
students' learning needs.
& The objectives are descriptive because we want past and present students
to describe how they regard the effectiveness of the course and to identify
areas of the current diploma course which can be improved.
Ultimately the objectives are also to confirm (or reject) the assumptions on
which the study is based.
What are the research questions or hypotheses?

Research questions (rather than hypotheses) are appropriate in our example,
because our research design is mainly qualitative, and because we are unsure
about:
& the effectiveness of the diploma course
& the practical relevance of the course
& whether and how the course should be revised
Hypotheses are also not suitable in this study, because neither a null rela-
tionship, nor a covariance relationship nor a causal relationship between va-
riables are being researched.
Based on the above three issues (ie effectiveness of the diploma course,
practical relevance of the course and whether the course should be revised),
as well as the assumptions and subproblems listed above, we can formulate
the research questions as follows:
(1) How effective is this diploma course among past and present students?
(2) What is the practical relevance of the course?
(3) Should the course be revised?
(4) If the course is revised, what should be added, deleted or adapted?
The answers to the last research question will depend on whether we accept
or reject the assumptions listed above as indications of whether or not the
current course provides for different views (based on gender, age, experience
or sociocultural differences).
Which research design would be appropriate for investigating the main re-
search problem?
A qualitative research design is more suitable for our study for the following
reasons:
COM306-D/1 55
(1) we intend examining the needs and opinions of students as individuals
(2) our objectives are to explore and to describe
(3) our method of reasoning is inductive, whereby we start with specific as-
sumptions, we base our questions on these assumptions and we end with
summaries and interpretations of the responses received.
(4) the data-collection method is by means of a self-administered ques-
tionnaire (survey) which contains open-ended questions
(5) the method used to analyse the data consists of a systematic analysis of
written responses;
(6) the design is flexible (eg if we find a large discrepancy between the opi-
nions of young versus old respondents, we could follow-up the survey with
in-depth interviews with purposively sampled subjects)
Before you continue with study unit 3, don't forget to evaluate whether you have
achieved your learning outcomes (by following the guide for assessing learning
outcomes given at the end of unit 2 in the prescribed book).
56
S t u d y u n i t
3
DATA COLLECTION:
SAMPLING, MEASURING,
QUESTIONING AND
OBSERVING
OVERVIEW
Researchers are often not in a position to investigate an entire population, which
means that they have to select part of that population for their research work. In this
study unit, we start by discussing the different requirements that have to be met when,
as the researcher, you select such a portion (or sample), and the advantages and
disadvantages of the different types of samples. Having obtained a clearer idea of who
or what you want to investigate, the study unit then deals with different methods that
you can use to collect the data. These methods include the use of measurements, the
use of scales, questioning and observation.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this study unit, you should understand and be able to make and
communicate informed decisions when collecting data
& by drawing a sample
& by applying measurements
& by formulating items for a questionnaire and an interview
& by conducting observations
3.1 Introduction
In communication research, you investigate individual people, groups of people,
organisations and/or social artefacts (eg newspapers) as units of analysis. For various
reasons (eg time, costs, the number of units or geographic distribution of units of
analysis), you will not often be in a position to investigate all the people, organisations
or social artefacts. This is why sampling is an essential step in the research process.
Secondly when conducting communication research, you have to be certain that the
information or data you collect meet certain requirements, these being that this
information or data are scored (or collected) accurately and consistently. Once we
COM306-D/1 57
have discussed scaling, we shall focus on the care and planning that you need to give to
the procedures involved in collecting and scoring information, by using measurements
that are reliable and valid.
Thirdly, you could collect data by asking questions (in the form of a questionnaire or
interviews). In this study unit, we not only distinguish between different types of
questions, but also consider the problems that can occur in the wording of questions
(ie wording that should be avoided).
Lastly, we end this study unit by considering observations as a data-collection method

and differentiate between systematic observations and ethnographic observations.
Let us start with sampling.
3.2 Sampling
Study-read Radio programmes consist of verbal speech, music, sound effects and silences,
section 3.2 in the whereas printed magazines contain codes such as printed letters, photographs and
prescribed book colours. Given the different characteristics of these media (called population
parameters), radio programmes as a population therefore differ from printed
magazines as a population. These differences in population parameters apply not only
to social artefacts such as radio programmes, but also to people Ð as individuals,
groups and organisations Ð especially as far as demographic characteristics (eg age and
gender) are concerned. Before you concern yourself with the essentials of sampling, it
is therefore important that you can define or at least describe the nature of the
population you want to research. Let us do this in this next activity.
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ACTIVITY 1
The two populations mentioned above are defined below in the form
of hypotheses.
& If we want to determine how popular a new radio music programme is,
then the target population to be investigated will consist of all the
programmes broadcast during the first month.
& If we want to investigate how the readers of a particular magazine feel
about the short story supplement published during a three-month period,
then the target population to be investigated will consist of all the issues of
this magazine published during these three months.
Do you agree with these definitions? Think about these definitions by con-
centrating on the nature of the population parameters before you continue
reading the study guide.
OUR COMMENTS
Both definitions of the populations above describe social artefacts as units of
analysis. In other words, the radio programmes broadcast and the magazines
published over a specified period of time are described as populations. How-
ever, bearing in mind the objective of the investigations mentioned in each
case, the definitions of these social artefacts as populations are not correct. If
you therefore agreed with both definitions (which are incorrect)
in then you need
to take note that, in both studies, we want to determine people's views,
58
attitudes or feelings. In our examples, the populations were defined in-
correctly. The nature of the populations should therefore have been defined in
terms of individuals,
individuals namely radio listeners and magazine readers.
readers
After you have study-read section 3.2 in the prescribed book, you will have realised
that it is important to distinguish between the target population and the accessible
population. If your sample is drawn from the accessible population, then your findings
can only be generalised to that accessible population. Furthermore, if you define the
accessible population too narrowly (ie if your accessible population is too small), then
you limit the generalisability of your findings even before you have started the
investigation.
The following two self-evaluation and portfolio tasks ask you to think about the
meaning of population parameters again, and to think Ð again Ð about the
difference between a target population and an accessible population.
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Task 3.1
Study-read What are the population parameters of the following populations?

section 3.2 in the & All the employees that represent middle and top management in the top
prescribed book three insurance firms in South Africa.
& All the buyers of MOM soap powder in the KwaZulu/Natal province.
& All the readers of the City Press (an English Sunday newspaper).
& All the editorial cartoons published in the Sunday Times (an English
Sunday newspaper).
& All the phone-in programmes broadcast by Radio-fm.
OUR COMMENTS
The units of analysis in the first three populations are individual people
(employees, buyers and readers). The last two populations refer to artefacts or
objects (newspapers and radio programmes) as units of analysis. A problem
common to both formulations of the populations is that no time demarcation is
included. The time-dimension must be specified in order to differentiate
between cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.
The following formulation, indicates that our research is a cross-sectional
study:
All the employees that represent middle and top management in the top
three insurance firms in South Africa, and who are employed during the
first week of January 2003.
The following formulation indicates that our research is a longitudinal study:
All the editorial cartoons published in the Sunday Times, between 1
January 2002 and 31 December 2007.
COM306-D/1 59
The reason why the time-dimension should be specified is that, if our research
is a longitudinal study, we can expect the population parameters to change
over a long period of time.
We shall comment on the parameters of each population separately.
& All the employees that represent middle and top management in the top
three insurance firms in South Africa
This population consists of individuals who represent both genders, who
come from different age groups, who do not all come from the same first-
language group, and who are employed (at a specified time) by the top
three insurance firms in South Africa. Determining which individuals are
selected as belonging to ``middle management'' and ``top management''
will depend on the operational definitions that you have formulated for
these two constructs. In such definitions, you could use the actual positions
which these individuals hold and/or you could operationally define the
constructs on the basis of individuals' annual remuneration.
& All the buyers of MOM soap powder in the KwaZulu/Natal province
This population is more diverse than the previous example, because the
buyers (as units of analysis) do not work for particular institutions and nor
are they limited to the adult population. Once a specification of the time-
dimension has been added, this population includes anyone that buys
MOM soap powder (and no other soap powder) within the geographic
region of the KwaZulu/Natal province.
& All the readers of the City Press (an English Sunday newspaper)
This population is even more diverse than the previous two examples,
because the readers are not limited to people who subscribe to or buy the
newspaper. Instead, the population includes anyone who has access to the
newspaper, either because he or she shares a home with someone else who
buys the newspaper, or because he or she reads the City Press in the
library. These units of analysis are therefore not limited to any particular
gender, racial, age or socioeconomic group. The three characteristics that
these units of analysis, however, do share, are that they (ie all readers of
the City Press) must have access to the newspaper and they must be
literate and able to read English.
& All the editorial cartoons published in the Sunday Times (an English
Sunday newspaper)
If it is the quantitative characteristics of the cartoons you want to research,
then their sizes can be measured and compared. Picas (also called ems) are
normally used to measure areas (eg the size of photographs and the width
and length of columns) in a printed publication. Six picas equal 2,2 cm or 1
inch and the measurements are made easier by using a pica ruler. In
addition to the size of each cartoon, further parameters can be dis-
tinguished by asking the following questions:
& Why is the cartoon drawn (eg is it to visually illustrate the comments
made in the editorial column)?
& What is being depicted (eg an event, place or person)?
& What is the thematic content (eg political or economical)?
60
& If a person is depicted, what position does he or she hold in society?
& What information is conveyed either by the caption of the cartoon or
the cartoon character's speech or thought bubbles?
Effective editorial cartoons use caricature to make a point. One parameter

which should therefore apply to all editorial cartoons is the ``something''
being exaggerated in the caricature (eg a person's personality, or physical
characteristic).
& All the phone-in programmes broadcast by Radio-fm

The parameters of phone-in programmes can differ depending on variables
such as the following:
& Is a different topic introduced for each programme and are listeners
invited to comment?
& Is the topic restricted to a particular subject, or are listeners free to
introduce and comment on topics of their own choice?
& Do listeners phone with the specific purpose of sending messages to
their families and friends?
& Is the purpose of the programme to offer listeners the opportunity to
sell or exchange goods?
& Are phone-calls combined with musical inserts?
& Are phone-calls combined with a discussion between the radio
announcer and a studio guest?
& Do listeners address their questions to a studio guest (eg a medical
practitioner)?
& Is the programme broadcast at a regional (break-away slot) or national
level?
All radio phone-in programmes share two characteristics: that they are of a
predetermined duration (eg 30 minutes) and they occupy a fixed time-slot
(eg 10:00±10.30).
Task 3.2
Study-read Study-read the scenario below and indicate to which population the fin-
section 3.2 in the dings of this sample's responses can be generalised:
prescribed book & Research problem: Which sections of the Sunday World (a Sunday
newspaper) do its readers prefer and why?
& Target population: All current readers of the Sunday World.
& Accessible population: Those readers who currently subscribe to the
Sunday World.
& Sample drawn: Ten percent of those readers who currently subscribe to
the Sunday World.
OUR COMMENTS
The findings can only be generalised to the accessible population, not to the
target population, because the sample is drawn from the accessible (and not
the target) population. Making a distinction between the target population
and the accessible population has a serious implication for the research you
COM306-D/1 61
undertake, because if you do not draw a sample from the target population,
you limit the generalisability (external validity) of your findings.
The essentials of sampling can be summarised by the crucial question that now faces
every communication researcher. This crucial question is: How can we ensure that
the sample we draw actually represents the population parameters? In order to
answer this question, you have to consider those factors that influence the accuracy of
the sample drawn and the degree of confidence which you place on findings
generalised from a particular sample. These factors are dealt with in the next two
subsections.
3.2.1 Accuracy of the sample drawn

Research that investigates an accessible population whose population parameters are
homogeneous requires a smaller sample than research studies into heterogeneous
population parameters. An example of homogeneous population parameters is a
group of English-speaking boys who are in the same grade, aged nine and ten, and
who attend the same school in Cape Town.
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ACTIVITY 2
Can you reformulate the above description of a homogeneous

population so that the population parameters included in your
description represent a heterogeneous population?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
OUR COMMENTS
A change to any of the following characteristics would change our example
into a description of a heterogeneous population:
& language affiliation (not only English speaking, but to include any of the
eleven official languages)
& gender (boys and girls)
& educational level (different grades or levels at school)
& age (not only aged nine and ten)
& social environment (different schools)
& geographic area (urban as well as rural areas)
If you want to cross-analyse any two variables (eg urban boys' attitudes versus rural
boys' attitudes; or boys versus girls; or younger boys versus older boys), a larger
sample is required. In other words, the size of the sample to be drawn will depend on
both the homogeneity of the accessible population and the objective of the research.
Drawing a simple random sample means that each unit of analysis in the accessible
population has the same chance of being included in the sample. For example, if an
accessible population consists of a group of 8 000 school children, each child has an
62
equal chance of being selected for the sample. The extent to which the sample drawn
will correspond with the accessible population can be calculated in advance by
calculating s (the standard error), as explained in section 3.2.1 in the prescribed book.
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ACTIVITY 3
Based on the formula given in section 3.2.1 in the prescribed book,

what would the standard error be if you had to draw a simple
random sample of 100 children from an accessible population of
8 000 children, of whom 4 800 were boys and 3 200 were girls?
...........................................................................................................................
OUR COMMENTS
The standard error is ,048 or 4,8 percent, which we have calculated using the
data given above:
4 800 of 8 000 = 0,6 (boys)

3 200 of 8 000 = 0,4 (girls)
100 = sample size (n)
The square root of (0,6 x 0,4) / 100 = 0,048 or 4,8 percent.
When comparing this calculation with figure 3.2 in the prescribed book, and
by drawing a sample of 100, you will know in advance that 68% of the
children (units of analysis) who you might select may differ by up to 4,8%
when compared with the population parameters.
If, on the other hand, you decide to double the sample size to 200, you will be
reducing the standard error to 0,034 or 3,4%, the calculation in this case
being:
the square root of (0,6 x 0,4) / 200 = ,034 or 3,4 percent.
Before we deal with the degree of confidence as a second requirement when

drawing a sample, we want to emphasise that, because it will influence the research
results, sampling has to be done very carefully indeed; the sampling procedure also
needs to be reported in detail. This is a point to which shall we return in the last study
unit (when we discuss writing a research report). If you fail to specify the nature and
size of your target population and accessible population and if you fail to specify the
sample, both your findings and conclusions are likely to be questioned.
3.2.2 Sampling error related to the degree of confidence

As a result of previous research conducted over a number of years, certain
conventions have become established in communication research. You can and should
use these conventions as guidelines when you are faced with the task of deciding on
the size of a sample. One such convention is that you should try to be at least within a
95% confidence level about the accuracy of your findings (eg the responses from
people being interviewed).
In the prescribed book, table 3.1 gives a list of different sizes of simple random samples
COM306-D/1 63
which you can select to ensure at least a 95% confidence level. If we take our example
of a population of 8 000 children, the information in table 3.1 gives us a sample size of
370 (if you want to be within at least a 95% confidence level). Please note the
difference between the size of a sample selected and a realised sample.
Table 3.2 in the prescribed book gives you additional guidelines. Table 3.2 lists not only
the sample sizes at a 95% confidence level, but also lists the sample sizes if you wanted
to increase the confidence level to 99%; this table also lists the corresponding
tolerated error. Note that this table is based on a population size of 500 000, from
which a sample size of 384 is drawn at a tolerated error of 5%.
A further three factors contribute to the requirements of accuracy and confidence in

sampling. The first two (reliability and validity) are discussed in greater detail in section
3.3.2 and 3.3.3 in the prescribed book. For the moment we shall concentrate on the
third factor: ecological fallacy. Ecological fallacy refers to the danger of researchers
making assertions or drawing conclusions about a population or group based on only
one sample. Let us consider a hypothetical example. Suppose we are interested in
learning whether primary school children benefit from a newly produced series of
educational television (ETV) programmes. Our sample consists of the boys aged nine
and ten who attend a school in Cape Town (see the example above in the study
guide). Our analysis of the boys' responses show that they remember more
information when this information is presented by animated (cartoon) characters. We
might then be tempted to conclude that all children will learn more if ETV is presented
by animated characters rather than human presenters. However, this conclusion would
be an ecological fallacy, because we have examined a particular group of boys as units
of analysis and this group certainly does not represent `àll children''.
The following self-evaluation and portfolio task tests your ability to draw a sample
according to certain specifications.
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SELF-EVALUATION AND PORTFOLIO TASK
Task 3.3
Study-read A target population of undergraduate students at a university is grouped as
sections 3.2.1 and follows:
3.2.2 in the Year of study
prescribed book Degree Total
1st 2nd 3rd
BA 5 500 3 000 2 500 11 000
BCom 2 000 2 000 1 500 5 500
BSc 1 500 1 500 500 3 500
Total 9 000 6 500 4 500 20 000
Describe how to draw a simple random sample from this population with a
5% and a 95% confidence level. Also indicate the minimum size of the
sample.
64
OUR COMMENTS
When drawing a simple random sample, each of the 20 000 students in the
target population has to have an equal chance of being selected, irrespective
of the degree for which they are registered or their year of study.
If you consult table 3.1 in the prescribed book, you will notice that a suggested
sample size has not been specified for a population of 20 000. We then need to
consider the suggested sample size for the larger size population of 50 000;
this is 381. This sample size corresponds closely to the 384 suggested in table
3.2 in the prescribed book (in order to have an acceptable error of 5 percent
and a confidence level of 95 percent).
The task does not specify which method is to be used to study these students.
If the research method includes using a self-administered questionnaire, you
would have to increase the size of the sample to 3 810 to make provision for a
low response rate (eg 10 percent) Ð this will still provide for a realised sample
of 381.
Since the personal details (eg names and student numbers) of all students are
available on computer, you could use this list as the sampling frame. You
would select the first unit of analysis by selecting any number between 1 and
381 and you would select the remaining 380 units of analysis by reading a
table of random numbers. If a sample of 3 810 has to be drawn, you would
save time by using a computer to draw the numbers randomly.
In the hypothetical examples discussed above in sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 in the study
guide, we referred to drawing a simple random sample; this is just one of several types
of samples that can be drawn. We shall discuss this and other types of samples in the
next section.
3.2.3 Types of sampling

Publications that deal with communication research methodology usually differentiate
between two general categories of sampling, namely probability and nonprobability
sampling. As these names indicate, a sample is a probability sample when every
member (unit of analysis) of a population has an equal (probable) chance of being
selected or drawn for the sample. Since this sample is drawn according to
mathematical guidelines, you can calculate the sampling error. A sample belongs to
nonprobability sampling when every member (unit of analysis) of a population does
not have an equal chance of being selected or drawn for the sample. Because each
member of the population may, or may not, be selected for the sample, you cannot
determine the amount of sampling error present.
Study-read In section 3.2.3 in the prescribed book, a third category of sampling is distinguished,
section 3.2.3. in namely quasi-probability sampling. Quasi-probability sampling falls somewhere
the prescribed between probability and nonprobability sampling.
book
In section 3.2.1 above, you learnt that the size of a sample will depend on whether the
accessible population is homogeneous or heterogeneous. When deciding whether a
sample is (or should be) a probability, a quasi-probability or nonprobability sample, you
need to take other factors (in addition to homogeneity) into account. These factors and
requirements include the following:
& Does every unit in the population have an equal and therefore probable (p) chance
COM306-D/1 65
of being selected as part of the sample? (The point being that the sample must have
the same parameters as the population.)
& Does the researcher predict or control the random choice of units of analysis?
& Can a sampling frame be compiled?
& Can every possible combination of units be drawn from the sampling frame? (The
requirement here is to eliminate the bias that occurs when excluding certain units.)
The types of probability samples distinguished in the prescribed book are

(1) simple random sample
(2) stratified random sample
The types of quasi-probability samples distinguished in the prescribed book are

(1) systematic random sample
(2) cluster random sample
(3) multistage random sample
In the case of all these samples, the units of analysis are selected on a random basis. In
other words, they are selected on the basis of chance; their selection is not based on
the researcher's decisions or objectives. Given this chance selection, the likelihood
(and this is an important advantage) is that these samples will or could be
representative of the accessible population from which the samples are drawn.
The differences between the probability and quasi-probability samples, and between
the five types of samples in these two categories can be found in (1) the procedure
used to draw the sample; and (2) the actual units of analysis sampled.
Let us consider the procedure used first. When drawing a simple random sample we
select any number from a table of random numbers and base the samples drawn on
the numbers read from the table. In a systematic random sample, however, both the
starting point and the sampling interval are selected at random. In other words, the
units selected are not read off from a table of random samples. When comparing
stratified random samples with cluster random samples, we find that both procedures
involve distinguishing subgroups or strata in the population. But the procedures used in
the two sampling methods differ. In a stratified random sample, the population strata
are based on shared parameters whereas, in cluster random sampling, the strata are
grouped in clusters (eg geographical clusters) from which the units are selected at
random. The procedure used in the last type of sample (ie multistage random sample),
as the name suggests, involves more than one stage of sampling (eg drawing a cluster
sample and then drawing a simple random sample).
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ACTIVITY 4
Refer to table 3.3 in the prescribed book. You want to draw a simple
random sample using this table of random numbers. If you have
randomly selected 144 as your starting point and decided to base the
selection of the sample on those numbers that follow vertically, which num-
bers will you select for your sample?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
66
OUR COMMENTS
The following are the numbers on which you will base the selection of the
sample: 248, 213, 1, 123, 51 and 210.
When considering the actual units of analysis which are sampled, the differences and
similarities are, briefly, as follows. Drawing a random sample, a systematic random
sample and a stratified random sample all involve sampling individual units (eg
individual persons or social artefacts). In contrast, cluster random sampling involves
sampling clusters or groups as units of analysis. A multistage random sample involves
sampling groups (eg geographical areas), and individuals as units of analysis.
The types of nonprobability samples distinguished in the prescribed book are:
(1) convenience (accidental, available, opportunity or dip-stick) sample
(2) purposive (known-group) sample
(3) volunteer sample
(4) snowball sample
The advantages of these types of samples are based on the sampling procedure used
which, in turn, can be linked to the objective of the research. For example, if your
objective is to explore an unknown area of research, or to do a pilot study or to pretest
a questionnaire, the sampling procedure would involve sampling who and whatever is
available. You will therefore draw a convenience sample, which is also known as an
accidental, available, opportunity or dip-stick sample. Let us take another example. If
we, or other credible sources, believe that particular persons or social artefacts will give
us the information we want to investigate, we would draw a sample from these units
which are known to us. We would therefore draw a purposive sample as a known-
group sample.
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ACTIVITY 5
Describe the procedure you would use to draw a volunteer and a

snowball sample.
(1) ....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
(2) ....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
OUR COMMENTS
The procedure you would use to draw either a volunteer or a snowball sample
would depend on the objective of your research. For example, suppose you
want to find out how members of a trade union feel about proposed consti-
tutional changes. In this case, you can invite the members of the trade union
to give their views by sending out a newsletter. If, on the other hand you do
not know the extent of your target population (eg all the teenagers in ten
informal housing settlements), volunteers can be invited to participate in your
research by means of posters or knock-and-drop pamphlets. The same applies
to drawing a snowball sample. In other words, depending on who you initially
contact (eg union members or teenagers), the sample can be extended by
means of follow-up letters, further posters or advertisements, verbal in-
vitations or telephone calls.
COM306-D/1 67
Now that you have study-read the descriptions, advantages and disadvantages
of the four types of nonprobability samples in the prescribed book, you know
that the most important disadvantage shared by all these types of samples is
their lack of external validity.
validity In other words, because these samples are
representative of neither the target nor the accessible population, your fin-
dings and conclusions cannot be generalised to any predetermined population.
The following activity will help you to summarise the different factors that you need to
take into account when deciding whether to draw a probability, a quasi-probability or a
nonprobability sample.
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ACTIVITY 6
Read the descriptions of the following five studies. Then decide

whether they ought to be true or false (ie by deciding whether or
not the type of sample selected is appropriate).
TRUE FALSE
The target population is all the members of a
particular trade union in South Africa. These trade
union members live in different parts of the
country.
(1) You want to interview members of the trade
union and you want to generalise your findings
to the target population. You select a
nonprobability sample. t t
(2) Certain policy changes are to be introduced.
You want to measure the effects of the policy
changes on representative samples drawn over
a six-months period. You draw successive
simple random samples. t t
(3) Some members of the target population are
not easily accessible, which forces you to draw
a probability sample. t t
(4) You draw a probability sample of those
members who live in Gauteng; (a province in
South Africa) you can then generalise your
findings to the target population. t t
(5) The financial costs involved are too high for
you to draw a representative sample of
respondents who are going to be interviewed
on a national basis. You are therefore forced
to draw a nonprobability sample. t t
OUR COMMENTS
Statement (1) is false because a nonprobability sample lacks external validity.
In other words, the findings cannot be generalised to the target population.
Statement (2) is true because simple random samples will provide you with
representative samples.
Statement (3) is false because a probability sample assumes that each member
68
of the population has an equal (probable) chance of being selected. In this
scenario some members of the population are ``not easily accessible''.
Statement (4) is false and is an example of ecological fallacy. Findings based
on a sample drawn from a province cannot (and should not) be generalised to
members of a trade union who live throughout the country.
Statement (5) is true, because constraints such as financial costs and the
geographic distribution of the units of analysis can force you to draw a non-
probability sample.
In the next section our attention shifts to the measurement used to collect data.
However, before going any further, please do the following self-evaluation and portfolio
tasks to find out whether you have achieved the first learning outcome, that is: to make
and communicate informed decisions about sampling as a means of collecting data.
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Task 3.4
Study-read Study-read the following studies and indicate in each case which type of
section 3.2.3 in sample you would draw and the steps you would follow to draw that
the prescribed sample:
book (1) An analysis of the buying habits of people at all the major super-
markets in a specific province (eg KwaZulu/Natal).
(2) A content analysis of advertisements published in a monthly magazine
over a five-year period.
(3) A questionnaire has been designed to measure users' levels of sa-
tisfaction with the services offered at an academic library. A pilot
study has to be undertaken to test the questionnaire.
(4) A cell phone company wants to compare the demographic characte-
ristics of subscribers who live in urban areas with those who live in
rural areas.
OUR COMMENTS
We comment on each of the studies separately.
(1) An analysis of the buying habits of people at all the major supermarkets in
a specific province (eg KwaZulu/Natal)
Since a sampling frame of the units of analysis (people who buy at all the
major supermarkets in the particular province) is not available, this means
that you would have to opt for one of the nonprobability samples. How-
ever, you first need to identify which supermarkets are the ``major'' su-
permarkets (eg by looking at their annual profits). Once you have found
out how many major supermarkets there are, you could then draw a
simple random sample of these supermarkets. After you have drawn this
sample, you could visit these supermarkets and then draw a convenience
sample of people as they leave the supermarket.
Given that a convenience sample does not represent the population and
therefore lacks external validity, the study must be replicated by drawing
other samples on other dates and at different times.
COM306-D/1 69
(2) A content analysis of advertisements published in a monthly magazine
over a five-year period
Each advertisement can be given a number, thus making it possible to
compile a sampling frame. When drawing a sample, you should always try
to eliminate a selection error or bias error and, at the same time, you
should try to infer external validity. With a detailed sampling frame you
should be able to meet these requirements by using a table of random
numbers (to draw a simple random sample). Since each advertisement (as
a unit of analysis) has an equal and probable chance of being selected, this
will result in a sample which is representative of the target population.
Given that you are researching advertisements published in a monthly
magazine published over a five-year period, you would be drawing a
sample of advertisements from 60 magazines. This could result in a total
population of a few hundred advertisements. This, in itself, should not be
a problem. However, by drawing a simple random sample, you may find
that the advertisements sampled represent diverse products and services.
It would therefore be advisable to first reconsider the goal and objectives
of your study and to clarify which advertisements should be analysed. For
example, suppose the objective of your study is to determine whether
female models are used in a stereotypical manner (as sex symbols) to
``sell'' expensive motor vehicles. In this case, it is wiser to select and
number advertisements of vehicles as the target population, and to draw a
sample from these advertisements alone.
(3) A questionnaire has been designed to measure users' levels of satisfaction
with the services offered at an academic library. A pilot study has to be
undertaken to test the questionnaire.
The objective of a pilot study is to do a pretest (on a small scale) of what
you will eventually investigate. Although convenience sampling is
sometimes used in pilot studies, your study will eventually be concerned
with specific respondents, namely the users of an academic library. The
subjects of your pilot study should therefore be the users of an academic
library, which means that a purposive sample can be drawn and combined
with a convenience sample. These two nonprobability samples would also
be appropriate because a pilot study is not concerned with either the
representativeness or the external validity of the sample. Also, you do not
have a sampling frame of library users.
If, as a result of previous surveys, you know that 80 percent of library
users are normally undergraduate students and 20 percent are post-
graduate and other users, you can draw a purposive sample as a quota
sample. The quota for your sample (based on undergraduate versus
postgraduate/other students as parameters), would then be broken down
into a 8:2 ratio to match the proportions of the population. In other words,
for every eight undergraduate students you draw, you would try to draw
two respondents who are postgraduate students or other library users.
Doing this would match your purposive sample, on a quota basis, with the
two groups in the population.
(4) A cell phone company wants to compare the demographic characteristics
of subscribers who live in urban areas with those who live in rural areas.
The cell phone company would have a list of all its subscribers, plus an
indication of how many live in urban areas, and how many live in rural
areas (once the meaning of these two terms have been operationally de-
70
fined). To ensure that the sizes of the two subgroups (or strata) sampled
are based on their proportions as found in the population, you would draw
a proportionate, stratified random sample. For example, if you know that
90 percent of the subscribers live in urban areas, then 90 percent of the
sample should be randomly selected from that group, and the remaining
10 percent from the rural group. This sampling technique not only reduces
costs, but also increases the accuracy of comparison (ie of comparing two
or more groups).
In section 3.2.1 above in the study guide we emphasised the importance of being able
to define the population parameters of the target population that you want to
investigate. However, before we continue discussing measurement as a data-
collection method, we need to consider the problems of sampling people who live and
work in a Third World social context Ð in other words, when using such people as
units of analysis. First of all, the people (strangers) who conduct the research will almost
certainly be treated with suspicion. Secondly, women researchers may well be
hampered in their task by the cultural and traditional view of women in Third World
contexts. Apart from these two factors, there are three other factors that can make it
difficult for researchers to meet the requirements of probability sampling techniques in
Third World contexts.
& Sampling individuals (rather than groups) could result in inaccurate findings if those
individuals belong to a culture where, owing to the influence of group solidarity,
these individuals all share the same views.
& The definition or demarcation of units of analysis is usually also a problem. All of us
are of a particular age, belong to a gender group and have a specific marital status.
In South Africa, a fifteen-year old girl would probably be categorised in a research
sample as a ``teenager''. But if this girl is a mother, would all the cultural groups in
South Africa still categorise her, as a ``teenager''? Or would she, for sampling
purposes, be categorised as an `àdult''?
& Access to the units of analysis (which is planned according to scientific requirements)
is the third major problem. For example, all of us have a place which we regard as
``home''. However, not all ``homes'' can be found on a map, nor are they all listed
in previous census surveys. Many homes do not have postal addresses and cannot
be contacted telephonically. It is therefore extremely difficult for a communication
researcher to draw a probability sample of households, or even families as units of
analysis from villages, informal housing settlements or townships.
In conclusion, we want to re-emphasise that sampling is an essential step in the

research process, unless we can investigate an entire population.
3.3 Measurement
Study-read In this section we shall concentrate on the four levels of measurement that can be used
section 3.3 in the
to collect data, the different methods that can be used to test the reliability and validity
prescribed book
of measurements, and the construction of two scales. Let us start with the principles
and levels of measurement.
COM306-D/1 71
3.3.1 Principles and levels of measurement
Study-read You need to understand the four levels of measurement, namely nominal, ordinal,
section 3.3.1 in interval and ratio, because these are used to convey different types and, indeed,
the prescribed different amounts of information. In other words, if the scales which you use in
book research are based on inappropriate levels of measurement, your findings and
conclusions cannot be accurate.
In order to distinguish between the four levels of measurement, we suggest that you
do the following activity whilst study-reading section 3.3.1 in the prescribed book.
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ACTIVITY 7
Write down on a sheet of paper which level (nominal, ordinal,

interval or ratio) you would use in a measurement designed to
determine the following:
(1) the gender of buyers of cell phones
(2) readers' attitudes to a sudden increase in the price of newspapers
(3) the degree of credibility when comparing three political leaders in a
particular province (as judged by the potential voters)
(4) the duration of foreign news broadcast by a regional radio station
OUR COMMENTS
Once you use one of the four levels in a measurement scale, you are in fact
transforming the variables that you are investigating into concrete indicators.
The variables found in above studies are: (1) gender, (2) attitudes (3) credi-
bility and (4) duration of foreign news items. But in order to transform these
variables into concrete indicators, you need to distinguish between two types
of variables, namely discrete and continuous variables. You investigate dis-
crete variables when the variable can be subdivided into a finite number of
subcategories. For example, gender can be subdivided into male and female;
and radio news items can be subdivided into South African and foreign news.
The nominal level of measurement is appropriate for measuring discrete va-
riables.
However, the prescribed book also emphasises that the nominal level is
adequate if the numerical system used contains three characteristics; namely
& the categories must be exhaustive
& the categories must be mutually exclusive
& each category that represents a subclass must be labelled with a different
numeral
Secondly, you investigate continuous variables when the variable can take on
any value over a range of values and if the variable can be broken down
meaningfully into subparts. For example, when ranking the credibility of three
political leaders (as judged by the voters), the ordinal level of measurement is
appropriate because the differences between these leaders are not known and
nor are these differences expected to be equal. The ordinal scale is also ap-
propriate in this example because each political leader's credibility is judged
in relation to that of the other two political leaders' credibility. We are there-
fore not concerned with the extent to which they differ.
When a scale has similar properties to those of an ordinal scale, the only
72
difference being that the intervals between adjacent categories or points on
the scale are of equal value,
value then an interval level is appropriate. For example,
readers' attitudes to the sudden increase in the price of newspapers can be
determined by making a statement. An example of such a statement would
be: The increase of the price of newspapers cannot be prevented, to which
respondents have to select an answer on a 5-point scale (from 1 = strongly
agree, to 5 = strongly disagree). This 5-point agree/disagree interval scale
incorporates the formal characteristic or property of equal differences be-
tween 1 and 2; 2 and 3; 3 and 4; and 4 and 5 on the scale.
The ratio level of measurement includes all the characteristics of the interval
level, plus one characteristic, namely a true zero point. In other words,
variables measured at the interval or ratio level are discrete or continuous. For
example, foreign radio news or South African radio news is a discrete variable.
However, the duration or number of minutes for each news bulletin is con-
tinuous, which means that scores could range from zero (no foreign news
broadcast) to 10 minutes or more.
The following self-evaluation and portfolio tasks will give you more practice in
differentiating between levels of measurement. You can also have a go at mapping!
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Task 3.5
Study-read On a sheet of paper, apply the mapping technique to these indicators of

section 3.3.1 in ``knowledge'' found in a questionnaire (use the rule of correspondence).
the prescribed Arrange the following properties on a 5-point scale: `ùnsure''; ``mode-
book rately adequate''; ``very inadequate''; ``moderately inadequate; and ``very
adequate''.
Based on the Minister's speech today, how would you judge his
knowledge of the new constitution?
OUR COMMENTS
If you want to measure the continuous variable ``knowledge'' on a 5-point
scale, the appropriate rule of correspondence would be to assign the numerals
in rank order, such as the following:
& a 1 to very inadequate
& a 2 to moderately inadequate
& a 3 to unsure
& a 4 to moderately adequate
& a 5 to very adequate
Task 3.6
Study-read Which level of measurement Ð nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio Ð
section 3.3.1 in would you use to measure each of the following?
the prescribed (1) the duration of radio advertisements in seconds
book (2) preference for a certain political party
(3) the age of newspaper readers
(4) the topics given priority as news stories in newspapers
COM306-D/1 73
OUR COMMENTS
(1) The duration of radio advertisements in seconds
Time is an example of a continuous variable and, because it contains the
formal property of equal differences, the interval level of measurement
would be appropriate. In other words, an advertisement that lasts 20
seconds is twice as long as an advertisement that lasts 10 seconds.
Constructing an interval scale (see the example below) enables you to do
arithmetic calculations of the differences between these advertisements:
Advertisements with a duration of 5 seconds or less

Advertisements with a duration of between 6±10 seconds
Advertisements with a duration of 21 seconds or longer
You should note that the highest level of measurement (ratio) would have
been preferred, but only if the construct being tested had had a true zero.
However, a true zero (seconds) does not apply in this case, which explains
why a ratio measure was not selected. If, however, you were analysing
nudity in magazine advertisements, you would probably find many ad-
vertisements that did not contain any form of nudity; this would enable
you to use the ratio level of measurement.
(2) Preference for a certain political party

When using an ordinal level of measurement, you use a rank order to
determine the differences between variables Ð in this case political
parties. In order to determine the preference for a particular political
party, you would ask subjects to rank a number of political parties, such as
in this example:
Instruction: Please indicate your preference, as a voter, for the following

political parties. Number the political party which you prefer the most as
1; your second preference as 2, your third preference as 3, and so on,
until you number your last choice as 5.
ANC t
DA t
IFP t
PAC t
UDM t
Remember that the ordinal level enables you to determine the first, sec-
ond, third, et cetera preference. The ordinal level does not measure the
extent to which the preferences differ, nor the distances or differences
between the first and the third preference.
(3) The age of newspaper readers
You may be tempted to categorise age groups (as done below) and then to
ask newspaper readers to select one category:
74
t under 18
t 18±25
t 26±35
t 36±45
t 46±55
t 56 or older
The above categories represent an ordinal level of measurement. Since the

boundaries of the categories are not equal in range, you will be unable to
infer the extent of readers' age differences. As indicated in the prescribed
book (section 3.3.1) you should always aim to use the highest level of
measure. It would therefore be more appropriate to simply ask subjects or
respondents to write down their ages in the number of years since birth.
This is a ratio level of measurement, which enables you to make quanti-
tative comparisons of ages or groups of ages.
(4) The topics given priority as news stories in newspapers
In this case the level of measurement would depend on your research
objective and how you operationally define the construct ``topics''. Making
a distinction between the following categories will enable you to use the
nominal level:
& government policies
& economic issues
& industry
& foreign affairs
& domestics affairs
However, as indicated in the prescribed book, such categories must be

both exhaustive and mutually exclusive before they can be used. The
above categories are not mutually exclusive, because ``government po-
licies'' may overlap with `èconomic issues''. Nor are they exhaustive,
because other categories (eg ``sport'') are not listed.
Also, if another researcher defines ``topics'' by using the following cate-
gories, then he or she would clearly arrive at different findings:
& violence
& human interest
& disasters
Providing that the categories are both mutually exclusive and exhaustive,
the nominal level of measurement will therefore enable you to place each
news story in one, and only one, category.
Throughout the study unit, we have emphasised the requirements of reliability and
validity. When these requirements are applied to measurements, specific tests are
involved. Let us start with the requirements of reliability.
COM306-D/1 75
3.3.2 The requirement of reliability
Study-read The following question is included as an item in a questionnaire survey. The objective
section 3.3.2 in of the survey is to determine whether respondents from different age groups have
the prescribed different television viewing needs:
book
What is your age? Place a tick (V) next to one of the options below.
t 20-30 years
t 31-39 years
t 40-50 years
t 50-60 years
Using the principles of measurement discussed in section 3.3.1 in the prescribed book,
can you recognise those principles that this example does not use? If so, make a brief
note of these before you continue reading.
First, in the example above the options from which respondents can select, do not
make provision for all age groups. In other words, the subclasses or categories are not
exhaustive. What about respondents who are younger than 20 or older than 60?
Secondly, the sizes of the intervals are not equal. For example, the category for 31±39
years represents an interval of 9 years, compared with the 10-year intervals in the
other categories. Furthermore, the options are not mutually exclusive. For example,
50 is repeated in two options. A respondent who happens to be 50 years old could
quite correctly either tick the 40±50 years category or the 50±60 years category.
This illustrates how a single item on a questionnaire can help create a situation where,
over a period of time, the same measurements (or findings) are not recorded. This
aspect is the essence of the reliability of measurements, which we deal with in this
subsection.
To distinguish between the different methods that can be used to assess the reliability of
a measurement, we suggest that you do the following activity while you study-read
section 3.2.2 in the prescribed book.
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ACTIVITY 8
Fill in the name(s) of the method(s) that is/are best for testing the
reliability of a measurement in each of the examples below.
(1) A measurement is administered at two different times, but to the
same group of people.
....................................................................................................................
(2) Scores collected at two different times are compared. Is there consistency
between them?
....................................................................................................................
(3) You would use this method when the items on the measurement combine
variables which are independent from other variables.
....................................................................................................................
76
(4) This method measures stability as a component of reliability.
....................................................................................................................
(5) Equivalency refers to the consistency and correlation between two mea-
surements and can be assessed by these methods.
....................................................................................................................
(6) Two or more researchers analyse the portrayal of physical violence in
certain television programmes. Which method or methods would you use
to assess the reliability of their interpretations?
....................................................................................................................
(7) You have designed a questionnaire that consists of 20 items (questions
and statements). Which method would you use to assess the reliability of
each item?
....................................................................................................................
OUR COMMENTS
& test-retest reliability can be applied in the procedures and settings
described in (1), (2), (3) and (4)
& alternate-forms reliability and intercoder reliability are applicable to the
statement in (5)
& intercoder reliability could be used in the research described in (6)
& item-to-total reliability applies to the pretest of items on a questionnaire (7)
As you know, reliability consists of three components: internal consistency, stability

and equivalency. Let us briefly elaborate on the meaning of each of these components.
Internal consistency refers to the level of consistency among items within a scale or
measurement. The method used to assess internal consistency therefore tests
individual items in relation to other items within one measurement. Stability refers to
the degree of consistency of results obtained by using a certain measurement at
different times. The method used to assess stability therefore has to be applied at
different times. Equivalency refers to the level of a measurement's internal consistency
when correlated with another measurement. The method used to assess equivalency
therefore has to involve two or more measurements or two or more coders (in the
case of content analysis).
The following self-evaluation and portfolio task asks you to consider the methods that
you would use when testing the above components as part of a measurement's
reliability.
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Task 3.7
Study-read Which method(s) would you use to determine a measurement's reliability

section 3.3.2 in in order to assess each of the following characteristics?
the prescribed (1) stability
book (2) internal consistency and
(3) equivalency
COM306-D/1 77
OUR COMMENTS
As discussed in section 3.3.2 in the prescribed book, six methods can be used
to test a measurement's reliability. Stability, internal consistency and equi-
valency are three components of reliability. Let us consider each of these
components separately.
The stability of a measurement (eg a questionnaire) means that if the ques-
tionnaire is administered two or more times over a period of time, it should
produce the same answers or results. That is why the test-retest method is
appropriate for evaluating this component of reliability.
The internal consistency refers to the extent to which all the sections or items
on the measuring instrument actually measure the same phenomenon. The
two reliability methods that deal with this component are: the split-half
method and the item-to-total method.
Equivalency,
Equivalency as a component of reliability, refers to the reliability of a mea-
suring instrument. Alternatively, it may refer to the reliability of two or more
people who judge, code and interpret a study that involves doing a content
analysis. The appropriate reliability tests would be the alternate-forms meth-
od (in the case of a measuring instrument) and intercoder or interjudge
method (in the case of a content analysis).
The distinguishing features of these three components can be summarised as follows:

& Internal consistency is the degree of consistency among items in one measurement.
& Stability is the degree of consistency of results obtained by applying the
measurement at different times.
& Equivalency is the degree of consistency of a measurement when compared with
another measurement (or the degree of consistency between two coders).
Let us now discuss validity as a second requirement of measurement.
3.3.3 The requirement of validity

A measurement's validity is concerned with the degree to which the measurement (eg
questions in a questionnaire) actually measures what you claim it measures.
Let us consider an actual example. The following question is included as an item in a

questionnaire survey designed to determine how often respondents watch television.
How often do you watch television? Place a tick (V) next to one of the options
below.
t less than one hour
t 2 ± 4 hours
t 4 ± 6 hours
Are the options given above exhaustive and mutually exclusive? Write down your
answers with a brief explanation before you continue reading this study guide. (If you
feel unsure about the meaning of `èxhaustive'' and ``mutually exclusive'', then revise
section 3.3.1 in the prescribed book.)
78
The options are not exhaustive, because they do not provide for respondents who
either watch television for more than six hours, or for respondents who watch
between one and two hours of television, or for respondents who never watch
television. Nor are the options mutually exclusive, because the ``4'' overlaps in two of
the options. Furthermore, apart from the fact that the options fail to follow the basic
principles of measurement, their validity is also questionable. In other words, if we ask
``Does this question actually measure what you claim (or intend) it to measure?'', the
answer is: ``No, it does not''. This is because the options from which the respondents
have to choose are not appropriate to the question. In other words, the question
being asked is: how often, or the frequency, of television viewing, whereas the options
indicate how much time and not frequency. The validity of these options is even more
questionable, simply because the options are not linked to a specified (time) frame of
reference. In others words, are these durations meant to occur daily, weekly or
monthly? We do not know, and nor will the respondents. The findings will also be
invalid, because individual respondent's (time) frames of reference probably differ.
Study-read You can now consider the different methods that can be used to assess the validity of a
section 3.3.3 in measurement by doing the next activity while you study-read section 3.3.3 in the
the prescribed prescribed book.
book
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ACTIVITY 9
Fill in the name(s) of the method(s) that is/are best to assess the
validity of a measurement, as described in each of the examples
below.
(1) This method includes statistical tests and logical argument.
....................................................................................................................
(2) This method involves a group of people and content-related evidence.
....................................................................................................................
(3) A possible problem with this method is that we may not be able to for-
mulate the criteria we are going to use before actually checking the
scores.
....................................................................................................................
(4) A disadvantage of these methods is that people's judgment may be biased.
....................................................................................................................
OUR COMMENTS
If you find it difficult to do this activity, we suggest that you revise section
3.3.3 in the prescribed book before proceeding any further (because these
procedures and settings were paraphrased from the prescribed book).
The most likely answers are as follows:
(1) = construct validity
(2) = expert-jury validity
(3) = criterion validity, specifically predictive validity
(4) = face validity and expert-jury validity
COM306-D/1 79
The following self-evaluation and portfolio task gives you another opportunity to
evaluate your ability to assess the validity of a measurement. They also take you back to
unit 2 in the prescribed book, where we discussed how to convert an abstract concept
into a measurable construct.
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Task 3.8
Study-read Which method(s) would you use to assess the validity of the measuring
section 3.3.3 and instrument you want to use to measure each of the following?
section 2.5.4 in (1) A newspaper has a vacancy and wants to assess applicants' abilities as
unit 2 in the proofreaders.
prescribed book (2) Voters' evaluation of the status of different political party leaders.
OUR COMMENTS
The two constructs for which measurements have to be devised are by no
means obvious. You should therefore make a real effort to find your own
solutions before reading our comments.
(1) A newspaper has a vacancy and wants to assess applicants' abilities as
proofreaders.
Measuring the validity of a test designed to measure applicants' abilities
as proofreaders would mean that the applicants had to read and correct a
written text. The text which applicants have to read could contain the
following kinds of mistakes or ``problems'' (depending on how you define
proofreading):
& grammatical errors
& poor paragraphing
& inappropriate layout
& spelling mistakes
& inconsistent spelling
& incorrect content
& vague statements
Initially, face validity could be judged by the author of the extract that is to
be proofread. However, this obviously has its drawbacks. To minimise the
subjectivity of face validity, the extract which is used to measure candi-
dates' proofreading abilities should be independently evaluated by a jury
of experts.
(2) Voters' evaluation of the status of different political party leaders.
Figure 2.2 in Unit 2 in the prescribed book contains a breakdown of the
abstract concept ``status'', into ``prestige''; `ìnferiority'' versus ``superio-
rity''; and ``power''. Figure 2.2 also contains categories that can be used to
collect data by direct observation and/or indirect measurement. Construct
validity would be the most appropriate criterion in this measurement,
because the measuring instrument has to relate to an overall theoretical
framework consisting of several abstract concepts. Given that several
indicators are used to measure ``status'', it would also be a good idea to
apply expert-jury validity to ensure that the full meaning of the theoretical
concept is not lost. In other words, in this example, it would be appro-
priate to use two validity tests.
80
We shall now deal with constructing scales that can be used as data-measuring
instruments.
3.3.4 Measurement scales

Study-read A number of measurement scales have been developed over the years to measure
section 3.3.4 in people's perceptions, attitudes and/or judgments. Examples are: Thurstone scales
the prescribed (named after their creator L L Thurstone), Guttman scales (developed by Louis
book
Guttman), Likert scales (named after Rensis A Likert) and semantic differential scales
(based on the work by Osgood, Suci & Tannenbaum [1957]).
In this module we shall focus only on the Likert and semantic differential scales. This is
because the construction of the other scales is costly; also, testing and retesting their
reliability and validity is an extremely time-consuming process. Likert scales are
standardised to measure the extent to which a person agrees or disagrees with a
particular statement. Semantic differential scales, as the term implies, were initially
concerned with ``semantics''. In other words, investigating the relationship between
words and their meanings. However, communication researchers have often used
semantic differential-type scales to measure other concepts. Examples are our
perceptions of politicians' competence, or our perceptions of someone's character.
The semantic differential scale measures the meaning which an `òbject'' has for an
individual. When we say `òbject'', we do not necessarily mean a ``thing'' or `àrtefact''
such as a radio programme or magazine. `Òbject'' here can be almost anything Ð a
physical artefact such as a magazine; a social practice such as censorship of the mass
media; an important person such as the president of a company; a group of people
such as women; an abstract concept or construct such as ``democracy''; and even a
characteristic of a research respondent (eg his or her self-esteem).
Let us start with an example of an item in a questionnaire in which a Likert scale is

used:
Instruction: Place a tick (V) next to one option that reflects your opinion.
When I see a press photograph that depicts an act of physical violence I feel strongly
about it.
t Strongly agree
t Agree
t Neutral
t Disagree
t Strongly disagree
There is no problem here with the five-point scale. However, let us examine the
statement to which a respondent has to react. The word ``strongly'' in the phrase `Ì
feel strongly about it'' is ambiguous, because it is not clear whether ``strongly'' means a
positive opinion: `Ì like looking at such photographs'' or a negative opinion `Ì dislike
looking at such photographs''. Furthermore, the meaning of the word `ìt'' in the same
phrase is also unclear. In other words, respondents do not know whether `ìt'' refers to
the actual act of physical violence or the depiction of such an act in a press photograph.
The example given above illustrates that, although there is no problem with the actual
COM306-D/1 81
scale itself, the words used in a statement or question could mean that the item is
neither reliable nor valid. (We shall return to the problems experienced in the wording
of questions and statements again in section 3.4.1 below.)
As you will see, the prescribed book focuses on five-point Likert scales. Please note,
though, that some researchers leave out the middle (neutral) position and thus turn this
basic five-point scale into a four-point scale. Using a four-point scale, forces the
respondent to either `àgree'' or ``disagree''. In other words, a four-point scale does not
give the respondent the opportunity to feel ``neutral'', `ùndecided'' or `ùncertain''.
Takeway food outlets, petrol stations, national airlines and banking institutions often
distribute one-page questionnaires, in which customers have to rate their services
either by ticking one of the two smiling faces or one of the two unhappy-looking faces.
These are examples of four-point scales. On the other hand, some researchers extend
the basic five-point scale to a seven-point scale by adding ``disagree slightly'' (or
``moderately disagree'') and `àgree slightly'' (or ``moderately agree'').
The following is an example of a seven-point scale that measures attitudes to an

educational television series.
Instructions: Please tick (V) one response option for the following statement that
most closely reflects your opinion.
On the whole I found this specific television educational series to be informative.
t Strongly agree
t Moderately agree
t Agree somewhat
t Unsure
t Disagree somewhat
t Moderately disagree
t Strongly disagree
Please note that the number of points (four, five or seven) on a Likert scale does not
determine the reliability of the scale. Since Likert scales focus on the degree to which
respondents agree or disagree with statements about a specific issue, items which have
high reliability with each other are combined by adding up the ratings (positive or
negative) which respondents give.
We would encourage you to use a five-point scale for the following reasons:
& Is it ethical to force a respondent to either agree or to disagree (which is what a
four-point scale does) and not to give him or her the option to feel neutral or
uncertain?
& Is there a sufficient difference between ``disagree somewhat'', ``moderately
disagree''; and `àgree somewhat'' and ``moderately agree'' (which are the sort of
questions asked in a seven-point scale)?
Let us now consider an example of an item which uses three semantic differential
scales.
82
Instruction: Make a cross in one of the spaces on each scale that reflects your
opinion about the variety of programmes broadcast on SABC-TV1:
true :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: untrue
long :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: short
biased :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: unbiased
Let us have another look at the bipolar adjectives used in the example above. None of
these bipolar adjectives apply to what is being investigated, namely the variety of
programmes. When you think about it, it makes no sense to say that variety is ``true'',
``long'' or ``biased'' (or that variety is `ùntrue'', ``short'' or `ùnbiased'').
In the examples of bipolar adjectives given for the three dimensions in the prescribed
book (such as valuable versus worthless; or active versus passive; or strong versus
weak), the problem appears to lie in the fact that a semantic differential scale is not
appropriate for assessing a respondent's opinion on a topic such as the variety of
programmes broadcast on SABC-TV1. One of the other three scales Ð and
particularly a Likert scale Ð would have been a more appropriate scale.
The following is a possible example of a Likert scale:
Instruction: Place a tick (V) next to the one choice that indicates your opinion.
SABC-TV1 broadcasts a great variety of television programmes.
t Strongly agree
t Agree
t Neutral
t Disagree
t Strongly disagree
You will notice that this particular item is worded positively, which means that when
scoring the responses you would assign (5) to ``strongly agree'' and (1) to ``strongly
disagree''.
The following example of semantic differential scales (adapted from Reinard 1994:244)
is aimed at rating employees' perception of their managing director. Note that
respondents are not told that they are evaluating the director's competence and
character. However, the scores for the first three scales are combined to produce a
``competence'' score; and the remaining scales are combined to produce a ``character''
score.
COM306-D/1 83
Instruction: Complete the statement ``The managing director of this company''
according to the way you feel about him or her by placing a tick (C) on each of the
seven-point scales.
The managing director is:

reliable :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: unreliable (*)
uninformed :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: informed
unqualified :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: qualified
selfish :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: unselfish
unfriendly :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: friendly
pleasant :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: unpleasant (*)
Please note that the asterisks (*) which follow two of the items would not appear on
the actual scale. They have been added here to show that, when scoring these two
items, you would have to apply reverse scoring. In other words, whereas the other
items would be scored as illustrated below:
uniformed :.1.::.2.::.3.::.4.::.5.::.6.::.7.:: informed
the scoring for those items with the asterisks would be reversed, as follows:
reliable :.7.::.6.::.5.::.4.::.3.::.2.::.1.:: unreliable
We shall end our discussion of examples with a semantic differential instrument that
measures children's reactions to male and female characters in a television programme.
Our example is taken from Smith (1988:63):
Instructions: Please complete the sentence below by checking a position by means

of a tick (C) on each of the scales following the sentence. Give your first impressions
or immediate reactions.
When compared to females, males are:

1 Aggressive :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: Submissive
2 Weak :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: Strong
3 Logical :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: Illogical
4 Withdrawn :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: Outgoing
5 Sturdy :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: Fragile
6 Insensitive :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: Sensitive
7 Bold :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: Timid
8 Dependent :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: Self-reliant
9 Realistic :...::...::...::...::...::...::...:: Unrealistic
This example illustrates the flexibility of semantic differential scales. As you can see, they
can measure more than one construct; in this case, they are measuring children's
evaluative reactions to male and female television characters, and they are also
measuring the activity and potency dimensions of these characters.
84
The evaluative dimension is measured by scales 3, 6 and 9 in the example given
above. Other examples of bipolar adjectives which can be used to measure evaluative
reactions are: good Ð bad; pleasant Ð unpleasant; beautiful Ð ugly. The activity
dimension is measured by scales 1, 4 and 7; scales 2, 5 and 8 measure the potency
dimension (in the example given above). In addition to the examples given in the
prescribed book, other examples of bipolar adjectives that measure the potency
dimension are: rugged Ð delicate; and dominant Ð submissive.
Having dealt with measurements and the use of scales to collect data, we now move
on to the second data-collection method, namely, asking questions.
3.4 Collecting data by asking questions

Study-read Our focus in this subsection is on the wording of items in a questionnaire, the types of
section 3.4 in the questions asked during interviews, and the problems experienced in the wording of
prescribed book items (questions and statements). Let us start with these problems.
3.4.1 Problems experienced in the wording of questions and statements

Study-read When you first start study-reading the fourteen problems (in the prescribed book) that
section 3.4.1 in can be created by the wording of questions and/or statements, you may feel quite
the prescribed bewildered Ð you will probably also wonder how you are ever going to remember
book them all. Unfortunately there is no shortcut or memory strategy that we can give you.
What you need to do is to become sensitive to the way in which questions or
statements are worded. You should also keep in mind questions such as:
& Is this a double-barrelled question (or statement)?
& Is this question or statement based on a questionable assumption?
& Does this question or statement contain loaded language?
To help you, we have formulated six examples of questions/statements of problem

wording in the activity below.
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ACTIVITY 10
Carefully study-read the examples of questions and/or statements

below. What problems are caused by the wording of each of these
examples? In each case, try to identify at least one of the fourteen
problems discussed in the prescribed book.
Example 1
What is your opinion of local television programmes which portray people

of different racial and cultural backgrounds mixing freely and living
harmoniously?
COM306-D/1 85
Example 2
Indicate by means of a cross next to one of the options how much time you
spend reading newspapers.
t a lot of time
t average time
t little time
Example 3
Do you allow your children, if you have children, to watch any film shown
on M-Net or any other television channel?
t Agree
t Disagree
t No opinion
Example 4
The Unisa News is educative and it enlightens its students, especially

those students who live outside of South Africa and/or those students who
never have an opportunity to visit the main campus or who are neither in
a position to telephone the lecturers or attend group discussions. Do you
agree?
Please indicate your opinion by placing a tick next to one of the options
below.
t strongly agree
t agree
t neutral
t disagree
t strongly disagree
Example 5
Give at least one reason why you think your supervisor has the reputation
that she has.
Example 6
If you have felt like making a contribution to the Unisa News in what
format would it be? Describe briefly in your own words.
OUR COMMENTS
Whilst doing this activity, the chances are that you identified more than one
``problem'' in certain questions and/or statements. Below is a list of some of
the problems that we identified.
Example 1: The word `ànd'', which is repeated, indicates that this is a double-
barrelled question.
86
Example 2: The statement and the options are vague. For example, the re-
ference to ``newspapers'' is not clear and respondents' weekday reading
patterns are likely to differ from their weekend (especially Sunday) reading
patterns. Furthermore, respondents are likely to attach different meanings to
the time periods given in this item. For example, `à lot of time'' could re-
present two hours for one respondent and twenty hours for another. One
possible solution would be to restate the options:
t less than an hour

t between one and two hours
t more than two hours
However, even these options can create problems because neither the
respondent, nor the researcher, knows whether we are talking about so many
hours per day, per week or per month.
Example 3: The use of the word `òr'' indicates that this is a double-barrelled
question. Also, the use of abbreviations or acronyms should be avoided, be-
cause they may be misunderstood. Furthermore, the qualification: `ìf you
have children'' should have been included in a previous filter question to
establish whether the respondent has children (living at home) rather than
being combined with ``Do you allow your children to watch any film shown
on ...''. As it is, a respondent who does not have children (or who does have
children, but not living at home) will not know how to respond to the quali-
fication. Also, the dichotomous response (agree/disagree) is inappropriate.
Since no statement is made, it is not clear what the respondent is being asked
to agree/disagree with. Bearing in mind what you have learnt about Likert
scales, a correction could contain the following options:
t All the time

t Most of the time
t Some of the time
t Rarely
t Never
Example 4: The presence of `ànd'' and `òr'' indicates that this is yet another
double-barrelled statement. This example also contains a lengthy statement
which obscures what the respondent is supposed to be thinking about. Fur-
thermore, the question: ``Do you agree?'' prompts the respondent to answer
``yes'', which means that this is also a leading question.
Example 5: This statement contains three potential problems. First, it contains
a false or questionable assumption, namely, that all respondents do hold this
view of their supervisor. Secondly, it contains ambiguous language, because
the denotative meaning of ``reputation'' could be positive or negative. How-
ever, because the supervisor is identified as a woman (``she''), the combi-
nation of the gender and ``reputation'' could imply a negative reputation,
which means that the language used in this item is ``loaded''.
Example 6: The presence of `ìf'' makes this a presumptive question. A pre-
vious filter question should have been asked to establish whether or not a
respondent ever felt like making a contribution. Also, the use of the word
``format'' is vague, because the average Unisa student (as respondent) will not
know that ``format'' could, for example, refer to a letter to the editor, an
COM306-D/1 87
article, a photographic record of an important occasion (eg a graduation
ceremony) or even an advertisement.
3.4.2 Items in a self-administered questionnaire

Study-read Self-administered questionnaires are usually associated with survey research conducted
section 3.4.2 in over a wide geographic area. However, they are also used during focus-group
the prescribed
interviews and face-to-face interviews. Respondents receive a questionnaire (in print
book
form or on computer disk). They fill in their answers or responses in their own time Ð
in other words, their participation is voluntary.
The main types of questions that are used in a self-administered questionnaire are:
& direct versus indirect questions
& specific versus general questions
& open-ended versus closed-ended questions
The last group of questions, namely closed-ended questions, can be subdivided into:
& paired-comparison questions
& filter questions
& contingency questions
& ranking questions
& inventory questions
& matrix questions
& multiple-choice questions
Instead of repeating what the prescribed book says, let us concentrate on the uses or
advantages of these types of questions or statements as items in self-administered
questionnaires.
Direct, and/or a specific, and/or a closed-ended question:
This type of question guarantees that you will receive specific responses (which
are easier to code).
Indirect, and/or general and/or open-ended questions:
If you ask these types of questions, you will receive a variety of responses, some
of which may be vague and unrelated to the assumption that you want to test.
For example, if you asked all third-level Communication students their views of
this module by asking a general or open-ended question, you would probably
receive a few hundred different answers. These answers would then have to be
coded into positive, neutral or negative categories with, possibly, various
subcategories (depending on the topics covered in the responses). This would be
a mammoth task, and hence impractical. In other words general/open-ended
questions are inappropriate when a wide variety of responses can be anticipated.
The seven variations of closed-ended questions all share one common feature:
respondents are forced to select one or more response, or to rank a number of
responses.
88
3.4.3 Types of questions asked in interviews
Study-read An interview can be conducted either telephonically, or on a one-to-one basis (ie face-
section 3.4.3 in to-face) or in a group (usually referred to as a focus-group interview). An interview
the prescribed schedule (rather than a questionnaire) is normally compiled and used during
book interviews. An interview schedule contains guidelines or instructions that the
interviewers have to follow, the exact wording of the questions to be asked, and space
for follow-up questions and additional responses. Although interviews may include
both closed-ended and open questions, the type of closed-ended question that can be
asked is limited. This is because a researcher cannot expect a respondent to remember
a long list of options. When they are used, the options given to a respondent will
therefore normally not exceed three. Instead, unstructured questions, in the form of
open-ended questions, are normally included in an interview schedule.
The following activity asks you to think about six different research settings and to
decide what type of open-ended question you regard as appropriate, given the
objectives and settings of the research.
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ACTIVITY 11
Which type of unstructured (open-ended) question applies in each

of the following six objectives or settings?
(1) You want to find out how popular a certain musician is Ð you ask re-
spondents to evaluate the musician by telling you (in their own words)
how they experience this musician's work.
(2) A respondent expresses his dissatisfaction with the content of a specific
magazine. You follow this up by asking him to describe the content of that
magazine.
(3) You are conducting a survey among young girls who live in homes for
unmarried mothers and you want to establish how a respondent feels
about being interviewed.
(4) You ask a follow-up question by repeating a respondent's previous re-
sponse, with the objective of finding out more about the respondent's
reading habits.
(5) You interview a dissatisfied employee in a particular firm and ask her to
imagine that she is the employer.
(6) The objective of this type of question is to enable respondents to reply in
any way they want to.
OUR COMMENTS
The objectives and settings described in the six examples above all apply to
unstructured interviews and the appropriate questions are follows:
(1) free-narration question
(2) probing question
(3) climate question
(4) mirror question
(5) role-playing question
(6) open-ended question
In the next section, we shall discuss observations as a means of collecting data.

However, we shall first include and comment on two self-evaluation and portfolio
COM306-D/1 89
tasks. The purpose of these tasks is to test whether you have achieved the third
learning outcome: to understand and make informed decisions when collecting data by
formulating items for a questionnaire and an interview.
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Task 3.9
Study-read The following questions contain wording which will create problems if
sections 3.3.1, used in a questionnaire. Identify the problem in each case and rewrite the
3.4.1 and 3.4.2 in question so that the problem is eliminated.
eliminated
the prescribed (1) Should we insist on meeting management regularly on a face-to-face
book basis or continue communicating through e-mail?
(2) Do you agree with the majority of union members that minimum
wages must be increased?
(3) Do M-Net programmes leave something to be desired?
(4) Do you think that educational television programmes can improve
children's language skills?
(5) Do you think that new employees appointed in junior positions get
their due in this company?
(6) How long have you been employed in this company?
t 1±5 years
t 5±10 years
t Longer than 10 years.
(7) Who should be the next President of South Africa?

t Thabo Mbeki
t Kader Asmal
(8) When you relax, do you prefer to read a book or just watch television?
(9) Where did you hear of the Minister's resignation?
OUR COMMENTS
Once again, you will only really benefit from reading our comments below
after you have tried to do the task yourself. Do so either on your own, or in
consultation with your fellow-learners.
(1) Should we insist on meeting management regularly on a face-to-face basis
or continue communicating through e-mail?
This question is problematic for two reasons, the most obvious of which is
the use of `òr'', which makes it a double-barrelled question. In other
words, if a respondent answers ``yes'', you do not know whether the ``yes''
applies to the first question, the second question, or to both. The second
problem lies in the use of ``we'', which are vague agents of action. To
avoid vague responses, the persons required to meet or communicate with
management must be specified.
One way in which above problems can be solved is to formulate two
separate statements, together with Likert scales and to identify the agents
of action. The following are two possibilities:
90
Instruction: Place a tick (V) next to the one choice that indicates your
opinion.
All supervisors should insist on meeting management regularly on a
face-to-face basis.
t Strongly agree
t Agree
t Neutral
t Disagree
t Strongly disagree
opinion.
Messages between management and supervisors should continue to be
communicated through e-mail.
t Strongly agree
t Agree
t Neutral
t Disagree
t Strongly disagree
You were introduced to the formulation of paired-comparison questions in

section 3.4.2 in the prescribed book. Do you agree that such a paired-
comparison question could also be used, instead of asking two separate
questions with Likert scales?
(2) Do you agree with the majority of union members that minimum wages
must be increased?
A phrase such as ``Do you favour ...?'', or Ð as in this case Ð ``Do you
agree ...?'' is loaded language. In other words, the suggestion here is that
the respondent should answer ``yes''; in other words, ``yes'' is ``loaded''
onto the question, which makes it a leading question that puts pressure on
the respondent. As a result, a respondent who wishes to answer ``no'' will
not only feel he or she is going against ``the majority of union members'',
but also that he or she cannot appreciate the obvious advantages of an
increase in the minimum wages.
The correct wording might be:
opinion.
The minimum wage of employees who work in this organisation must be
increased.
t Strongly agree
t Agree
t Neutral
t Disagree
t Strongly disagree
(3) Do M-Net programmes leave something to be desired?

The abbreviation ``M-Net'' should be avoided because some respondents
might not know that it refers to a South African pay-television service.
This is also a vague question, because the expression ``something to be
COM306-D/1 91
desired'' could refer to numerous things, such as programme schedules,
the content of specific programmes or the costs of a decoder.
To correct this question, you would first have to know what specific aspect
of the service you want evaluated. In the correction that follows, we have
formulated a filter and contingency question to test the assumption that
viewers are not satisfied with the type of programmes broadcast during
M-Net open time.
(1) Are you satisfied with the type of programmes that M-Net television
pay-channel broadcasts during open time?
t Yes (If yes, please ignore question 2 and go to question 3)
t No (If no, please answer question 2 and the remaining questions)
(2) In the space below please indicate the type of programmes that you
would prefer to watch during open time.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
You will notice that question 2 (a contingency question) is formulated as

an open-ended question which allows respondents to answer in their own
words.
Please note that your correction need not have been in the form of a filter
and contingency question. As indicated above, the type of question would
depend on what you want to evaluate. For example, if you are interested in
determining whether certain programmes are more popular than others,
then a ranking question would be appropriate.
(4) Do you think that educational television programmes can improve chil-
dren's language skills?
Questions that contain words such as ``can'' or ``may'' have only one
logical answer: ``yes''. You could also have argued that `èducational te-
levision programmes'' is a vague reference and that it is not clear at which
age group or developmental stage these particular programmes are aimed.
To correct this question you would therefore have to link the question to a
specific educational television programme. Once this has been identified,
it is easier to be more specific about the type of learning that should take
place. We have selected Takalani Sesame, which is a South African
adaptation of the well-known Sesame Street produced by the American
Children's Television Workshop. The target audience is pre-school children
aged 3±5 years and the educational goals of the original Sesame Street
programmes include the following:
& symbolic functions (eg the recognition and use of letters and numbers)
& cognitive processes (eg the order and classification of objects and
events)
& physical environment (eg city-life, nature and animals)
& social environment (eg the need for social rules, justice and fair play)
Assuming that the question is part of a survey among parents of pre-
school children, it would not be advisable to use phrases such as ``cog-
nitive processes'', because parents are unlikely to know the meaning of
92
such phrases. Instead, more concrete and observable references need to
be used Ð as in the example below.
We chose to use a ranking question, because the television programmes
we are researching have concentrated on the first educational goal and we
want to establish, from the parents' viewpoint, whether their children
have shown an improvement in symbolic functions. (We have previously
established that these parents' pre-school children do watch the pro-
gramme regularly.)
Instruction: In your opinion, in which of the following learning areas has

you child improved as a result of watching Takalani Sesame? Number
the area in which the most learning has taken place as ``1'', mark your
second choice ``2'', mark your third choice ``3'' and your last choice ``4''.
t recognising different letters of the alphabet
t arranging objects according to different sizes
t naming different types of animals
t seeing situations from other people's point of view
(5) Do you think that new employees appointed in junior positions get their
due in this company?
The phrase ``get their due'' is not only vague but, in this case, it could be
misinterpreted to mean: `àre they mistreated because they are new and in
junior positions?''
Again, the correction would depend on what you want to investigate. In
our correction below, we are testing new employees' opinions of senior
staff who acted as their personal mentors for their first year of service.
This is an example of a multiple-choice question combined with a scale.
opinion.
The amount of feedback that you received from your mentor during the
year that enabled you to do your work well was:
t Enough
t More than average
t Average
t Little
t None
(6) How long have you been employed in this company?

t 1±5 years
t 5±10 years
t Longer than 10 years
Section 3.3.1 in the prescribed book emphasises the fact that categories or
options must be mutually exclusive. In this example it means that
respondents must fall into one, and only one, category. If employees have
been employed for five years, some may tick the first option and some may
tick the second option, because ``5'' appears in both categories. The
findings will therefore be invalid.
The correction therefore lies in changing the second option to read 6±10
years.
COM306-D/1 93
(7) Who should be the next President of South Africa?
t Thabo Mbeki
t Kader Asmal
Apart from being mutually exclusive, categories must also be exhaustive.
This means that the options must provide for all possibilities. Limiting the
choice of the next President to only two candidates makes this an example
of a question with options that are not exhaustive. Given the large number
of individuals who could be eligible, it is not advisable to try and list all
their names. In fact, such a list may still not be exhaustive.
The solution therefore lies in either adding the following as a third option:
t Other (please write the name)

..........................................................................................................
or by formulating the question as an open-ended question.

(8) When you relax, do you prefer to read a book or just watch television?
The presence of the word `òr'' indicates that this is a double-barrelled
question. Adding the qualifier ``just'' suggests that watching television is
a ``simple'' activity. The solution here is to formulate a paired-comparison
question and to avoid negative qualifiers. This means we will end up with
a closed-ended question in which the respondent has to select between
two alternatives. For example:
When you relax, what do you prefer to do? (Tick one answer.)
t reading a book
t watching television
(9) Where did you hear of the Minister's resignation?

This question is presumptive because it assumes that the respondent
``heard'' the message Ð and this, in turn, implies that the information
was conveyed over the radio, on the television or through another person.
The limitation of ``hearing'' the information also means that the question
does not provide for other possibilities, such as reading and it therefore
does not meet the criterion of being exhaustive.
A solution here is to formulate an inventory question and to be more
specific about the source of information. For example:
From which of the following sources did you first learn of the Minister's
resignation? (Tick one option.)
t a newspaper
t a magazine
t radio
t television
t the Internet
t a person
t other (fill in the source) ....................................................................
94
Task 3.10
Study-read What type of question or scaling would you regard as the most suitable for
section 3.4.2 and collecting data about each of the following?
section 3.4.3 in (1) employees' opinions about a new management policy
the prescribed (2) the reaction of taxi-drivers who regularly travel long distances be-
book tween cities in a specific province to a campaign to prohibit taxis from
using freeways.
(3) the ``best-liked'' politician in a particular province.
(4) political party members' impressions of their current leader
(5) the demographic characteristics of viewers of a television soap opera
such as Egoli
(6) the number of television sets in a specified number of households
OUR COMMENTS
The type of question or scale we judge as being the most suitable for col-
lecting the data described in Task 3.10 depends on two factors, namely:
& The actual nature of the data (eg a respondent's opinion versus factual
information, such as number of television sets per household).
& Whether the question or scale is to be part of a self-administered
questionnaire or used in an interview (which may be structured, partially
structured or unstructured).
For example, an inventory question that contains nine or more options from
which the respondent can select is suitable for a self-administered ques-
tionnaire. However, such a question is not suitable in an interview (because
the respondent will find it difficult to remember so many options).
As you read our comments on each of the six types of data, keep the above two
factors in mind, therefore, because the questions and scales that you have
selected may differ from ours (due to these factors). We have decided that
these questions and scales are going to be used in a self-administered
questionnaire. Please read our comments with that in mind.
(1) Employees' opinions about a new management policy
In this case, you want to find out whether respondents support something.
You might also be interested in finding out if respondents, in fact, feel
neutral about the topic. The most suitable question would therefore be a
closed-ended question which uses a Likert scale.
(2) The reaction of taxi-drivers who regularly travel long distances between
cities in a specific province to a campaign to prohibit taxis from using
freeways.
The data being sought in this case also relate to respondents' opinions or
attitudes. Again, a Likert scale would therefore be appropriate. However,
because you are not investigating all taxi-drivers in a specific province,
you would first have to distinguish between taxi-drivers who only drive
within city limits versus those who regularly travel long distances be-
tween cities. You therefore first have to ask a filter question, such as
COM306-D/1 95
1 As a taxi-driver do you regularly travel long distances between
cities?
t yes (if yes, please answer all the remaining questions)
t no (if no, ignore this questionnaire and return it by post)
Having distinguished between the two groups of taxi-drivers, you would

then include a contingency question as question 2. An example is a closed-
ended question which uses a Likert scale, or an open-ended question in
which respondents are invited to comment on the campaign in their own
words.
(3) The ``best-liked'' politician in a particular province
The best liked television programme, radio programmes, newspaper, film
or Ð as in this case Ð politician is determined by comparing a pro-
gramme, newspaper, film or politician with others. Your best option would
therefore be to use a closed-ended ranking question. You would then list
approximately five politicians and ask respondents to rank them from ``1''
to ``5'', and from ``best liked'' to ``least liked''.
Because, as the researcher, you have to decide which options to include in
a ranking question, you may fail to include all the options that are relevant
or important to respondents. If you feel unsure about the number of po-
liticians that should be listed and/or if there are more than five or six, it
would be better to ask an open-ended question such as the following:
Of the politicians in your province, list the three that you like in the
following order. Number the ``best liked'' politician as 1; your second
choice number 2, and the ``third choice'' as number 3:
(1) ..........................................................................................................
(2) ..........................................................................................................
(3) ..........................................................................................................
Although this open-ended question enables respondents to rank their

personal choices without any prompting from you, don't forget that you
may obtain very different answers and that coding these names into
ranked categories (from ``best liked'' to ``third choice'') will be a time-
consuming process.
Given this, it would be a good idea to first conduct a pilot study Ð among
a small sample of potential respondents Ð to determine which politicians
belong to which province and to include the names of these politicians in a
close-ended ranking question.
(4) Political party members' impressions of their current leader
Political party members have certain impressions of their party leader
based on different factors, such as their expectations of the party leader,
his or her past performance and/or image presented in the mass media.
Since these impressions can be very diverse, your best option would be to
compile matrix questions or statements, each containing options based on
a Likert scale.
Remember that the Likert scale gives respondents the opportunity to se-
lect one of the following options:
96
& strongly agree
& agree
& neutral
& disagree
& strongly disagree
It is therefore advisable to mix positively worded and negatively worded

statements.
The following are examples of image criteria that can be incorporated into
your statements:
& sociable Ð unsociable
& good-natured Ð irritable
& bold Ð timid
& talkative Ð quiet
& aggressive Ð meek
& qualified Ð unqualified
& believable Ð unbelievable
& trained Ð untrained
& expert Ð inexpert
& intelligent Ð unintelligent
& reliable Ð unreliable
& responsible Ð irresponsible
& competent Ð incompetent
& honest Ð dishonest
& admirable Ð contemptible
& just Ð unjust
(5) The demographic characteristics of viewers of a television soap opera such

as Egoli
Demographic characteristics include variables such as gender, age, edu-
cational level, income and living area. If the particular characteristics that
you want to investigate are discrete and can be measured at a nominal
level of measurement (eg gender), then your best option would be to use
closed-ended, multiple-choice questions. An example to determine edu-
cational level could, for example, read as follows:
What is your highest academic qualification? Please tick (V) one of the
boxes.
t Grade 12/matric or lower
t Postmatric certificate/diploma
t B degree
t Honours degree
t Masters degree
t Doctoral degree
(6) The number of television sets in a specified number of households

The number of television sets can be recorded by asking an open-ended
question such as the following:
Write down the number of television sets in your household:
...................................................................................................
COM306-D/1 97
However, as is the case with any open-ended question, you would have to
code the responses in specific categories which, as we have said, is time-
consuming. Also, because the nature of the information is factual (not
based on opinions or attitudes), it would be more appropriate to ask a
multiple-choice question such as the following:
How many television sets do you have in your household? Tick (V) one
of the boxes.
t None
t 1
t 2
t 3
t more than 3
Asking a multiple-choice question means that the options are precoded on

the questionnaire Ð this, in turn, means that responses can be analysed
by a computer.
We shall now focus on how observations can be used to collect data.
3.5 Collecting data by means of observations

Study-read Observations used to collect data are usually called field observations, because
section 3.5 in the research subjects are observed in their normal environment. Please note that, in field
prescribed book research, the terms ``subjects''. ``participants'' or `ìnformants'' are preferred (rather
than ``respondents''). The ``field'' can vary from a hospital room, a prison cell, a school
classroom, a factory floor, a shopping mall, a sports gathering, a management
committee meeting, to a room in which a family watches television.
There are different forms of field observations, but all forms of field observations are
based on two variables:
& the roles we fulfill as observers in the event being observed
& whether our observations are open or concealed
We shall deal with these roles and procedures in the next study unit.
For the moment, we shall concentrate on:

& the data-collection devices and techniques that can be used
& the two types of observations (based on how the data are collected)
The hardware used during observations include the following: self-administered

questionnaires, interview schedules, audiotape recorders, videotape recorders,
stopwatches, infrared photography, one-way mirrors and electronic meters (attached
to a radio or television set).
Software used during observations include: paper-and-pencil instruments (eg filling in

interview schedules, observation schedules, or logs, making field notes during or after
the observations, or filling in a diary).
98
Throughout this module, we have referred to quantitative and qualitative approaches
to communication research. The selection of one rather than the other approach will
influence which observation techniques you use.
If your objective is to collect quantitative data (eg observing the frequency with which a
certain communication behaviour occurs), then you will conduct systematic
observations. This means you will have to construct a standardised observation
schedule before making your observations. This schedule will include a checklist of the
behaviours to be observed (divided into categories). These categories will obviously
have to be pilot-tested to ensure that they are reliable and valid. This sort of systematic
observation is usually preferred, because two or more observers can use the same
observation schedule Ð also, the schedule can be repeatedly used during a
longitudinal study. Tables 3.6Ð3.8 in the prescribed book contain three examples of
systematic observation schedules.
In contrast, unstructured observations, called ethnographic observations, do not

involve the use of standardised observation schedules. The objective of ethnographic
observations is to study subjects' behaviour, including verbal and nonverbal
communication, from the subjects' perspective. In other words, ethnographic
observations are used to collect qualitative data. Note taking, and audio and video
recordings, are normally used as recording devices and techniques. You should take
particular note of how one example of a verbal expression can be classified or indexed
in three ways, as illustrated in table 3.9 in the prescribed book.
We shall end this study unit with self-evaluation and portfolio tasks; the purpose of both
is to test whether you have attained the last learning outcome: to make and
communicate informed decisions on the basis of data collected by means of
observations.
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Task 3.11
Study-read Think of a communication situation to which you have easy access and
section 3.5 in the where you could use systematic observations to collect quantitative data.
prescribed book Think of categories into which the behaviour or communication interac-
tion can be divided and draw up the observation schedule you are going to
use. Conduct an observation (eg for 30 minutes) and record your ob-
servations. Evaluate your own performance by making notes of the fol-
lowing:
& any problems you experienced whilst making the observations
& an evaluation of the appropriateness of the categories in your ob-
servation schedule
OUR COMMENTS
One of the activities that outcomes-based education encourages in schools is
group work. We decided to undertake systematic observations of the com-
munication that takes place among learners engaged in group work. Our
objective was to determine whether learners' home language and gender
played a role in initiating communication. We observed seven learners in a
COM306-D/1 99
Grade 3 class; these learners consisted of boys and girls, who spoke English,
Afrikaans and Tswana at home. Their task was to build a puzzle depicting a
zoo scene.
We devised the following observation schedule to quantify the communication
interaction of these learners:
Seconds ?
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
||||||||| ||||||||| ||||||||| ||||||||| ||||||||| |||||||||
1 M/E/I M/T/R
; 2 F/E/R
Minutes 3
4 M/A/I M/A/R
5 M/E/R
We decided on the following categories:

& Gender: M (boys) versus F (girls)
& Language used: A (Afrikaans), E (English), T (Tswana)
& Type of communication: I (the learner initiates communication by
introducing a new topic, expressing ideas, or
asking questions) versus R (the learner
responds to communication initiated by
another learner).
Evaluation:
The following are problems that we experienced whilst making the ob-
servations:
& Although the learners did not know why they were being observed, they
did know that they were being observed. We are therefore concerned about
the validity Ð not of our observations Ð but of the learners' behaviour.
Reactivity is always a threat to validity. In this case, reactivity could cause
a shy learner to withdraw from the others, or an extrovert to dominate the
group activity.
& Since only one observer made the observations, we cannot establish the
reliability of the observations. If two observers had made the observations,
then we could have applied an intercoder-reliability test.
& The type of communication (initiation or response) was plotted on a time
scale, using a stopwatch, and it became difficult to keep an eye on both the
stopwatch and the learners and to jot down M versus F; A versus E versus
T; and I versus R.
& Also, since two or more learners were occasionally talking at once, it was
very difficult to keep an accurate recording of these overlaps.
To evaluate the appropriateness of the categories in our observation schedule,
we need to reconsider the research objectives of the observations and why we
wanted to collect quantitative, rather the qualitative, data. By differentiating
between two genders, three languages and two types of communication, we
could count the number of times:
100
& boys (rather than girls) initiated communication
& a particular language was used to initiate communication
& a particular language was used as a response
The categories that we selected were therefore appropriate for collecting this
data.
However, our categories were not exhaustive because they did not provide for
the following communication actions:
& nonverbal responses based on kinesics (eg shrugging of shoulders or facial
expressions)
& nonverbal responses that relate to proxemics (eg moving closer to one
another, or leaving the group)
& silence as a response
& communication that relates to the puzzle-building activity
& social interaction that is not related to the group activity
This raises the question: were systematic observations a reliable method to

use here? In our opinion, it would have been more appropriate to use eth-
nographic observations (using a video recording that could be analysed after
the observations).
Task 3.12
Study-read Think of a communication situation to which you have easy access and
section 3.5 in the where you could use ethnographic observations to collect qualitative data
prescribed book that focuses on the subjects' perspectives. What types of behaviour or
communication interactions do you want to concentrate on? Conduct an
observation (eg for 30 minutes) and record your observations. Evaluate
your own performance by making notes of the following:
& deciding whether your observations should be followed up with a full-
scale study
& any problems that you experienced whilst making the observations and,
especially, recording your observations
& what the data convey about the perspective of the subjects you ob-
served
OUR COMMENTS
One of us decided to conduct ethnographic observations of gamblers who play
the roulette wheel in a casino. The comments below are therefore written in
the first-person (`Ì'', ``me'', ``my'') type of address. It is sometimes acceptable
to write a report using `Ì'', ``me'', ``my'', particularly when you are reporting
about something complex. If you feel nervous about doing this, and you would
prefer to use the impersonal voice (which we recommend), you do at least
need to say who you are and why you did the research.
The setting provided easy access and with people coming and going, nobody
questioned my sitting on one side of the gambling area, enjoying some re-
freshments and making notes.
I was unsure about the types of behaviour or communication interactions on
which I wanted to concentrate. To solve this dilemma I decided to formulate
COM306-D/1 101
the following questions, hoping that they would function as a guide to my
observations:
& Can one differentiate between experienced gamblers and so-called
``newcomers'', on the basis of how they gamble and what/how they
communicate verbally?
& What affect does the gambling have on interpersonal communication?
The following are examples of the jotted notes that I made during the first few
minutes of the 30-minute observations:
& A new roulette table opens.
(spin 1)
(spin 2)
(spin 3)
& A man [A] approaches (looks of Eastern). Well-
dressed. Bets R100 chip on odds-evens. Remains
standing. He wins. Shows no reaction. Walks to next
table.
(spin 4)
& A man [B] and a woman [C] sit down. Married or
friends Ð not clear. Casual dress Ð jeans. Speak
Afrikaans. Ask the croupier [D] for a record card.
(spin 5) Change R200 for R5 chips. Place no bets. They
write down the winning numbers.
(spin 6)
(spin 7)
& Three men, strangers, [E; F; G] join the table. Speak
English. (spin 8) They place small bets.
(spin 9)
& [F] is very loud. He confronts [D] when he loses.
(spin 10)
& [D] expressionless. No reply.
(spin 11)
& [B] starts betting, wins small amounts, 3 in a row.
(spin 12, 13,14) Gets annoyed because a new croupier
takes over.
& [C] does not bet, appears irritated. [B] ignores her.
(spin 1 ± new croupier)
& [F] & [G] win big. They discuss their luck. [F] orders a
drink.
(spin 2)
& [C] gets up and walks away. [B] unconcerned.
(spin 3)
102
& [G] turns to big TV screen. Watches rugby.
(spin 4)
& [A] returns. Stands. (spin 5) Bets on colour. Loses.
Walks away.
Evaluation
(1) The problems that I experienced whilst making the observations and,
especially, in recording my observations mainly relate to the fact that I
could not keep track of all the gamblers' behaviour. For example, as the
notes of the first few minutes above illustrate, I did not make notes of [E's]
behaviour.
The solution lies in getting more than one observer and clearly defining
what each observer should focus on before doing the observations. For
example, one observer could focus on gamblers' betting behaviour with
each spin. Another observer could observe gamblers' responses to win-
ning/losing. And a third observer could focus on gamblers' interactions
with one another and/or with the croupier. Each spin of the roulette wheel
(instead of a watch) can be used as a ``marker'' to subsequently correlate
the different observations.
For example, croupier 4, spin 11:
What did the subject do prior to the spin?
Did he/she place a bet?
How much?
What type(s) of bet(s)?
Did he/she win or lose?
What is his/her response?
Does he/she communicate with someone?
Who?
What is said?
When not betting, how does he/she fill time?
If such details are to be recorded, then the ideal would be to have an
observer for each gambler.
(2) The description of what the data conveyed about the perspective of the
subjects that I observed are not comprehensive, because I could not ob-
serve several people simultaneously. However, the following ``patterns'' of
behaviour did emerge:
& Subject A is a ``floating'' gambler who moves among the different
roulette tables. He does not sit down to gamble and always places large
(R100) bets. He does not take chances and tends to bet on odds-and-
evens or on one of two colours.
& Subject B was initially slow to place bets and first studied the winning
numbers. However, once the second and especially the third croupier
took over, he became ``reckless'' and lost more than R500 during the
30-minute period. Although I could not confirm whether C was his
wife, she was clearly annoyed by the situation, first by leaving the
gambling area and by her reaction when she returned to find how
much B had lost.
& Subject F was a ``trouble-maker'', blaming his losses on the croupiers.
He consumed alcohol throughout the observation period.
COM306-D/1 103
& Four activities were performed as time-fillers when gamblers did not
place a bet, namely drinking, smoking, watching the rugby on the
television screen, or recording the winning numbers.
& I could not differentiate between experienced gamblers and so-called
``newcomers'' on the basis of how they gambled and what/how they
communicated verbally. However, subject A's behaviour definitely
differed from the other subjects.
& Both winning and losing influenced interpersonal communication.
Phrases such as ``try again''; ``wonderful''; ``phew''; ``touch luck'' (and
a few swear words) were exchanged, even between subjects E, F and G,
who were strangers. Only subject F communicated with the croupiers.
(3) My observations should obviously be followed up with a full-scale study. In
fact, my observations have prompted me to ask the following questions, in
addition to the two I started with:
& What kind of relationships are created between strangers who gamble
at the same table?
& How does the gambling influence a couple's interactions?
& What are gamblers' responses when winning substantial amounts of
money?
& What are gamblers' responses when losing substantial amounts of
money?
& Is there a correlation between the amount of money spent by a gambler
and his or her nonverbal characteristics and behaviour (clothing,
hairstyle, kinesics, proxemics and paralinguistic features)?
3.6 Conclusion
In this study unit we dealt with different methods and techniques that are used to
collect data. When the objective of your research is to (mainly) collect quantifiable data,
you would opt for measuring and questioning as data-collection methods. That is why
we started the study unit by dealing with sampling, different levels of measurement
and the construction of scales. The extent to which your research deals with the
ethical issues that relate to sampling will depend on whether or not you (1) clearly
distinguish between the target and the accessible population; and (2) to which of these
populations the findings/conclusions are generalised. It is therefore important that you
keep a detailed record of the type of sample on which your research is based, and the
sampling procedure used. In cases where these two requirements are not met, you
should acknowledge these limitations. If, on the other hand, these two requirements
are not met, and the discussion of the findings reflect an ecological fallacy, then your
critics would be justified in regarding the research (as eventually reported) to be biased.
In this study unit, you were introduced to: test-retest reliability; alternate-forms
reliability; split-half reliability; item-to-total reliability and intercoder reliability as five
methods that can be applied to test the reliability of a measurement. As far as validity
is concerned, you were also introduced to: face validity; expert-jury validity; criterion
validity; predictive validity; concurrent validity and/or construct validity.
We then discussed the use of questions, by examining items in a self-administered

questionnaire and questions used during interviews. You learnt that questions have to
104
be carefully worded to make sure they do not create problems for the researcher. We
ended this study unit by discussing the collection of data by means of systematic and
ethnographic observations.
In the next study unit we shall concentrate on the designs, settings and procedures
followed when collecting data, and on what we should do with the data we have
collected.
However, before you continue with study unit 4, your are encouraged to evaluate
whether you have achieved your learning outcomes by following the guide (for the
assessment of learning outcomes) given at the end of unit 3 in the prescribed book.
COM306-D/1 105
S T U D Y U N I T
4
PROCEDURES FOR
APPLYING A RESEARCH
DESIGN AND
INTERPRETING
RESEARCH DATA
OVERVIEW
In this study unit, we shall start by discussing the procedures that you have to think
about following when you collect information or data during a research study in
controlled environments and semi-controlled and/or natural environments. We shall
then look at what researchers should do with the data they have collected. We shall
specifically focus on content analysis, elementary descriptive statistics and how to apply
a Readability Ease test.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this study unit, you should be able to demonstrate your knowledge and
understanding of
& how to collect research data
& what to do with the data you have collected
4.1 Introduction
The introduction in unit 4 of the prescribed book emphasises that communication
researchers do not regard terms such as ``method'', ``design'', ``measuring instrument''
and ``technique'' as having a ``fixed'' meanings. For example, when analysing transcribed
interviews, one researcher may refer to ``content analysis'' as a ``method'', whereas
another researcher may refer to content analysis as an `ìnterpretation procedure''.
Please note, therefore, that the meaning of these terms depends on the context in
which they are used.
To recap (very briefly) what we have covered so far: in study unit 2 you learnt that a
research design can be a cross-sectional or a longitudinal design. In study unit 3 you
learnt how to collect data by drawing a sample, applying measurements, constructing
106
scales, formulating questions and conducting observations. Study units 2 and 3 are
important background information to this study unit Ð in which we deal with two
issues, namely:
& the procedures followed when collecting data
& what to do with the data you have collected
Although there are different ways of grouping data-collection procedures, we group

these procedures into three categories on the basis of:
& the sampling and data-collection processes (and, particularly, how these factors
influence the validity of the design)
& whether the research problem concerns the past, present or future
& the setting in which the research is conducted
& the extent to which the researcher controls the environment
Based on the above, the data-collection procedures are grouped as follows: (1)
research conducted in controlled environments; (2) research conducted in semi-
controlled environments, and (3) research conducted in natural environments. The
next three sections deal with these environments.
4.2 Research conducted in controlled environments

Study-read A researcher creates a ``controlled environment'' when he or she controls not only the
section 4.2 in the actual setting in which the research is conducted, but also the selection (sampling) of
prescribed book subjects to be researched, and the variables to which these subjects will be exposed.
Experimental research is a typical example of this type of research. Although
publications on communication research identify different types of experimental
designs, we shall focus on single-system designs and three group designs, because
these are the most basic and the most widely used.
A single-system design involves studying the following singly or in combination:
(1) individuals, (2) a group (eg a family), (3) a class or subculture (eg street children), (4)
a community, (5) a process (eg a development programme) and/or a trend (eg
television content). Such a design is also sometimes called a case study, which involves
collecting in-depth information about the ``case''.
For the reasons given below, there are no ``fixed'' procedures for doing a case study:
& The objective of the research (together with assumptions and research question)
will determine which aspects of the units of analysis are to be studied and which
aspects will be deliberately excluded.
& The selection of the research setting will depend on (1) the accessibility of the units
of analysis, (2) the costs involved, (3) the time-dimension and (4) other restrictions
within which the researcher has to operate (eg having to train a panel of
interviewers).
& Whether data are collected by means of interviews, observations and/or
measurements depends on variables such as the population parameters of the case
study.
COM306-D/1 107
Unlike a single-system design, group designs involve grouping subjects into two
groups: experimental and control groups. As we have said already, we shall
concentrate on the most basic:
& pretest-posttest control-group design
& posttest-only control group design
& factorial design
Pretest-posttest control-group designs consist of obtaining measures for a particular

variable (or variables) from at least two groups of subjects that are assumed to be
matched (according to previously specified criteria). These criteria will depend on the
research objective Ð they may be age, gender, income, educational level, television
viewing habits Ð virtually anything.
The subjects in both the experimental and the control groups are tested or observed
before the actual experiment. The independent (experimental) variable is introduced
to the experimental group on a certain level, and a different level of the independent
variable is introduced to the control group. Please note that `à different level'' also
means that the control group might have nil exposure to the independent variable.
After the experiment, the subjects in both the experimental and the control groups are
again tested or observed. It is assumed and hypothesised that the experimental group
will be influenced predictably by the independent variable. However, in the case of the
control group, it is assumed that no change will occur from one time period (pretest)
to the next (posttest).
A posttest-only control-group design compares an experimental group with a control

group after an independent (experimental) variable has been introduced to one group
(the experimental group), and not to the other group (control group). For example,
assume that two work crews in a factory have been matched in terms of age, gender,
work experience, type of work done and freedom in deciding how to perform their
jobs. One group (the experimental group) is allocated a new supervisor who is
authoritarian and who prescribes how the job should be done. After a period of three
months, a questionnaire is used to measure the job satisfaction of members of the two
groups and their scores are then tabulated and compared. Assume that the scores
show that the experimental group's job satisfaction is far lower than that of the control
group. You may conclude that this was caused by the change of supervisor. However,
although this may be true, you should keep in mind that, because no pretest was done,
this group might have been experiencing low job satisfaction before this supervisor was
put in charge.
This type of design should therefore be used with caution, especially when it comes to
drawing conclusions about causal relations between two (or more) variables. The
effects of the independent variable (eg a new supervisor) on the experimental group
are measured in relation to the difference in scores between the two groups. But, as
we have seen, this is not the full story. In the above example, other factors could also
have led to such differences (eg an increase in pay for the one group or changes in
work shifts that were not the same for both groups).
As pointed out in the prescribed book, there are many varieties of experimental
108
designs, all of which use different numbers of control groups and all of which introduce
experimental variables on a random basis. A factorial design is one such example of an
experimental design.
The factorial design makes it possible to deal systematically with more than one
independent variable. For example, the design discussed in the prescribed book
measures sampling (smelling) perfume and a television advertisement of the perfume
as two independent variables. The factorial design therefore makes it possible to
measure the effect of each independent variable separately, and their concurrent (or
simultaneous) effect on subjects. Using this design also enables you to establish how
one of the independent variables might moderate the other.
Control over the research environment in the above research designs enable
researchers to avoid sampling error. This control is achieved by using methods such as
random assignment or matching when assigning subjects to experimental and control
groups. During a pretest, individuals are screened and matched according to certain
meaningful variables, after which they are randomly assigned to either the experimental
or control groups. The problem, however, is that variables which are not matched (eg
subjects' personal problems or expectations) are not controlled and could still influence
the outcome of the study. Equivalency between two groups can also be obtained by
combining randomisation and matching procedures.
The extent to which a researcher can control single-system designs and group designs
is directly related to threats to the internal and external validity of such designs.
Although we discussed these threats in unit 2 in the prescribed book, we shall have
another look at some of them in Activity 1, because these threats always exist when
the research is conducted in a controlled environment.
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ACTIVITY 1
Revise unit 2 and Study-read the statements below and indicate, in each case,
study-read section whether you regard them to be ``true'' or ``false''. Before reading
4.2 in unit 4 in the our comments about this activity, write down a reason (in your
prescribed book portfolio file) for your choice (of ``true'' or ``false'').
TRUE FALSE
(1) Equivalency between groups in an experimental
design can be achieved by random assignment or
matching. t t
(2) Bias in the assignment of individuals to the
experimental and control groups can minimise the
internal validity of the research. t t
(3) History and maturation can virtually destroy the
internal validity of a factorial design. t t
(4) Apart from the fact that the control and experimental
groups experience different levels of the independent
variable, the conditions in a group design must be
similar for both groups. t t
(5) In a group design, the measuring instrument used
(eg a questionnaire) may be one of the reasons for
poor internal validity. t t
COM306-D/1 109
TRUE FALSE
(6) If the characteristics of the people drawn for a sample
influence or change the effects of the experimental
variable (the outcomes of the treatment), these
characteristics can threaten the external validity of
the research. t t
(7) If a pretest influences the outcomes of an
experimental treatment, this means it threatens
the external validity of the study. t t
OUR COMMENTS
All the statements in Activity 1 are true.
true We comment on each statement
separately below.
(1) Equivalency between groups in an experimental design can be achieved
by random assignment or matching.
Random assignment means that each individual person has an equal
(same) chance of being assigned to either the experimental group or the
control group. Ideally, this means that the only difference between
members of the two groups is the fact that the subjects have been as-
signed to different groups. Matching means that group assignment is done
on the basis of similarities among individuals. These similarities must be
meaningful variables that are expected to influence the outcome of the
study Ð demographics such as subjects' age and gender Ð are examples
of meaningful variables. Matching ensures that the particular variable(s) is
equally distributed in both groups.
(2) Bias in the assignment of individuals to the experimental and control
groups can minimise the internal validity of the research.
There are several sources of bias. Examples are differential selection (in
which randomisation is not applied), and differential mortality (where one
group loses some participants during the study, which results in the two
sample sizes being different and therefore no longer comparable). Diffe-
rential selection, for example, applies when you (in a pretest) compare a
group of dissatisfied newspaper readers (the experimental group) with a
group of readers who feel neutral or satisfied with the same newspaper
(the control group). After the treatment, it is almost predictable to expect
the ``dissatisfied'' group's attitudes to have changed far more than that of
the control group. Differences or changes observed between two groups,
or between a pretest and posttest, may also be due to other variables such
as the following:
& the researcher's interpersonal skills and style
& participants in the experimental group receiving special attention
(3) History and maturation can virtually destroy the internal validity of a
factorial design.
Extraneous variables that threaten the internal validity must be controlled
if at all possible. History can influence the internal validity; this happens
when something outside the study results in a change to the dependent
variable. For example, during a study involving a skills-training pro-
gramme for unemployed adults, one of the subjects finds a job. This may
cause that particular research subject to change (the independent varia-
110
ble); here, the change cannot be ascribed to the implementation of the
independent variable (the training programme). Variables which produce
such changes and which are not controlled must be considered as rival
hypotheses. However, if we cannot rule out alternative explanations, this
means that we cannot, in fact, demarcate the experimental variable (as
the causal variable).
Maturation,
Maturation which refers to changes that take place over a period of time,
can also have an effect on internal validity. For example, children go
through developmental stages; physiologically and psychologically, a five-
year old child is not the same a year later. If the use of a pretest influences
the scores in a posttest, then this can also impact on the internal validity.
Such testing biases also occur when the experimental and control groups
are not exposed to the same testing conditions; and when the time lapse
between the two tests is too short. In the last situation, participants may
remember their answers or responses to the first test.
(4) Apart from the fact that the control and experimental groups experience
different levels of the independent variable, the conditions in a group
design must be similar for both groups.
The control of testing conditions also includes control of the temporal bias,
bias
which means that, if more than one group is used (as in an experimental
and a control group), measurement must be taken at the same time and
for the same duration. For example, suppose a measurement is made of
the interpersonal communication skills of a group of health workers who
have had communication training, and another measurement is made of a
group of health workers who have not had communication training. To
compare these two groups, the duration and frequency of contact between
them and their patients should be similar.
(5) In a group design, the measuring instrument used (eg a questionnaire)
may be one of the reasons for poor internal validity.
Instrument error occurs when a change takes place in the measuring
instrument, or when the users of the instrument change in some way. In
the case of a pretest-posttest control-group study done over a lengthy
period of time, it is quite possible that the observers' sensitivity will in-
crease simply as a result of experience. A threat which is related to this
example makes the integrity of the treatment questionable; this also
happens when the treatment techniques differ. An example is to use a
structured interview schedule with one group and an unstructured in-
terview schedule with another group. Such variations in treatment tech-
niques make it difficult, if not impossible, to determine why changes take
place.
There are various solutions to this problem:
& add an additional group or groups to the study
& use a factorial design (eg to control differences in interpersonal skills
among interviewers)
& use a logical analysis by two or more evaluators to determine the
plausibility of explanations for the changes that are recorded
(6) If the characteristics of the people drawn for a sample influence or change
the effects of the experimental variable (the outcomes of the treatment),
these characteristics can threaten the external validity of the research.
COM306-D/1 111
External validity refers to the extent the findings of a study can be
generalised to other individuals, groups, organisation, conditions or
measures. External validity is determined by:
& the representativeness of the sample
& the internal validity of the study
& replication
The statement in (6) above deals with the interaction between selection
and treatment.
For example, a study shows that economically active people respond
positively to an advertising campaign in which a motorcar is linked to
status symbolism. We cannot assume that the positive reaction is due to
the advertising campaign. Because the sample was drawn from econo-
mically active employees in the formal sector, their socio-economic
standard could have produced the results. Furthermore, the results cannot
be generalised to other economically active people (eg employers in the
formal sector, or employees in the informal sector) or unemployed people.
(7) If a pretest influences the outcomes of an experimental treatment, this
means it threatens the external validity of the study.
This statement deals with the interaction between a pretest and treat-
ment. A variety of reactive effects to the experimental setting and pro-
cedures can virtually destroy the external validity of a research study. If a
pretest influences subsequent responses to the treatment, this is an ex-
ample of a reactive effect. An example of this is the following: a researcher
does a pretest to find out whether viewers prefer men rather than women
television presenters. This pretest makes viewers more sensitive to gen-
der preferences; the same group of viewers are then tested as part of the
experimental treatment.
Before we continue with the next section, which deals with conducting research in
semi-controlled environments, we suggest that you do the following self-evaluation
and portfolio tasks.
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Task 4.1
Study-read Researchers often do not know whether to use a single-system design or a

section 4.2 in the group design. What do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of
prescribed book these two design methods (when compared with each other)?
Answer this question in two or three paragraphs (for your portfolio file).
OUR COMMENTS
A single-system design has two major advantages: it is flexible and it provides
in-depth data about a particular ``case''. Group designs, on the other hand,
have the advantage of control Ð a researcher can control the variables being
tested, the membership of the sample groups and the setting (conditions) in
which measurement takes place.
112
Whether to choose one type of design rather than the other will therefore
depend on the objective of your research. If the objective is to test cause-and-
effect relationships in a controlled environment, then a group design would be
appropriate. However, if in-depth data need to be collected, then a single-
system design would be more appropriate.
It is worth noting that neither design can really be generalised to other, non-
research subjects. Group designs are often conducted in artificially controlled
environments, and single-system designs focus on one case study only.
Task 4.2
Consider the following research designs and write down a research prob-
lem which you believe each of these designs can effectively investigate.
What control measures would you introduce to increase the validity of the
designs? (The identification and analysis of research problems were dealt
with in study unit 2, in the study guide and in the prescribed book.)
& a single-system design
& a pretest-posttest control-group design
& a posttest-only control-group design
& a factorial design
OUR COMMENTS
(1) A single-system design:
design Can be used for case studies, which are thorough
examinations of specific units of analysis. We have selected an insurance
company which is undergoing certain changes as a result of a new com-
puter system. We would collect data before, during and after the new
system was in place, by using tape-recorded interviews, observations,
self-administered questionnaires and by asking employees to keep diaries
of how the new system influences their work.
By using a combination of different data-collection methods, we would be
able to collect both quantitative and qualitative data about the following:
& descriptions of experiences from the employees' point of view
& a distinction between employees who successfully adapted to the new
computer system and employees who found coping with the new
system difficult (plus reasons for the latter)
& problems that have been created by the new system
& factors that can be used to help develop an in-service training
programme
The control measures directed at increasing the validity of this design
would focus mainly on internal validity, because the external validity of a
case study is limited. In other words, you cannot generalise the findings
beyond the particular case study to a wider population. The use of mul-
tiple measuring instruments and more than one data-collection method
would be the most effective way of controlling internal validity.
(2) A pretest-posttest control-group design:
design In this design a control group is
exposed to a different level of the independent variable or its absence. It is
tested before the experimental group is exposed to the independent
variable, and then afterwards. The experimental group is also tested both
before and after being exposed to the treatment or independent variable.
COM306-D/1 113
The objective is to test the assumption (hypothesis) that the independent
variable caused the experimental group's behaviour, attitudes, prefe-
rences, et cetera to change.
We selected women living in a rural community to find out whether a
development programme to promote breastfeeding caused these women
to feel more positive about breastfeeding. One of the major problems
related to the use of a control group with an experimental group is trying
to make sure that both groups are as similar to each other as possible. To
ensure that they are, we would first conduct interviews with potential
respondents to screen them for similarity in variables such as:
& age
& level of education
& size of existing family
& number of husbands
& current attitudes to breastfeeding
& current or past breastfeeding behaviour
Once we have randomly selected and matched two groups, we would

apply the design. This would enable us to make the following compari-
sons:
& before-and-after comparisons within the experimental group regarding
their opinion of breastfeeding (we expect this opinion to change)
& before-and-after comparisons within the control group regarding their
opinion of breastfeeding (we do not expect this opinion to change)
& before-and-after comparisons of the experimental and control groups'
opinion of breastfeeding (we expect the opinion of these two groups to
differ after the experiment)
(3) A posttest-only control-group design:
design In this design a control group is not
exposed to an experimental variable. Supposing, for example, you want to
evaluate whether a training package is effective in teaching certain job
skills to a particular group of people. You would do this evaluation by
following the procedure below:
(1) You randomly select two groups of people from the same population.
(2) The experimental group is exposed to the training programme, and
takes the posttest.
(3) The control group is not exposed to the training programme, and takes
the same posttest.
You would quite correctly focus on evaluating whether or not the ex-
perimental group's skills have improved (in comparison with the control
group's skills).
(4) A factorial design:
design In the two designs above, one independent variable is
tested. A factorial design tests two or more independent variables. Let us
assume we want to refine the skills training programme mentioned above
by testing two types of communication that are used in the training
programme. For example, one training programme is presented verbally,
with printed notes; the same training programme is presented verbally,
with iconographic illustrations and visual photographs. In other words,
the two independent variables (factors) differ Ð one training programme
114
uses verbal and printed training material, while the other uses verbal and
pictorial training material.
This factorial design can be summarised as follows:
No exposure to verbal (X2) Exposed to verbal

and printed and printed
programme programme
No exposure to verbal Group 1 Group 2
and pictorial (Control group) (Experimental group)
programme Measure job skills. Measure job skills.
Exposed to verbal and Group 3 Group 4
pictorial programme (Experimental group) (Experimental group)
(X1) Measure job skills. Measure job skills.
The example above contains four groups, each of which receives a diffe-
rent combination of exposure to the independent variables.
& Group 1 serves as the control group, because it is exposed to neither
the verbal and printed training programme, nor to the verbal and
pictorial training programme. The trainers can regard this group's job
skills as an indication of the research population's average job-skill
abilities.
& Group 2 (experimental group) is not exposed to the verbal and pictorial
training programme, but it does receive training through the verbal
and printed training programme.
& Group 3 (experimental group) is only exposed to the verbal and
pictorial training programme; it is not exposed to the other training
programme.
& Group 4 (experimental group) is exposed to both training programmes.
The control measures for increasing the internal and external validity of
above three designs include the following:
& add an additional group or groups to the study (as in a factorial design)
& use more than one analyst (observer or evaluator) and be sceptical of
any changes that are recorded
& ensure that the sample drawn is representative of a specified
population
& replicate the experiment by using different units of analysis
& ensure that experimental and control groups are equivalent by
applying randomisation and matching
& ensure that the conditions are similar for both experimental and
control groups (obviously this does not apply to the degree of exposure
to the independent variable)
& make every attempt to simulate subjects' normal environment
4.3 Conducting research in semi-controlled environments

Study-read Unlike ``controlled environments'', ``semi-controlled environments'' refer to the fact
section 4.3 in the that, as a researcher, you may have some control (although not complete control) over
prescribed book the research process. For example, you can control the formulation of items in a
questionnaire, but you cannot control whether respondents fill in all the answers or
COM306-D/1 115
whether they all return the questionnaire. In semi-controlled environments, data-
collection is mainly based on survey research and interviewing.
4.3.1 Surveys
Surveys have become a standard research method since the 1940s, when opinion
polls were conducted during the elections in America. Since then, surveys have been
applied in various fields of communication. Businesses, politicians, and managers of
large institutions regard survey results as a vital aid in helping them make the right
decision. Surveys are probably also the best method available to scientists who are
interested in collecting original data, especially if the target and accessible populations
are too large and too spread out (geographically) for direct observation.
As with any other research study, it is important to clearly identify the objective of a
survey, since it is the objective that determines whether you are dealing with an
exploratory, a descriptive, or an explanatory (or analytic) survey.
Exploratory surveys are usually undertaken to:

& gain a better understanding of a communication problem or phenomenon
& test the feasibility of undertaking a more detailed or larger survey
& develop the measuring instrument (eg a self-administered questionnaire) which you
intend using
Given that an exploratory survey is not aimed at providing final answers to a research
question, one of its limitations is that it does not satisfy the requirements of sampling (ie
representativeness). In an exploratory survey, research questions usually begin with the
words: ``Who ...?'', ``What ...?'', ``How ...?'', ``Where ...?'' or ``Which ...?''
In the case of a descriptive survey, two important considerations must be borne in

mind: (1) the quality of its descriptions and (2) the extent to which such descriptions
can be generalised to the accessible population.
When a survey is undertaken for explanatory reasons, the research question has to be
redefined as a hypothesis which makes a causal connection between two specific,
clearly-defined variables.
Apart from its objective, the nature of a survey is also determined by the time period
during which it is conducted. You were introduced to a cross-sectional design and
three types of longitudinal designs in unit 2 (in the prescribed book). Let us reconsider
these designs as they apply to survey research.
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ACTIVITY 2
Revise unit 2, Which one of the following types of surveys is being described:
section 2.5.4 in the cross-sectional, trend, cohort and/or panel?
prescribed book
(1) Between the year 2002 and the year 2005, you survey the same sample of
voters in a specific geographical area to find out whether their political
loyalties change.
(2) You draw different samples of Sunday newspapers on a monthly basis to
116
investigate whether there is any change in the topics discussed in the
editorial pages.
(3) This type of survey enables you to find out why the buying habits of a
specific sample of consumers have changed.
(4) A particular section of an accessible population is surveyed over a period
of time. The sample of respondents is drawn once every month, but is not
necessarily the same respondents.
(5) This is a one-shot survey undertaken at a particular point in time.
(6) This type of survey is not repeated.
OUR COMMENTS
The types of surveys described in Activity 2 are as follows:
& panel: (1) and (3)
& trend: (2)
& cohort: (4)
& cross-sectional: (5) and (6)
If you feel unsure about your answers, we suggest that you stop here and
revise section 2.5.4 in the prescribed book.
Five survey data-collection methods are identified in the prescribed book: mail surveys,
computer-administered surveys, group-administered surveys, telephone surveys and
personal surveys. Each of these has certain advantages and disadvantages. These
advantages (or strengths) and disadvantages (or limitations) are summarised in table 4.6
in the prescribed book. When you study-read this table you will notice that certain
data-collection methods share certain advantages, while others have certain
disadvantages. Whether you choose one method rather than another depends on
criteria such as the following:
& access to the respondents (eg in a computer-administered survey, respondents
must have access to a computer)
& the costs involved, including time, money and training of interviewers
& whether you can draw a random sample from an accessible population (it is often
difficult to arrange for a representative sample to meet at the same time in the same
place)
& whether responses need to be standardised (mail-survey responses can be
standardised, whereas, for example, responses to personal interviews cannot)
& whether anonymity is required (anonymity is possible in a mail survey, and a group
administration in which a self-administered questionnaire is used, but may be more
difficult with other data-collection methods)
& the nature and sensitivity of the topic (eg respondents will probably be reluctant to
answer questions about Aids during a personal interview)
4.3.2 Compiling a self-administered questionnaire

The different types of questions that could be asked, including practical guidelines and
examples of questions, as well as the problems that you could experience in the
wording of questions, are dealt with in unit 3 (in the prescribed book). In this section,
we shall focus on the guidelines that ought to be followed when compiling a self-
administered questionnaire. These guidelines are also discussed in the prescribed
book Ð specifically, they deal with the following:
COM306-D/1 117
& formatting the questionnaire
& writing an introductory covering letter
& the order in which items are arranged
& precoding the items
The following activity asks you to evaluate an actual self-administered questionnaire in

terms of the guidelines discussed in section 4.3.2 in the prescribed book.
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ACTIVITY 3
At the end of study unit 6 in this study guide is an example

of a self-administered questionnaire. Turn to study unit 6 now, read
the questionnaire and then answer the following questions:
(1) Does the introductory letter contain all the information specified in the
prescribed book?
(2) Does the order in which the items are arranged follow a logical sequence?
(3) What type of scales are used? Are they, in your opinion, unbiased?
(4) How are the items precoded?
OUR COMMENTS
We shall comment on each question separately. However, you will only really
benefit from these comments if you do the activity yourself first.
(1) Does the introductory letter contain all the information specified in the
prescribed book?
The introductory letter does contain the information which you would
expect, namely
& the identity of the institution and the person conducting the survey
& the purpose of the survey
& the importance of completing and returning the questionnaire (a
persuasive note)
& reassurance of anonymity and confidentiality
& the return date and address
Since this questionnaire was distributed internally in Unisa, a prepaid

envelope was not necessary. Respondents simply had to return it via in-
ternal mail.
(2) Does the order in which the items are arranged follow a logical sequence?
It is interesting to note that the questionnaire starts with items that
collect demographic data Ð this contradicts what we have said Ð name-
ly, that such items should come at the end of a questionnaire. The only
reason we can think of for placing these items at the beginning of the
questionnaire is that they fulfill a ``warm-up'' function.
Neither a funnel pattern, nor an inverted funnel pattern are used in this
questionnaire. Instead, the questionnaire was structured by grouping
questions on similar topics together.
(3) What type of scales are used? Are they, in your opinion, unbiased?
Three types of scales are used in the questionnaire. Section B uses a Likert
118
scale. It is interesting that, because it is a four-point scale, the neutral
(middle) option has been omitted, which means that respondents have to
respond either positively or negatively. Section C contains an interesting
scale, but one which Ð in our opinion Ð can bias responses.
Turn to the questionnaire, Section C, and see if you can find the
reason why the scale options can bias responses.
If you ignore the ``not needed'' (which means ``not applicable'') option,
you would expect the other three options to be balanced between ``high''
and ``low''. However, such a balance is not present, because two options
offer positive responses (``very high priority'', and ``high priority''). These
options are counterbalanced by only one negative option (``low priority'').
In other words, a second negative option (``very low priority'') should have
been added to balance the two positive options.
If you turn to Section E, you will notice that the three options given can,
for the same reasons, lead to biased responses. In this case options 2 and 3
favour `àpplicable'' and are not counterbalanced by two other options.
(4) How are the items precoded?
Closed-ended items (eg in Section B) are coded with one numeral for each
item, because the respondents are required to select one option for each
item. For example, if a respondent marks option SA (4) for Section B, item
1, then a ``4'' would be coded in 20. If another respondent marks SD (1)
for the same item, then ``1'' will be coded in the 20.
The open-ended questions allow for many more responses, because res-
ponses have to be examined and classified in different categories (after the
questionnaires have been returned). For example, notice how the preco-
ding for Section D makes provision for many responses: 6±16; 17±27; and
28±38.
4.3.3 Interviews
Interview schedules designed for face-to-face or telephone interviews differ from self-
administered questionnaires. Face-to-face interviews and telephone interviews enable
the researcher to ask unstructured questions and to ask follow-up questions; obviously,
this is not possible in a self-administered questionnaire.
The interpersonal nature of a face-to-face interview allows the researcher (or trained
interviewer) to spend more time with each respondent, and this helps to establish
greater rapport between the researcher and his or her research subjects. Furthermore,
as we have indicated already, questions can be clarified and answers that are unclear or
incomplete can be followed up. The response rate is usually high and respondents do
not have to be literate. However, although a random sample of interviewees can be
drawn, the researcher may well find it difficult to get personal access to individuals who,
for example, live in high-crime areas.
Despite the advantages described above, personal interviews do have certain major
disadvantages, especially when compared with other survey methods: it takes a long
time to collect data using personal interviews and it is very difficult to standardise the
responses. Also, compared with mail or telephone surveys, personal interviews may
prove too costly, not only because it takes such a long time to collect the data, but also
COM306-D/1 119
because interviewers have to be trained. Finally, face-to-face interviewing presents its
own problems: respondents cannot remain anonymous and this could lead to invalid
responses, especially in reply to more personal and ``sensitive'' questions.
Researchers who are concerned with marketing communication and consumer

research often use a busy street corner, or a mall, or a door-to-door visit as a field
location. South Africa's ongoing democratisation process, and the fact that there is now
increased overseas competition means that South African advertising and marketing
strategists will increasingly concentrate on consultations with individual consumers (by
means of focus groups and personal interviews) to improve local products and/or
services.
In the prescribed book a distinction is made between structured (and standardised)

interviews, partially structured interviews, and unstructured interviews. You should
note that the distinction between these three types of interviews is based on (1) the
type of questions asked; and (2) the extent to which an interviewer interacts with a
respondent.
In a structured interview the researcher controls (1) the setting of the interview; (2)
the order of the questions; (3) the range of responses; (4) the demographic
characteristics of the interviewer and the interviewee; and (5) the problem to be
discussed. Examples of structured questions and guidelines regarding the wording of
such questions are discussed in unit 3 in the prescribed book.
A partially structured interview also includes certain controls by the interviewer, such
as asking specific questions in a particular order. However, unlike a structured interview
(during which the interviewer does not enter into an open conversation), in a partially
structured interview the interviewer can deviate from the interview schedule and ask
probing and follow-up questions.
In an unstructured interview questions are not ordered in any particular way. Nor is
the research problem investigated by concentrating on specific issues. In fact, the
interview context is free of regulation or constraints, which enables the interviewer to
freely explore various aspects of the research problem. Despite the depth and quality
of information obtained during an unstructured interview, the problem remains that,
unfortunately, it is difficult to code responses obtained during an unstructured interview.
This disadvantage is one of the reasons why researchers often prefer to compile and
use an interview schedule containing exact questions and measures.
4.3.4 Focus groups

One of the most effective ways of structuring an interview context in which (1) the
research problem to be investigated can be defined and, (2) the flexibility of a partially
structured interview can be retained, is to use a focus-group interview. Please note that
focus-group interviews require careful planning. Also, their effectiveness depends on:
& the date, day and time when the interview is conducted
& the nature of the locality or setting
& the demographic characteristics of the moderator
& the regulatory role of the moderator
& characteristics of participating respondents
120
These factors are discussed in the prescribed book.
A focus group differs from the other types of interviews we have discussed so far. First
of all, for a focus-group interview, a relatively homogeneous group of people are
screened and (usually between 6 and 12) sampled. The group meets in a research
location (eg a private home) and have a group discussion that usually lasts 2 to 3 hours.
Although a focus-group interview allows the moderator greater flexibility in the
questions he or she asks, its main advantage is that much more control can be
exercised over the context in which questions are asked.
4.3.5 Problems related to implementation procedures

We have discussed the requirements of validity and reliability repeatedly in this
module. It is important to realise that the validity and reliability of surveys and
interviews can be virtually destroyed if the researcher uses an inappropriate measuring
instrument; if the actual sample of respondents sampled is somehow incorrect; if the
time period is wrong; and if the research question or hypothesis formulated does not,
in fact, investigate what it should be investigating. For example, the use of leading
questions or vague and ambiguous language, and other problems in the wording of
questions (discussed in unit 3 in the prescribed book) can result in respondents giving
responses that the researcher cannot really use.
On the other hand, an overemphasis on the standardisation of, for example,

questionnaires, may mean that we inadvertently design questions that apply only very
broadly to respondents. We could therefore end up failing to ask those questions that
the respondents regard as particularly relevant. We should therefore question whether
the data-collection methods discussed in this section can penetrate respondents' social
contexts, attitudes, orientations et cetera to the same extent as field research methods.
An aspect which ought to be obvious, but which is nevertheless worth mentioning

again, is that the method used in communication research must be appropriate for the
objective of the research study and the nature of the problem. Given that many
communication research studies involve people as units of analysis, the four ethical
principles discussed below are particularly important. Although we apply these ethical
principles to conducting research using surveys and interviews, they also apply to other
data-collection methods (eg observations). In other words, these ethical principles
apply whenever people are the units of analysis.
& Voluntary participation: The choice whether or not to participate in a survey is (or
should) always be voluntary. In the case of telephone and mail surveys, it is easy for
a respondent to exercise this right (by simply putting down the telephone or
throwing away the questionnaire). This is not true of personal interviews, a group-
administered questionnaire or a focus-group interview. Here, respondents may
believe that failure to participate will have repercussions. Any form of coercion,
including implied coercion, is unethical. For example, when the management of an
organisation undertakes a survey among employees on a sensitive issue (eg by using
personal interviews or group-administered questionnaires), the researcher must
ensure that, as respondents, employees do not feel coerced into participating.
& Concealment and deception: What are your real motives as a researcher? What
procedures will you use and how will these methods and procedures influence the
COM306-D/1 121
respondents? You not only have to answer these questions honestly to yourself,
you also have to inform potential respondents of your motives and procedures Ð
otherwise, you are behaving unethically. For example, a questionnaire about
consumer spending that is formatted to look like an income tax return form under
the heading of The Department of Financial Reconstruction conceals your real
motives and the fact that you do not represent a Government Department.
Similarly, a researcher must always tell respondents precisely how he or she is going
to conduct the research and what the research will involve. For example, if the
researcher plans to do an initial telephone survey about television viewing habits
and follow this up with lengthy personal interviews, he or she must make this clear
from the outset Ð that is, when he or she first does the telephone survey.
Otherwise, the researcher is guilty of deception.
Your real motives and the procedures you intend using are particularly important
when children are involved. If parents and/or teachers have to give their permission
(on behalf of the children), their consent must be based on the fact that they have
been properly informed.
& Protection of privacy: You know who I am, therefore I must be sure that what I
say remains confidential. This is the crux of the challenge that faces you as a
researcher. Irrespective of whether you use a telephone survey, mail survey,
personal interviews, a group administration, or a computer-generated
administration, you must ensure that both the identity and responses of every
respondent remains confidential. Privacy, anonymity and confidentiality are
respondents' rights and these rights must be respected. Researchers who use
personal interviews and focus-group interviews must be particularly careful Ð this
is because the nature of these interviews is such that respondents' private details
could easily be divulged inadvertently.
& The principle of do no harm: The principle of do no harm, in this module, refers
specifically to not upsetting the respondents or causing them any form of stress.
The following are two examples of procedures and questions which are regarded
as unethical: to telephone a domestic household at ten o'clock in the evening for a
interview; or, in a personal interview, to use follow-up questions about a sensitive
issue despite the fact that the respondent has made it quite clear that he or she
does not want to respond to such questions.
A variety of reactive effects to the situation and procedures can minimise the external
validity of a study. The following are some examples. Participants may respond
atypically because they know they are part of a study Ð this is called the Hawthorne
effect. Alternatively, a researcher may be biased when interpreting results, either
because of the sponsor's expectations, or because the researcher wants to verify
specific hypotheses (for personal reasons). Or a researcher (eg a moderator in a focus
group interview) may unintentionally communicate his or her personal view of the
problem to respondents.
Effects due to multiple treatments also threaten the external validity of a research
study. This occurs when two or more individuals or groups are treated differently (eg
by using different interviewers or changing the measuring instrument). Generalisation
can only be made when the researcher is sure that the individuals or groups all
received the same treatment.
122
Replication is only possible when all threats to external validity have been controlled.
In addition, to make replication easier, the dependent and independent variables need
to be clearly defined.
Before we continue with the next section, which deals with conducting research in
natural environments, we suggest that you do the following self-evaluation and
portfolio task. This task tests the first learning outcome of the study unit (when applied
to conducting research in semi-controlled environments).
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Task 4.3
Study-read You have been approached by the principal of a primary school in your
section 4.3 in the community to investigate the following problem:
prescribed book & Some learners are not performing as expected Ð their examination
results are poor, and this is not what we would expect, given the results
of their IQ and aptitude tests.
& The principal suspects that these poor performances are the result of
the learners' home circumstances and the poor communication between
parents and learners. Parents have agreed to become involved in a
research study.
Select one of the following data-collection methods or techniques and

describe the steps you would follow when researching the above problem:
& mail survey
& computer-administered survey
& group-administered survey
& telephone survey
& personal survey (interviews)
& focus groups
OUR COMMENTS
The selection of one of the six data-collection procedures (or methods) listed
in the self-evaluation and portfolio task is guided by the nature of the research
problem, as well as the characteristics of the subjects involved. We have
selected a personal survey and specifically partially structured interviews with
individual parents (father and mother) for the following reasons:
& Learners are unique individuals who enjoy personalised relationships with
their parents. These relationships are not necessarily shared by other
learners and their parents.
& If the reasons for a learner's poor performance are to be found in the
learner's home environment, such information has to be treated as private
and confidential, which is why we did not select focus groups or a group-
administered survey.
& Since our objective is to obtain in-depth data from the parents' point of
view, the other survey methods would not be appropriate anyway.
A partially structured interview is particularly suitable for investigating the
problem, because:
& It gives us flexibility Ð we can prepare specific questions, and we can use
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follow-up and open-ended questions. This is particularly important, given
that the parents may well give us responses we simply did not expect.
Follow-up and open-ended questions will enable us to explain and expand
on certain points.
& We have the opportunity to explain the objective of the research and to
answer any questions which the parents may have.
& The interviews can be conducted in parents' homes, which means that
they are much less likely to feel threatened.
While compiling the interview schedule we would have to keep a number of
factors in mind and do a certain amount of preparation. Firstly, we would
collect whatever data are available from the school about each learner, such as
the IQ and aptitude tests, reports from teachers, academic performance, and
learners' participation in sport and cultural activities. The interview schedule
can then include items which apply specifically to the individual learner.
Secondly, we would consider the population parameters and decide whether
all parents are to be included and, if not, what type of sampling procedure
would be appropriate. Thirdly, we would consider the demographic cha-
racteristics of each family and make every attempt to match the interviewers
with characteristics such as race, language preference and age. Fourthly, we
would approach each family to obtain informed consent to conduct the in-
terview and to obtain permission to have it taped. Finally, we would arrange a
date and time that suits the parents.
Apart from personalised questions, the interview schedule can include
questions that probe the following issues:
& parents' attitudes to education in general
& parents' attitudes towards the particular school
& the learner's attitude towards school, from the parents' perspective (may
include specific issues, such as homework, tests, examinations and extra-
mural activities)
& family patterns (eg eating, sleeping, watching television, reading habits)
and how these patterns (from the parents' point of view) could influence a
learner's performance
The research must obviously be conducted in an ethical manner. This means
that the parents must be assured that their privacy will be protected, and that
participating in the research will not have any unpleasant consequences for
either them or their children. Making sure that the parents remain anonymous
and protecting their privacy (and their children's privacy) is not difficult to do:
we simply would not identify individuals when reporting our findings. It is
also a legal and moral principle to ensure that parents' participation is vol-
untary. In this case, this means that they need not answer all the questions
and that they may stop the interview at any time.
Finally, we would conduct a pilot test with two or three families to test the
order and types of questions asked, and the effect which the use of a recording
device would have.
4.4 Conducting research in natural environments

Study-read Research conducted in a ``natural environment'' refers to historical research and field
section 4.4 in the research. In these cases, the researcher does not control or manipulate whatever is
prescribed book being investigated. Please note, once again, that, if people are involved, the same
ethical principles (discussed above in section 4.3.5) apply. One ethical principle, which
124
is particularly important when conducting observations, is the necessity of conducting a
debriefing interview with subjects after the observations have been completed. In a
debriefing interview, you inform subjects that they have been observed, you tell them
what the objective of the study is, you obtain their informed consent to use the data
and you answer any questions that they may have. If you are conducting field
experiments, (ie allocating people in experimental and control groups) then you are, in
fact, controlling the field setting. In this case, the requirements of internal and external
validity (discussed in section 4.2) apply. In this section, however, we shall concentrate
mainly on conducting field observations.
Generally, there are two types of observer: a participant observer and a

nonparticipant observer. A nonparticipant observer is a complete observer. As the
name suggests, a participant observer participates with the people he or she is
observing (hence the name ``participant observation''); the degree of participation
varies from marginal participation to complete participation. There are four types of
participation:
& A complete observer does not participate with the people being observed, but
remains detached and objective.
& The observer (as participant) maintains the role as a researcher and subjects know
they are being observed.
& A participant (as observer) participates in subjects' activities while, at the same time,
observing them. Once again, subjects know they are being observed.
& A complete participant is totally involved in the group's activities. Subjects may
know they are being observed (overt observation), or this information may be kept
from them (covert observation).
It is important to note the sources of error that can be created as a result of

observers' reactions (discussed in section 4.4 in the prescribed book).
The external validity of field observations is usually high, because the people being
observed behave normally, without intervention from the researcher.
As you know, the external validity of a study depends on whether or not the results of
a particular study can be generalised to other individuals, groups and settings. To
establish the external validity of a research study, you have to consider the following
four issues and questions. (Note: although these questions are related to
observations, they can also be asked of research conducted in controlled and semi-
controlled environments.)
& Can the research findings be generalised to other populations? For example, if you
conducted observations of nurses in a particular hospital, can your findings be
generalised to other nurses at other hospitals?
& Can the research findings be generalised to other settings? For example, if your
observations took place in an urban setting, how Ð if at all Ð can your findings be
generalised to rural settings?
& Can the research method used be generalised? For example, if your observations
were based on your participation with the group, can your observations be applied
to other groups? Remember that participants in other groups may react differently
to any probing questions which you ask.
& Can the dependent variables be generalised? For example, in one study, children's
COM306-D/1 125
behaviour is observed after they have been exposed to violent television
programmes. Can these observations be replicated?
If it is difficult to generalise any of the above variables, this means that the external
validity of the data you collected are limited to the study. Nor, in such cases, is it
possible to replicate the study.
To determine whether the size of the sample is adequate depends on the exactness of
the description of the population parameters. In other words, the exactness of the
description of the characteristics of the units of analysis (elements, people, objects or
events). Generalisation can only be ensured if samples are drawn randomly from a
population. If, however, a small sample is drawn from a large population or if a
nonprobability sample is drawn, reasons must be given to justify such sample
selections. In practice, communication researchers can be hampered by factors such as
the nature of the problem, the setting, time and, in the case of people, their
demographics. For example, if you want to observe the group dynamics of street
children, you may experience difficulty in getting access, over a relatively short period
of time, to a representative sample of such children.
In the next section we shall focus on the second learning outcome set for this study
unit. However, we shall first give you, and comment on, a self-evaluation and portfolio
task that applies to conducting research in natural environments.
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Task 4.4
Study-read You are a nurse working in a health clinic in a rural area. You want to
section 4.4 in the investigate how health teaching, which is an essential part of nursing, is
prescribed book integrated with health workers' communications with their patients.
Describe which field observation role you would choose and justify your
choice.
OUR COMMENTS
The relationship between a health professional and a patient is a unique
relationship; the patient is usually the `òutsider'' and the nurse is normally an
integral part of the health care delivery system. In cases where the nurse is
not working within his/her own cultural context (eg nurses who work in fo-
reign countries) these roles are sometimes reversed. Before you can select a
particular field observation role, it is therefore important to answer these
questions:
& What is the nurse's place in the system?
& Who is the in-group member and who the out-group member?
& Do both groups subscribe to the rules, values and beliefs of mainly a
Western health care delivery system, a traditional cultural system or a
combination of both?
To investigate how health teaching is integrated with health workers' com-
126
munication with their patients, our observations should ideally be of both the
nurse and the patient. This gives rise to questions such as the following:
& What is the patients' attitude towards illness and nursing care?
& What is the patient's past history?
& Is the patient literate?
& What values does the patient communicate?
& Does the nurse use specialist medical terms that the patient may well not
understand?
& Does the nurse's attitude towards the patient depend on variables such as
demographic characteristics, or the diagnosis?
& Is the patient encouraged to express his/her view, or does the nurse impose
his or her opinions of health and illness on the patient?
& What expectations does the nurse have of the patient's behaviours?
& Does the nurse's communication include advice and solutions to problems
beyond the patient's immediate health-care needs?
The above are just some examples of general research questions that can be
asked; such questions can obviously be refined as the observations proceed.
As pointed out in the prescribed book (section 4.4.1), as you may well alter
your method of observation during the field observations. You could, for ex-
ample, start your study as a complete observer,
observer by recording observations by
means of a hidden video camera. The ethical implications of such covert
observations are questionable. The objective of this sort of covert observation
might be to use it as a pilot study in order to define the specific behavioural
and verbal categories that can be used in an observation or tally sheet. How-
ever, given the kind of questions asked above, in this case covert observation
will not work, simply because it will not enable you to interact with either the
nurse or the patient, and you will therefore be unable to clarify and explain the
responses obtained.
Once you have a clearer idea of the categories that will be used as a guide for
observations, a more appropriate option would therefore be to become a
complete participant,
participant which means that you become part of the interaction
between the nurse and the patient, and that you participate fully as nurse and
observer. Whether this role will be acceptable for a fellow-nurse depends on
some of the questions asked above, such as your demographic and cultural
differences. Nevertheless this role enables you to ask probing and follow-up
questions to obtain in-depth data from both the nurse and the patient.
Whatever role you select, it is important to keep possible judgment errors in
mind which you can make as an observer. Also, don't forget the importance of
conducting debriefing interviews and applying reflexivity, triangulation and
respondent validation to minimise above errors. (These errors and techniques
are discussed in the prescribed book, section 4.4.)
COM306-D/1 127
4.5 What to do with the data you have collected
Study-read You are now faced with the task of interpreting the data. At this point it is worthwhile
section 4.5 in the reminding yourself of the reasons for, and the objectives of, your research study. Was it
prescribed book to test a hypothesis, to justify certain assumptions, to obtain new information, to
explore theoretical issues in practice, to find trends that can be generalised or to
replicate previous research? Answers to these questions (as well as whether the study
was mainly quantitative or qualitative) will help you to decide on the content analysis
you do and the statistical tests you choose.
4.5.1 Content analysis

Your first task will be to decide whether all the information is to be analysed, or
whether you could use a representative sample. At the same time you will have to
decide whether your unit of analysis is a physical unit (eg television advertisement), a
syntactic unit (eg words), a thematic unit (eg equality), or a propositional unit (eg
questions and answers). Your next step will be to develop categories that are used on
the coding or tally sheets.
Depending on whether the content categories have nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio
levels of measurement, the frequencies of each category can be counted and/or
ranked (using scale scoring). Calculating frequencies also enables you to visually
summarise the categories in the form of visual graphs or tables, and to summarise the
data as ratios and proportions.
As you study-read the prescribed book, you will realise that precoded categories are
defined and used prior to conducting research, whereas postcoded categories refer to
categories defined after the data have been collected. The definitions of categories
depend on the operational definitions of abstract concepts (discussed in unit 2 in the
prescribed book), and the nature of the units of analysis. The process of coding or
classification must be carefully planned and tested before the final analysis begins. It is
important that two or more coders (ie interpreters) interpret the data and that an
intercoder-reliability test (discussed in unit 3 in the prescribed book) is used: if the
researcher is the only person doing the interpretation, it will be impossible to avoid
subjectivity and bias.
Content analysis enables you to provide new knowledge to the theory and practice of
Communication Science provided that:
& reliable coding procedures are developed
& valid categories are defined for the classification
4.5.2 Analysis of verbal (spoken) communication

Content analysis can be applied to different types of content such as diaries, mass
communications and recorded interviews: this makes it a versatile data-analysis
method. Many research studies, based on experiments, surveys, interviews and,
especially, observations involve collecting and analysing verbal (spoken)
communication.
Section 4.5.2 in the prescribed book includes examples of categories that can be used
for coding or tallying sheets when analysing the following:
128
& interpersonal conversation between two people (in interpersonal communication,
this is called a contiguous analysis of adjacency pairs)
& orientation, evaluation and control as problems or issues (when analysing the task
dimension of interpersonal or small-group communication)
& decision-making, tension-management and integration as problems or issues (when
analysing the social-emotional dimension of interpersonal and small-group
communication)
& the consequential structure of messages
These analytical categories illustrate the versatility of content analysis and give you an
idea of how you can adapt your coding sheet according to the type of data being
analysed, and according to the objective of the research study.
4.5.3 Elementary descriptive statistics

Section 4.5.3 in the prescribed book starts with an example of a frequency table, and a
description of three types of narratives that are used when interpreting qualitative data.
Statistics can be used to analyse quantitative data.
The type of data collected, and the type of conclusions which we wish to draw are two
important factors which, from the outset, will determine the statistical analyses the
researcher uses.
Firstly, the level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio) that apply to a
study determines the type of statistics that should be used. For example, the use of
parametric tests (eg variance analysis) requires interval and ratio measurements.
Secondly, the conclusions which we wish to draw (eg establishing cause-and-effect
relations) also determine the type of statistics that should be used.
The complexities of computing statistical tests to analyse and compare quantitative data
are beyond the scope of this module. We shall only deal with two elementary
descriptive statistics:
& the central tendency of data (mode, median and mean)
& the total range as an example of the variation of data
Once a frequency table has been compiled, these calculations enable you to determine
the most frequent score in a set of scores (mode); the middle score in a set of scores
(median), the average value of a set of scores (mean); and the differences between the
smallest and the largest score (variation).
Although the mode can be determined for all levels of measurement (nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio), it is particularly appropriate for determining the central tendency of
nominal data (eg gender, age, political party affiliation, occupation, marital status or
source of income). To talk of the middle score in a set of scores (median) means that
the midpoint can be visually identified. It is better to use the middle score as an index of
the central tendency of ordinal data and data that are badly skewed (or that contain
extreme differences). For example, if a distribution of scores reads as follows, then the
median is 33 (printed in bold).
COM306-D/1 129
11
13
14
18
33
35
38
41
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Although the mean (average) can be calculated for all numerical data, it is best to use it
as an index of the central tendency when using interval and ratio levels of
measurement. The mean in above example is 31,2, which is calculated by totalling all
the scores and dividing the sum (281) by the total number of scores (9). Since the
calculation of the mean is sensitive to all scores, extreme differences in the scores can
influence this index. Note how the mean differs from the median in above example.
The total range (as an indication of variation) in above example is 67 (78±11).
In the next section we shall deal with the calculation of a Readability Ease test, which
combines doing a content analysis with a statistical calculation.
4.5.4 Readability Ease test

Various measuring instruments and formulas exist that can be used to evaluate the
Readability Ease of a written or printed text. Wimmer and Dominick (1997:281±283),
for example, identified the following: Fog Index, SMOG Grading, the Cloze procedure,
and the one dealt with in the prescribed book: Flesch's Readability Ease (RE) formula.
Although a computer program can calculate the RE of a text very quickly, the
prescribed book describes the steps to be followed when you calculate the RE
manually.
Any professional communicator who uses printed communication will find this
technique extremely useful for analysing English texts. This is true irrespective of
whether you are writing a government publication, compiling a management policy
document or writing as a journalist. In all these cases, you will (or should) always have a
specific readership in mind. Once the RE of such a document has been calculated, the
meaning of the RE score is interpreted in relation to the minimum education required
by the reader. For example, a text that has an RE score of between 90 and 100 is a
very easy text. Texts that have scores below 70 require the reader to have some
formal education. These categories are summarised in table 4.18 in the prescribed
book.
There are seven ways of improving the Readability Ease of texts that are ``fairly difficult'',
``difficult'' or ``very difficult''. A very simple solution is to write shorter sentences. The
others are discussed in section 4.5.4 in the prescribed book. Once these methods
have been applied to the text, you should repeat the analysis of the text's RE (to find
out whether it has, in fact, increased).
We shall end this study unit with self-evaluation and portfolio tasks that are aimed at
testing the second learning outcome of this study unit, namely, whether you know how
to analyse the data you have collected.
130
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Task 4.5
Study-read You have been asked to undertake a qualitative content analysis of fic-
sections 4.5.1 and tional television programmes to determine how frequently crimes are
4.5.2 in the depicted. While you are watching television, make notes of the types of
prescribed book crimes that are depicted and, on the basis of your own experiences and
exposure to other treatments of crime in the mass-media, compile a tally
or coding sheet of categories that you would use as coder. Make sure that
your categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
Pilot test your coding sheet by coding, during the course of one evening,
the number of times your categories occur. Alter your categories if they
are not mutually exclusive or if they are not exhaustive.
OUR COMMENTS
First of all, the concept ``crime'' has to be operationalised (ie defined in more
concrete terms) before you can draw up categories in a tally or coding sheet.
This is essential if two or more coders are to code the content and if your
coding is to be reliable.
For example, in a criminological study done by Pitfield and Naude (1999:22±
40), the concept ``crime'' was divided into six categories:
& crime resulting in death
& sexual crime, such as rape
& personal attack, which includes being insulted, assaulted or mugged
& public/economic crime, such as drug trafficking, fraud, tax avoidance or
theft
& personal harm, such as using drugs
& personal asset, which includes crimes that enrich the perpetrator (eg
stealing a car)
Please note that the authors did not formulate these categories for the pur-
poses of a content analysis. So, although they are very useful, they would have
to be pilot tested to find out whether they are mutually exclusive and ex-
haustive.
Before you continue reading our comments, spend two or three hours
watching television and work out whether the above categories are mutually
exclusive and exhaustive. Alternatively, think back to your other television
programmes you have watched Ð this should give you a good idea of
whether these categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
Are the categories mutually exclusive? The answer is ``no'', because several of
the categories overlap:
& A public/economic crime, such as drug trafficking, can simultaneously be
for personal asset. In other words, if drug trafficking is shown in a
detective programme, you would not know in which of these two
categories to code the incident.
& If an incidence of rape resulting in death is depicted, it is not clear whether
it should be coded into the first or second category.
COM306-D/1 131
& If someone's death results in the personal enrichment of the perpetrator, it
is not clear whether the event should be coded into the first category or
into the ``personal asset'' category.
& If suicide is shown in a television programme, it is not clear whether it
should be coded into the first category or into the ``personal harm''
category.
These problems highlight the importance of clearly defining any category to
be used in a content analysis.
Are the categories exhaustive? The answer is ``no'', because these six cate-
gories do not provide for all the ways in which crime is shown on television.
Many instances occur whereby a crime is understood to have occurred, either
by what a character says, or by the discovery of a body. Murder she wrote is a
good example of a programme in which crime (murder) is not frequently
depicted, but is understood to have occurred. Your coding or tally sheet would
therefore have to make provision for two additional categories: (1) in which
the crime is ``talked about'', and (2) in which evidence of the crime is dis-
covered.
This activity emphasises the importance of conducting a pilot test of the
measuring instrument that you want to use, whether this instrument is a
questionnaire or a coding scheme.
Task 4.6
Study-read Study-read the following scenario and calculate the mean, the median and
section 4.5.3 in the mode. Which measure of central tendency would you regard as most
the prescribed suitable for the data?
book A self-administered questionnaire contains a 5-point scaled item that
ranks the efficiency of an organisation's management. In this case, 21
employees are asked to rank the efficiency of an organisation's manage-
ment. Each of the five options is assigned a numeral:
Excellent (1)
Good (2)
Fair (3)
Poor (4)
Extremely poor (5)
The 21 respondents' rankings are as follows:
1;
2; 2;
3;3;3;3;3;3;
4;4;4;4;4;4;4;4;4;4;4;
5;
N = 72
OUR COMMENTS
It is important to remember that the numerals allocated to the five categories
are not scores in the usual sense of the word. They do not represent specific
``weights'', and simply distinguish between the ranking categories.
132
The mean is calculated by adding all the numerical codes and by dividing this
number by the total number of scores (21). The mean is 72 7 21 = 3,4,
which represents the category ``fair''.
The median is the middle score if the number of scores are uneven. Since this
example contains an uneven number of scores (21), the median is 4, printed in
bold,
bold which represents the category ``poor''.
1;
2;2
3;3;3;3;3;3;
4;4
4;4;4;4;4;4;4;4;4;4;
5;
N = 72
If the number of scores are even, such as these six scores: 1; 2; 2; 3; 4; 4, the
median is calculated as a midpoint between the two middle scores. In this
example the median is 2,5 (as the midpoint between 2 and 3).
The mode measures the central tendency by defining the most frequent
scores. By looking at the frequency of scores above, and without having to
count them, it is clear that 4 (``poor'') is the most frequent score.
As indicated in the prescribed book (section 4.5.3), if the measurement scale
is ordinal and if the scores are asymmetrical (both of which apply to this
example), it is the median (and not the mean) that is the best measure of
central tendency.
Task 4.7
Study-read Study-read the scenario below, and calculate the mean and the total range
section 4.5.3 in for each group. Explain why knowing the total range, rather than calcu-
the prescribed lating the mean, may be a better indicator of the nature of the data.
book Sixteen households are asked to keep a daily diary of the number of hours
that one (or more members) of the household watches television over a
period of one month. The households are purposively sampled to re-
present 8 urban households and 8 rural households. The number of hours
recorded in the diaries are listed below.
Number of hours watching television during one month
Rural households Urban households
X X
79 56
101 42
51 51
49 49
4 59
41 48
14 43
61 52
N = 400 N = 400
COM306-D/1 133
OUR COMMENTS
For the rural households the mean is 400 7 8 = 50 and, as it turns out, the
mean for the urban households is also 400 7 8 = 50. In other words the
mean for both groups is identical, yet the number of hours that each house-
hold recorded as having watched television during the month differs consi-
derably.
This is why it would be better to know the total range for the urban and rural
samples: more useful information can be obtained about the variations among
the scores than by knowing the mean. The calculation of the total range is a
reasonably simple calculation, but first we have to arrange the data in the
order below (listed from the lowest to the highest).
Number of hours watching television during one month
Rural households Urban households
X X
101 59
79 56
61 52
51 1
49 49
41 8
14 43
4 42
N = 400 N = 400
The total range for the rural households is 97 hours (101 - 4 = 97), while the
total range for the urban households is 17 hours (59 - 42 = 17). This means
that a greater variation exists within the scores (hours watching television) for
the rural households than for the urban households. This is despite the fact
that the mean for both are identical.
The reasons for the greater variation within the scores for the rural house-
holds could be: electricity cuts, taxi boycotts (not being able to get home in
time to watch television on a regular basis), or members of the households
simply forgetting to keep tally of the time that they watch television. How-
ever, and irrespective of the reasons, it is important to remember that, in
addition to elementary statistical calculations (eg the mean, median and
mode), other calculations can be used to give a different ``picture'' of raw data.
Task 4.8
Study-read Select a printed text (eg a newspaper, policy document from your em-
section 4.5.4 in ployer, a newsletter from your local council, a book published for children,
the prescribed or this publication) and calculate a Flesch Readability Ease (RE) score.
book Interpret the Readability Ease by consulting table 4.18 in the prescribed
book.
Then answer the following questions:
. In your opinion, is the Readability Ease estimated for the text suitable
for the intended readership?
. What measures would you advise the author of this text to take to
increase the Readability Ease of future documents?
134
OUR COMMENTS
We were interested to find out whether the Readability Ease of our own study
material is suitable for learners with a minimum education of Grade 12. We
drew a sample from a Communication 1 study guide, which reads as follows:
The classical approach assumes that an organisation is like a machine.

Therefore, the smooth running of the machine (that is, the smooth
running of the organisation) is more important than the needs and
feelings of the people who work in the organisation. In this type of
organisation, the function of communication is almost exclusively
concerned with production and administrative matters. Messages are
always work-related Ð they explain how a task should be carried out or
they focus on how the organisation can be made more efficient. We think
you will find it quite easy to recognise the differences between
communication in human relations organisations and in classical
organisations (Steinberg & Du Plooy 1999:178).
To help you understand how we counted the syllables and words per sentence,
we record these per sentence in the table below. We also split the syllables, as
they are sounded or pronounced by means of a slash (/). Please note that this is
not a linguistic analysis. In other words, our concern is not whether a word,
such as ``feelings'' should be divided as ``fee/lings'' or as ``feel/ings''. Our
concern is simply that the word ``feelings'' consists of two syllables when
voiced.
Number of Number of
Sentences in the sampled text
words syllables
The clas/si/cal ap/proach as/sumes that an or/
ga/ni/sa/tion is like a ma/chine. 11 20
There/fore, the smooth run/ning of the ma/
chine (that is, the smooth run/ning of the or/
ga/ni/sa/tion) is more im/por/tant than the
needs and fee/lings of the peo/ple who work
in the or/ga/ni/sa/tion. 31 47
In this type of or/ga/ni/sa/tion, the func/tion
of com/mu/ni/ca/tion is al/most ex/clu/sive/ly
con/cerned with pro/duc/tion and ad/mi/ni/
stra/tive mat/ters. 18 39
Mes/sa/ges are al/ways work-/re/lat/ed Ð
they ex/plain how a task should be car/ried
out or they fo/cus on how the or/ga/ni/sa/tion
can be made more ef/fi/cient. 25 40
We think you will find it quite ea/sy to re/cog/
nise the dif/fe/ren/ces be/tween com/mu/ni/
ca/tion in (100 words) in human relations
organisations and in classical organisations. 15 26
Total: 5 100 172
We followed the following procedure:

& We drew a random sample of a section of the text that contains 100 words.
& We then counted the total number of syllables in these 100 words
(wl) = 172. Syllables that are not sounded separately (eg ``concerned'') are
COM306-D/1 135
counted as a word with two syllables, because we do not pronounce ``con/
cern/ed'' as three syllables. The same applies to the word `àssumes''. In
contrast, a word such as ``classical'' would be counted as three syllables,
because the ``-cal'' is pronounced separately. Contractions and hyphenated
words are counted as one word.
& The next step was to calculate the average number of words per sentence
(sl) Ð by dividing the number of words by the number of sentences:
100 7 5 = 20.
& We then used the following equation:
RE = 206,835 - (0,846 6 wl) - (1,015 6 sl)
This means that:
& the number of syllables (172) is multiplied by 0,846
& the average length of the sentences (20) is multiplied by 1,015
& both multiplications are subtracted from 206,835.
In our example, the RE = 41,0.

When interpreting this RE score by consulting Table 4.18 in the prescribed
book it is ``difficult'' and requires readers to have a tertiary education. Since
this is an academic publication, we would expect the RE score to fall below 60.
Also, the use of specific terms such as ``classical approach'', `òrganisation'',
``production'' and ``communication'' cannot be avoided.
Nevertheless, if we wanted to increase the Readability Ease of this text, we
could do the following:
& Use shorter sentences by avoiding bracketed phrases (the second sentence)
and by avoiding dashes (in the fourth sentence). If the second and fourth
sentences were divided into two sentences, this affects the average
number of words per sentence (100 7 7 = 14,3). This immediately
increases the RE to 47,0 (if we keep the number of syllables the same).
& Use phrases that are easier to understand Ð for example, ``mainly'' could
be used instead of `àlmost exclusively''.
It is worthwhile noting that this sample text uses two techniques that increase
the RE of a text, namely, the use of discourse markers (``Therefore ...'' in the
second sentence) and by using personal types of address, such as ``We'' and
``you''.
4.6 Conclusion
In the first half of this study unit we discussed the procedures to be followed and the
roles of the researcher when conducting research in:
& controlled environments
& semi-controlled environments
& natural environments
In the second half of this study unit we discussed what to do with the data we have
collected, and we focused on:
& doing a content analysis
& calculating measures of central tendency and variation
136
& calculating the Readability Ease of written/printed English texts
The prescribed book concludes with comments on two ethical principles:

& The research design which you select (including methods and techniques) ought to
be suited to the objectives and nature of the research study.
& The coding and interpretation of data must be based on actual data collected Ð
the researcher should not make claims that cannot be substantiated by the data
collected.
This study unit brings to an end our discussion of the methods, techniques and ``tools''
used to collect and interpret research data. In the next two study units we shall discuss
how to apply these methods and designs in various communication contexts and
settings.
Once again, before going any further, you are encouraged to evaluate the achievement
of your learning outcomes by following the guide given at the end of unit 4 in the
prescribed book.
COM306-D/1 137
S T U D Y U N I T
5
RESEARCH OF
ADVERTISING,
MASS-MEDIA
AUDIENCES AND
MASS-MEDIA EFFICIENCY
OVERVIEW
In this study unit, we shall discuss the application of research methods and techniques
in advertising, print media and broadcasting. In the first three sections we shall focus on
research into advertising. We shall discuss consumers' behaviour, the content, structure
and effectiveness of advertisements, and the cognitive, affective and conative
dimensions of persuasive effects. The second section deals with the methods and
techniques used to analyse audiences of print and broadcast media. These methods
and techniques include an analysis of audiences' profiles, item-selection studies, reader-
nonreader studies, uses and gratifications studies, as well as typography and layout
analyses. The study unit ends with a discussion of the techniques and formulas used to
investigate mass-media efficiency. These include calculating the reach, frequency, gross
ratings points, circulation, ratings research, and nonratings research.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this study unit, you should be able to
& conduct advertising message research
& undertake audiences analyses of print and broadcast media
& research mass-media efficiency
5.1 Introduction
In this study unit, we shall concentrate on research methods and techniques used in
advertising, print media and broadcast media. Having worked through study units 2, 3
and 4, you will already be familiar with many of the methods and techniques used.
However, this study unit, and study units 6 and 7 are the core study units for the
COM306±D Module, so we shall be emphasising the application of research methods
and techniques in advertising and the mass media.
138
As you work though this study unit, you will realise that you have several different
research methods to choose from when conducting mass communication research. As
we have emphasised throughout this module, your choice of research method will
depend on factors such as:
& the nature of the problem being researched
& the goal of the research
& the objectives
& your assumptions or hypotheses
& the population parameters
As consumers, we have all been exposed to advertising. However, let us start by

considering advertising from the viewpoint of a communication researcher.
5.2 Advertising message research

In this section we shall focus on the research methods and techniques that are used to
analyse consumers' behaviour, as well as the content, structure and effectiveness of
advertisements.
The following summarises the main points dealt with in this section in the prescribed
book:
Advertising message research

(1) An understanding of
& users' and consumers' behaviours, values and lifestyles
& the role of opinion leaders
& characteristic elements of advertisements
& advertising goals
& the cognitive dimension
& the affective dimension
& the conative dimension
(2) Research methods used

& content analysis
& field research
& survey research
& experimental research
(3) Methods/techniques to research message content

& focus-group interviews
& motivational research
& concept testing
(4) Methods/techniques to research message structure

& element research
& formative research
& summative research
COM306-D/1 139
(5) & ratings research
& Readability Ease tests
& pilot tests
(5) Methods/techniques to research message effectiveness

& preadvertising tests
& aided-recall techniques
& unaided-recall techniques
& blind test
& PEAC
& projective tests
You should keep in mind, that these methods and techniques can also be used in other
communication fields, such as evaluating a public relations campaign as a part of
organisational communication.
Before we look at the actual methods and techniques used in advertising message
research, we need to understand why consumers behave differently; we also need to
understand how values, lifestyles and opinion leaders play a role in their behaviour. The
first activity below enables you to think about these factors. (Note: Although the term
``consumers'' is used throughout, it can in some cases refer to `ùsers'' of particular
services.)
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ACTIVITY 1
Study-read Study-read the key terms/phrases listed numerically in the left-hand

sections 5.1, 5.2 column and link each to one of the phrases in the right-hand column.
and 5.2.1 in the
prescribed book Understanding Fill in your
Illustrative examples
consumers' behaviour link
(1) market (a) Consumers who will be quite
segmentation prepared to try out a new
computer program.
(2) consumer variables (b) Undertaking research while
planning a campaign.
(3) opinion leaders (c) An assumption is that behaviour
can be explained through self-
knowledge of motives.
(4) formative (d) Consumers' age, gender and
income.
(5) innovators (e) Radio listeners divided into
homogeneous subgroups.
(6) a purposive sample (f) Consumers who value inner
growth.
(7) self-reporting (g) Identifying celebrities whose
technique opinions are valued.
(8) response bias (h) Obtaining the opinion of
consumers, advertisers, and
manufacturers.
140
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are In this activity you were introduced to important variables that influence your
based on sections understanding of consumers' behaviour.
behaviour You probably recognised your own
5.1, 5.2 and 5.2.1 behaviour as a consumer in some of the examples and descriptions given in
in the prescribed the prescribed book.
book. Let us consider the key terms/phrases in Activity 1, and how you could have
linked them to the most appropriate examples given in the right-hand column.
(1) Market segmentation:
Market segmentation refers to dividing consumers into homogeneous
groups or subgroups. That is why option (e): Radio listeners is the most
appropriate example. Using market segmentation to research people's use
of the mass media, their purchasing behaviour or whether they have ac-
cepted new ideas is, however ``tricky''. This is because so many variables
influence their behaviour (eg physiological, ego-bolstering and affection
needs) in addition to demographic differences (eg age and gender).
(2) Consumer variables:
These variables usually include demographic characteristics such as age,
gender, income and level of education, which is why option (d) is an
appropriate example.
(3) Opinion leaders:
O'Sullivan et al (1996:210) describe opinion leaders as influential people
who `àctively select and interpret [mass] media material, acting as im-
portant `conductors' between media and community''. The role of an
opinion leader in this two-step flow process can be graphically illustrated
as follows:
Step one Step two

R individuals
mass- R individuals
opinion transmitted and
media ? interpreted by ? ? ? ? individuals
leaders translated to
content A T individuals
T individuals
Two of the characteristics of an opinion leader is that he or she must be

perceived to be competent and that he or she must be socially accessible.
(ie to be contacted on an interpersonal level). Celebrities whose opinions
are valued, option (g), is one such example, whereas others could include
well-known academics, politicians and sportspeople.
(4) Formative:
Formative, as an adjective, refers to something which is in a
``developmental'' stage. When linked to research, ``formative'' refers to
the research and evaluations you would do during the initial stages of
planning and producing communication messages. In the case of
advertising research, it therefore refers to testing the concepts, themes
and messages during the planning and developing stages of creating or
changing an advertising campaign. The most appropriate option is,
therefore, (b): Undertaking research whilst planning a campaign.
COM306-D/1 141
(5) Innovators:
Innovators are regarded as pioneers and the term is normally used in the
field of development communication. You will notice (in the prescribed
book) that they are distinguished from four other groups, namely:
& early adopters
& early majority
& late majority
& laggards
Of the options given in the activity, the most appropriate is (a): Consumers
who will be quite prepared to try out a new computer program.
(6) A purposive sample:
This is a nonprobability type of sample (discussed in unit 3 in the pre-
scribed book), which is drawn from units of analysis which you regard as
suitable for helping you with your research. Option (g): Identifying cele-
brities whose opinions are valued, is one such example. When used for the
purposes of identifying opinion leaders in a community or in a particular
market, you would first draw a purposive sample of individuals who are
recognised as being knowledgeable in the area concerned. You would then
go on to use a snowball sample (to get access to a larger survey sample).
(7) Self-reporting technique:
Self-reporting techniques are normally used as a data-collection method
in qualitative research, with the purpose of obtaining in-depth information
from the perspective of subjects' viewpoints. Free-narration, role-playing
and follow-up questions (discussed in unit 3 in the prescribed book) are
examples of the type of open-ended questions you could use. The ap-
propriate option in this activity is (h): Obtaining the opinion of consumers,
advertisers and manufacturers.
(8) Response bias:
Bias on the part of a respondent may have many causes, such as fatigue, a
dislike of the interviewer, or a reluctance to tell the truth about a sensitive
issue. When attempting to understand consumers' behaviour, ``response
bias'' takes on another meaning. It refers to respondents' inability to be
truthful or to actually know what really motivates them to buy or use
certain product or services. For example, how many people can explain
why they buy and use a certain toothpaste? That is why the appropriate
option is (c): An assumption is that behaviour can be explained through
self-knowledge of motives.
Option (f): Consumers who value inner growth is not linked to any of the
key terms/phrases in this activity. Nevertheless, it reminds us that, in
addition to the innovators Ð laggards continuum of categories, consu-
mers can also be grouped according to their values and lifestyles, namely:
& consumers who are driven by physiological needs
& consumers who are concerned with what others think of them
& consumers who value inner growth
We shall now focus on researching the message content of advertisements.
Irrespective of which advertising medium is used, all advertisements share certain
characteristics, and these include the following:
142
& promising a benefit
& provoking curiosity
& amplifying a certain aspect of a product or service
& making claims
& asking us to take some sort of action
& repeating the name
& making appeals
& using slogans
& using factual and emotional approaches
These characteristics (which are discussed and illustrated in section 5.2.2 in the
prescribed book) not only help us to realise that advertisements represent a unique
genre Ð they can also be used as categories when testing the effectiveness of the
message content. For example, supposing you were planning and preparing an
advertisement or advertising campaign for a new medical scheme. Your research could
focus on finding answers to the following questions:
(1) What benefits should the advertisement promise?

(2) Should you provoke curiosity? If so, how?
(3) What aspects of the medical scheme should be amplified?
(4) What claims should you make?
(5) What kind of action should you invite future clients to take?
(6) How should the name be repeated (verbally and visually)?
(7) What appeal should you make?
(8) What is the slogan?
(9) Should you use a factual or an emotional approach, or a combination of both?
In the advertising industry, testing the content of advertisements has traditionally been
called copy testing. This type of testing is done by using focus-group interviews,
motivational research, and concept testing.
To familiarise yourself with these techniques, we suggest that you do the next activity
(before you continue reading our comments).
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ACTIVITY 2
Study-read As you study-read section 5.2.2, think about the key questions
section 5.2.2 in listed numerically below, and link each of them to an answer in
the prescribed the alphabetical list that follows.
book
Key questions about methods,
Fill in the letter of the alphabet that
techniques and issues for
represents your answer, selected
researching advertising message
from the alphabetical list below.
content:
(1) What is the goal of applied
research?
(2) What does copy testing mean?
COM306-D/1 143
Key questions about methods,
Fill in the letter of the alphabet that
techniques and issues for
represents your answer, selected
researching advertising message
from the alphabetical list below.
content:
(3) What does copy measurement
mean?
(4) What does a campaign mean?
(5) What does an appeal mean?
(6) Why would you use a focus-
group interview?
(7) What methods/techniques are
used in motivational research?
(8) What is a testimonial?
(9) What method/technique is used
in concept testing?
(10) What are diagnostic data?
(11) What is ``proof'' in
advertisements?
Answers to key questions asked above

(a) This is based on the quantitative timing of the duration of broadcast
messages or the quantitative measurement of the size of printed
messages.
(b) This is a statement that addresses people's needs, offers solutions to
their problems and that claims to enable them to obtain their goals.
(c) This is an assertion that is regarded to be credible, and which endorses a
product, service or issue.
(d) These include explanations or reasons given by respondents about why
they behave in a certain way.
(e) It is based on ethos, pathos and/or logos.
(f) This is based on arranging ideas and appeals in rank order.
(g) It provides answers that are not predetermined by the researcher.
(h) This is the analysis of the content of advertising (and other) messages.
(i) This deals with solving a practical problem.
(j) This consists of a series of deliberate communication activities aimed at
a specific goal.
(k) This includes the use of unstructured interviews and content analysis.
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are We start by linking the numerical question with one of the alphabetical
based on section answers and then follow each ``matching'' with detailed comments.
5.2.2 in the (1) What is the goal of applied research?
prescribed book
(i) This deals with solving a practical problem.
Throughout this module you have come across the distinction of
applied and basic research. You should have had no problem, the-
refore, linking (i) with (1). (If you gave the wrong answer here, we
suggest that you revise unit 1 in the prescribed book.)
144
(2) What does copy testing mean?
(h) This is the analysis of the content of advertising (and other) mes-
sages.
As you know, ``content'' is determined by the medium used, and is
not limited to verbal messages only. For example, in radio adver-
tisements, the term ``content'' includes the actual words spoken;
types of address (ie dialogue, soliloquy or voice actuality); para-
linguistic features of the voice used (eg volume and pitch); sound
effect and music. The selection of content to be tested depends on
the goal and objectives of your research. If you were planning a radio
advertising campaign, you may have finalised your verbal text, as
well as the sound effects and music you are going to use. But you
may still want to test different voices (male/female) or different ac-
cents to harmonise with the other auditory content of the adver-
tisement.
(3) What does copy measurement mean?
(a) This is based on the quantitative timing of the duration of broadcast
messages or the quantitative measurement of the size of printed
messages.
It is very important to remember that, when dealing with quantifi-
cation (as in copy measurement), we are not researching qualitative
meanings or the effectiveness of the content. For example, when
timing the different items in a television news bulletin, you may find
that 60% of the broadcasting time deals with a specific political party.
This, however, says nothing about the nature of the content (ie
whether it was positive, neutral or negative).
(4) What does a campaign mean?
(j) This consists of a series of deliberate communication activities, ai-
med at a specific goal.
A communication campaign can achieve a number of purposes
(outcomes or effects), such as to inform, to persuade recipients to act
or to bring about a change in recipients' attitude or behaviour. The
purpose of advertising is usually to increase sales (of products or
services). An advertisement does not normally appear in isolation.
Usually, an advertisement forms part of a campaign of related ad-
vertisements which appear in a number of media over a period of
time.
(5) What does an appeal mean?
(b) This is a statement that addresses people's needs, offers solutions to
their problems and that claims to enable them to obtain their goals.
Consumers' ``needs'', ``problems'' and ``goals'' can be linked to Ma-
slow's hierarchy of needs to which you were introduced in the first-
level communication modules. The five levels are from the most
basic need of survival, to safety, social, esteem and ultimately self-
actualisation needs (Steinberg 1999:83). Although not all cultures
agree that self-actualisation is everyone's ``highest'' need, these le-
vels offer you a useful frame of reference. For example, an adver-
tisement that seeks to persuade medical practitioners to upgrade
their knowledge by enrolling in an Internet programme could appeal
to their need for personal esteem (ie self-respect and the respect of
others). However, this is not the only need that advertising copy-
COM306-D/1 145
writers could appeal to. For example, they might point out the ad-
vantage of not having to travel to other venues and studying at home
in your own time. In this case, the advertisement ``sells'' the training
programme by appealing to the practitioners' social needs (ie `ìn
your own time'') and need to maintain their current level of income
(as medical practitioners).
(6) Why would you use a focus-group interview?
(g) It provides answers that are not predetermined by the researcher.
Focus-group interviews provide the researcher with consumers'
positive and negative responses. Such responses are useful for two
reasons:
& the characteristics, including the strengths and weaknesses of a
product or service, are evaluated
& consumers' different needs and motivations are made clear
(7) What methods/techniques are used in motivational research?
(k) This includes the use of unstructured interviews and content ana-
lysis.
Motivational research assumes that respondents' behaviour is mo-
tivated by their emotions. In order to probe these emotions, you
would use unstructured or open-ended interviews. You would then
record and transcribe the responses and do a content analysis of
these transcribed responses. The purpose of the content analysis is to
identify qualitative comments about the product or service being
researched. In advertising, these comments can be used as motiva-
tional statements and testimonials.
(8) What is a testimonial?
(c) This is an assertion that is regarded to be credible, and which en-
dorses a product, service or issue.
Testimonials are frequently used in advertising and propaganda
messages. It is argued that, if recipients are known to admire the
public figure or person who gives the testimonial, they (ie the reci-
pients) will be more likely to buy or endorse the product, service or
idea being promoted.
(9) What method/technique is used in concept testing?
(f) This is based on arranging ideas and appeals in rank order.
In study unit 3, you learnt that ``ranking'' refers to arranging res-
ponses on an ordinal level (of measurement). Respondents are
presented either with statements (which describe the creative con-
cept, ideas or appeals to be used in an advertisement), or with other
items (eg five visual layouts). Asking respondents to arrange these
statements or items in a rank order, means that they are arranged in
a hierarchical order, for example, from those which they ``like the
most'' to those they ``like the least''.
(10) What are diagnostic data?
(d) These include explanations or reasons given by respondents about
why they behave in a certain way.
The adjective ``diagnostic'' refers to establishing the characteristics
of something. When used in concept testing to describe the kind of
data collected, ``diagnostic'' refers to establishing the reasons why
146
respondents have ranked the creative concepts or visual items in a
certain order.
(11) What is ``proof'' in advertisements?
(e) It is based on ethos, pathos and/or logos.
Proof is one of the characteristic elements of advertisements. The
other eight are discussed in section 5.2.2 in the prescribed book.
Proof is given as some form of substantiated evidence to support a
belief, point of view or conclusion. In advertising, proof is usually
necessary to support a claim which is made in the advertisement. In
any form of persuasive communication, proof can be based on ethos,
pathos and/or logos. Ethos refers to consumers' interpretation of the
persuader's (advertisement's) credibility, expertness and trustwort-
hiness. Pathos is built into a message when it appeals to recipients'
emotions. Logos refers to the advertiser's use of a rational argument
and logical reasoning to support a claim.
In the next subsection, we shall focuse on researching the message structure.

Study-read To research the most effective way of structuring an advertisement, we need to use
section 5.2.3 in either formative research (during the planning stages) or summative research (once the
the prescribed
advertisement has been completed). Both types of research enable us to test an
book
advertisement as a whole, or to test individual codes (called `èlement research''). For
example:
& Several versions of the same soap (printed) advertisement is prepared, but the age
of the model is changed in each picture Ð this is an example of element research
as part of formative research.
& A radio advertisement is evaluated after final production has been completed Ð
this is an example of evaluating an advertisement as a whole, as part of summative
research.
Because formative research is conducted before an advertisement is finally produced, it

can be used to pilot test the following:
& the combination of different verbal, visual and printed codes
& recognition of a brand name
& liking or disliking the message (by means of ratings research)
& whether readers can be expected to understand the text (by means of Readability
Ease tests)
We shall now discuss message effectiveness.

Study-read In order to evaluate the effectiveness of an advertisement, the goal of the
section 5.2.4 in advertisement (or campaign) must be specified by answering the following four
the prescribed
questions:
book
& What should the effects of the advertisement be?
& How strong should these effects be?
& Who should be affected?
& By when should these effects have taken place?
COM306-D/1 147
We suggest that you do the following activity to come to grips with the different
methods and techniques that can be used to research the effectiveness of advertising
messages.
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ACTIVITY 3
Study-read the research objectives listed numerically below. In each

case, the objective measures different dimensions of persuasive
effects. Link each objective with one of the interview/questionnaire
items listed alphabetically in the next column.
Fill in the item which you judge to be
Research objectives Ð testing
most appropriate (consult the
message effectiveness
alphabetical list below).
(1) To test attention as a dependent
variable in evaluating the
cognitive dimension.
(2) To test comprehension as a
dependent variable in evaluating
the cognitive dimension.
(3) To test recognition, exposure and
recall of an advertisement.
(4) To test to see if there has been a
change from unawareness to
awareness of a new brand, by
using an unaided-recall
technique.
(5) To test the affective dimension of
message effectiveness.
(6) To obtain a more in-depth insight
into subjects' feelings by using
projective tests.
(7) To test subjects' predisposition
towards a product or service Ð
by measuring the conative
dimension.
Items (statement/questions) found in an interview schedule or

questionnaire.
(a) ``Please rank the following five deodorant advertisements according to
the extent that you like each, by placing the one you like most first and
the one which you like the least fifth.''
(b) ``Carefully read the list of advertisements and tick those which you
remember watching on television last night.''
(c) `Ìf you wanted to get access to the Internet, which service provider
would you choose?''
(d) ``Which part of the advertisement first attracted your attention?''
(e) ``Pretend that you are in charge of marketing a new fabric softener.
Complete these two statements:
(1) The colour of the container should be ...............................................
148
(2) The fragrance of the fabric softener must remind me of ..................
.........................................................................................................''
(f) ``When thinking of different types of margarines, can you name a new
brand that has been advertised in the newspaper during the past
week?''
(g) ``What product is being advertised in this video?''
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are We shall start off by linking the numerical research objectives with one of the
based on section alphabetically listed interview items and then follow each ``matching'' with
5.2.4 in the detailed comments.
prescribed book (1) To test attention as a dependent variable in evaluating the cognitive di-
mension.
(d) ``Which part of the advertisement first attracted your attention?''
The question asked as an interview item is intended to test which ele-
ments caught the respondent's attention. Assuming that we are research-
ing a television advertisement, the elements can include the choice of
actor/actress, the slogan, the visual action, repetition of the brand name,
music, camera shots, et cetera.
`Àttention'' is treated as the dependent variable, which is linked to the
cognitive dimension of persuasive effects. Any of the above elements,
such as the choice of actor, are independent variables. (If you feel unsure
about the meaning of dependent and independent variables, we suggest
that you revise unit 2 in the prescribed book.)
(2) To test comprehension as a dependent variable in evaluating the cognitive
dimension.
(g) ``What product is being advertised in this video?''
In (1) the research objective was to test attention (a change from being
unaware to becoming aware). In (2), the research objective and the cog-
nitive dimension being tested are comprehension. In this test you are
measuring whether the user or consumer can actually identify the product
or service which is being advertised.
(3) To test recognition, exposure and recall of an advertisement.
(b) ``Carefully read the list of advertisements and tick those which you
remember watching on television last night.''
When testing whether respondents recognise, and/or have been exposed
to and can remember an advertisement, you can use either aided-recall
techniques, unaided-recall techniques, or both. Asking respondents to tick
off advertisements from a list is an example of an aided-recall technique.
If you wanted to do the same test using an unaided-recall technique, you
could ask the following open-ended question:
``What advertisements can you remember watching on television last
night?''
You should note that, by testing recognition, exposure and recall, you are
still testing the cognitive dimension of persuasive effects.
COM306-D/1 149
(4) To test to see if there has been a change from unawareness to awareness
of a new brand, by using an unaided-recall technique.
(f) ``When thinking of different types of margarines, can you name a new
brand that has been advertised in the newspaper during the past week?''
The use of an unaided-recall technique can be compared to using un-
structured interviews or asking open-ended questions in other research
studies. If a respondent can actually name a new brand name that has
been advertised, this response will be more meaningful in evaluating ef-
fectiveness of the advertisement. This is because the response occurred
without any prompting on your part.
(5) To test the affective dimension of message effectiveness.
(a) ``Please rank the following five deodorant advertisements according to the
extent that you like each, by placing the one you like most first and the one
which you like the least fifth.''
The affective dimension of message effectiveness refers to measuring
respondents' emotional likes or dislikes, and any attitude change as a
result of being exposed to an advertisement. Semantic differential scales
and rating scales are suitable for these measurements. A PEAC (Program
Evaluation Analysis Computer) system can also be used.
(6) To obtain a more in-depth insight into subjects' feelings by using pro-
jective tests.
(e) ``Pretend that you are in charge of marketing a new fabric softener.
Complete these two statements:
(1) The colour of the container should be ................................................
(2) The fragrance of the fabric softener must remind me of ...................
........................................................................................................... ''
A projective test requires respondents to respond freely by completing a
statement or, in the case of children, by completing a drawing. The ex-
ample here illustrates how a projective test can be combined with res-
pondents having to fulfil a certain role Ð namely to pretend that they are
responsible for the marketing of a new fabric softener. By completing the
two statements, you assume that they will disclose how they view a
certain world Ð in this case, the world of fabric softeners.
(7) To test subjects' predisposition towards a product or service Ð by mea-
suring the conative dimension.
(c) `Ìf you wanted to get access to the Internet, which service provider would
you choose?''
The conative dimension of persuasive effects refers to measuring subjects'
predisposition towards a product or service. It can also include the mea-
surement of subjects' actual behaviour (as consumers). In our example,
the respondents are not asked to evaluate a particular product or service.
Instead, you are assuming that, if they have a positive predisposition
towards a particular Internet service provider, respondents will identify
the name of this provider.
150
Before you continue with the next section, which deals with audience analyses of
print and broadcasting media, we suggest that you answer the following self-
evaluation and portfolio tasks. Doing these tasks will help you to achieve the first
learning outcome, namely to demonstrate your understanding and ability to conduct
advertising message research.
Important: In view of the fact that this study unit and study units 6 and 7 are the
most important units for the COM306±D Module, we encourage you to make
notes in your personal portfolio file of the following as you work your way through
the self-evaluation and portfolio tasks in these three study units (5, 6 and 7):
(1) The problems that you were required to solve.
(2) The sources of information that you consulted.
(3) Which alternatives you had to consider and what decisions you made.
(4) Any new ideas, products, techniques or definitions that you developed.
(5) Whether you got other people to help you with these tasks and, if so, the
nature of their cooperation.
(6) How the tasks linked to your prior knowledge and/or experiences.
(7) New knowledge and experience that you gained by doing the task. Whether
you could formulate answers that differed from our comments and answers.
(8) How you have personally benefited, or what you have learnt, from
performing the task?
(9) The strengths and weaknesses in your personal knowledge and abilities that
the task enabled your to recognise (before and, especially, after reading our
comments on the task).
(10) Any other aspects that relate to your personal learning process.
As we said right at the beginning of this study guide, some tasks do not have a single
or correct answer. However, you should still try to do the task and keep a record of
your choices, responses, and experiences before reading our comments. This is
important because you will only be able to judge the validity of your responses
against our criteria or guidelines if you have already performed the task.
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Task 5.1
Study-read Watch television advertisements during prime-time on seven consecutive

sections 5.1 and evenings, and judge whether or not the women or blacks who appear in
5.2.1 in the these advertisements are portrayed in roles which were previously re-
prescribed book served for men or whites.
OUR COMMENTS
You will probably find that women or blacks are shown in a variety of pro-
fessional positions or that they are portrayed as achievers (eg soccer stars).
Because higher income levels are implied, you may also find that women or
blacks are currently portrayed in selected categories of advertisements, such
as advertisements for expensive leisure products, clothes and motorcars.
COM306-D/1 151
Task 5.2
Study-read How would the five groups of adopters described in section 5.2.1 differ in
sections 5.1 and their reaction to an advertisement for a new household product (eg a
5.2.1 in the carpet cleaner)?
prescribed book
OUR COMMENTS
Five groups of adopters are distinguished in section 5.2.1 in the prescribed
book and, according to the descriptions given, we can assume that the dif-
ferent groups would react to an advertisement for a new household product
(eg a carpet cleaner) in the following ways:
& Innovators would not hesitate to react to the advertisement and would be
willing to try out the new carpet cleaner, even if some risk (eg colour
fading) was involved.
& Early adopters will also react positively towards the advertisement, but
would be more cautious when trying out the product. For example, they
would buy a small sample of the product and try it out on a section of the
carpet which is usually covered by a couch.
& The early majority,
majority like early adopters, would react positively towards the
advertisement, but would first make enquiries about the ingredients of the
carpet cleaner and procedures involved in using it, before actually
purchasing and using it. They would probably question the manufacturers,
distributors and, in particular, other users of the new product.
& The late majority would be sceptical of the claims made in the
advertisement and cautious about actually using the carpet cleaner. They
would only use the product once their friends and neighbours (the general
public) had started using the new product.
& Laggards would be suspicious of both the advertisement and the actual
new carpet cleaner; and if they did decide to buy and use it, the chances
are that, by the time they did so, another new carpet cleaner would have
appeared on the market.
Task 5.3
Study-read What is the role of an opinion leader in an advertisement?

sections 5.2.1±
5.2.4 in the
prescribed book OUR COMMENTS
Before you can answer the above question, you need to identify (as part of
formative research) the individuals or institutions who serve as models for the
consumers of the product or service being advertised. It is obvious that some-
one who is regarded as being an opinion leader and knowledgable about
financial investment matters will not necessarily be regarded as an opinion
leader on any other topic. This is an example of monomorphism as a cha-
racteristic of opinion leaders. Monomorphism means that someone is iden-
tified as an opinion leader on only one particular topic.
You can use one of three (or all three) survey techniques to determine
& who your target market would approach for advice
152
& who your target market regards as opinion leaders in a particular
community
& to what extent your target market regard themselves as opinion leaders
Once you had done the survey(s), you might find signs of polymorphism.
Polymorphism refers to the fact that someone may be identified as an opinion
leader on different topics. For example, an opinion leader in fashion may also
be identified as an opinion leader in a completely different area Ð for ex-
ample, public affairs.
Once the individual and/or institution is identified as an opinion leader on a
particular topic, you can answer the question above by stating that an opinion
leader in an advertisement can fulfil several roles, of which the following are
examples.
& They function as innovators when an advertisement introduces a new idea,
service or product.
& They function as a channel through which a new idea can enter a wider
social system.
& They give the message in the advertisement credibility.
& They influence consumers' attitudes towards the service or product being
advertised.
& They influence consumers' behaviours in a certain, desired way.
Don't forget that the extent to which an opinion leader can fulfil these roles
depends on several factors, such as:
& content of the message
& structure of the message
& cognitive, affective and/or conative dimensions of persuasive effects of the
advertisement
& message's salience (importance) to the recipients
& frequency of exposure to the message
Task 5.4
Study-read You want to use motivational research to prepare the message content of
section 5.2.2 in an advertisement. Briefly describe your selected product (or service).
the prescribed Formulate your research questions or hypotheses, and 10 questions that
book you could ask in an unstructured and open-ended interview. Draw a
purposive sample of five individuals who are potential consumers. Follow
the steps described in section 5.2.2 in the prescribed book, and write
down the motivational statements that could be used as an advertising
appeal.
OUR COMMENTS
We have chosen to advertise the services provided by a new organisation
called One-stop consultants, which offers professional services to top ex-
ecutive clients. Our research question is: `Òn which professional needs should
we focus our services?''
We selected a purposive sample of presidents and managers of different in-
stitutions (educational, banking, real estate, engineering and law) and we
then conducted unstructured, open-ended interviews (of individuals).
COM306-D/1 153
In study units 3 and 4 you learnt that open-ended questions encourage
respondents to express their opinions in their own words. In unstructured,
open-ended interviews, you can use free-narration questions, role-playing
questions, and probing, mirror or climate questions as follow-up questions.
Our interview consisted of one open-ended question, namely:
``Describe the decision-making activities of your firm's top manage-
ment.''
Based on the responses we got to this open-ended question, we then asked
probing questions such as the following:
& ``Does this happen on a daily basis?''
& ``Would in-service training of middle management solve the problem?''
& ``What about outsourcing these services?''
& ``Who are your most important competitors?''
& ``Do you do your own recruitment of new staff?''
& ``Why?''
& ``How can we as consultants help here?''
Responses were recorded on an audiotape and transcribed verbatim. We then

conducted a qualitative content analysis and identified the following moti-
vational phrases that can be used in an advertisement:
& ``... financial services is a daily problem ...''
& ``... general management services is our firm's backbone ...''
& ``... we haven't got the time to recruit professionals internationally ...''
& ``... we face fierce competition from others in the market ...''
Based on the phrases above, we can conclude that appeals that can be con-
sidered in our advertisements for One-stop consultants must be based on a
factual approach. The advertisements must emphasise confidentiality, the
diversity of professional services that the organisation offers, and the fact that
the organisation can help create new business opportunities for its clients.
Task 5.5
Study-read section Why does traditional demographic research for the purpose of market
5.2.1 in the segmentation need to include consumer lifestyle research?
prescribed book
OUR COMMENTS
Traditional demographic research finds out consumers' gender, age, occupa-
tion, level of formal education, income, living area, social, political, religious
and group affiliations. Important though they are, these demographic varia-
bles are not sufficient for our purpose Ð which is to divide consumers into
homogeneous subgroups (market segmentation). A further analysis of
consumers' values and lifestyles is therefore required. Berger (1991:83)
defines the concept ``lifestyle'' as `à comprehensive term that covers a
person's tastes in fashions, cars, entertainment and recreation, literature and
related matter''.
In section 5.2.1 in the prescribed book, consumers are divided into three
broad groups, namely those who:
& are driven by physiological needs
& are concerned with other people's opinions of them
154
& value inner growth
Task 5.6
Study-read section Why is it difficult to predict consumer behaviour on the basis of people's
5.2.4 in the motives?
prescribed book
OUR COMMENTS
There are four main reasons why it is difficult to predict consumer behaviour
on the basis of people's motives. Firstly, people are not necessarily aware or
understand why they behave in a certain way, such as smoking a particular
brand of cigarettes. Secondly, two people who are exposed to the same ad-
vertisement may interpret and respond differently, depending on their per-
sonal dispositions. For example, an advertisement promoting the use of
condoms to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases will evoke
very different responses from women who cannot conceive, women who have
been raped and women whose sexual partners refuse to use condoms. Thirdly,
the reasons which consumers give for their behaviour may well be totally
unrelated to the real motives for such behaviour. For example, many people
buy certain makes of cars, not because of the technical specifications of these
cars, but because these cars are a symbolic expression of the owners' or
drivers' characteristics and self-image (including their social status). Fourthly,
variables that are totally unrelated to consumers' motives may influence their
actual behaviour. A good example here is people who buy a product simply
because it is in a sale. Other variables include availability, varieties within the
product range, the places (outlets) where these products can be bought and
after-sales service. These and other variables are listed in section 5.2.4 (in the
prescribed book), which discusses the marketing mix of an advertising cam-
paign.
Task 5.7
Study-read section Find and describe an example of a current advertisement that features an
5.2.1 in the opinion leader.
prescribed book
OUR COMMENTS
South African examples of advertisements that use opinion leaders include
the following:
& An Edgars advertisement of Adidas merchandise, shorts and t-shirts
featuring Jacques Kallis, and a slogan that reads ``Spring into summer with
Jacques Kallis''. (Jacques Kallis is a South African cricket hero.)
& An advertisement for ``The #1 Weight-loss & Energy program'' in which
Bill Cordell describes how he lost weight and benefited from using the
product. Although the 61 year old Bill Cordell is not a well-known person,
his testimony is accompanied by a before-photograph, when he weighed
109,5 kilograms and an after-photograph, in which he weighs 20,5
kilograms lighter. This gives him a credibility which we would normally
associate with an opinion leader.
& ``Beat the blues. Take St John's Wort. Nature's `FEEL GOOD' plant.'' This is
followed by three quotations from medical doctors praising Ultima's St
John's Wort. In addition to using medical doctors as opinion leaders, the
COM306-D/1 155
phrase ``Numerous medical aids will reimburse on ULTIMA products''
means that medical schemes are also used as opinion leaders in this
particular advertisement.
& An ABSA Bank Ltd advertisement asks the question: ``What does Absalute
Freedom mean to you?'' This is accompanied by a photograph of a woman
dressed as a graduate, with the following captions printed over her black
gown:
Ð Location: University Great Hall
Ð Occasion: Cheryl Adam's graduation
Ð Future: A successful medical practice
Ð Feeling: Absalute Freedom
Although `àbsa''-lute freedom is repeated as a theme throughout the
advertisement, the use of a woman as a medical graduate gives her a
certain status. Although she is not a financial expert (opinion leader) in
the banking business, her status conveys the message that she is in
control of her life because she uses ABSA's financial services.
Task 5.8
Study-read section What was the last product that you bought that cost more than R1 000
5.2.1 in the (approximately 160$)? What were the reasons (motivations) for buying
prescribed book the product? Did your family, friends, salespersons or advertising play a
role in you purchasing behaviour?
OUR COMMENTS
The purpose of this task is to sensitise you to the fact that our motivations for
spending a large amount of money (such as R1 000) can be related to different
factors and needs. We conducted an informal survey among a few friends and
colleagues, and received the following answers in reply to the above question:
& `Ì bought a computer. Reason: I have been retrenched and am starting my
own business designing web pages.''
& `Ì bought a second-hand car. Reason: My work involves travelling and my
previous car was not reliable enough.''
& `Ì did not buy a product, but I spent more than R1 000 in registering for an
MBA degree and buying the prescribed books. Reason: I want to improve
my qualifications.''
& `Ì bought a refrigerator. Reason: My previous refrigerator is 25 years old
and the doors no longer shut properly.''
From these replies it becomes clear that family, friends, salespersons or ad-
vertising did not play a role in their purchasing behaviour. Instead the pur-
chases were made to meet basic needs (refrigerator), to secure an income
(computer and car), and to improve educational qualifications (registration
fees and books).
However, when asked what motivated them to select a particular product and
degree, it becomes clear that family, friends, salespersons or advertising did
play a role in their decisions.
& `Ì bought this computer based on Vernon's advise.'' (Vernon is a friend and
computer expert.)
156
& `Ì bought this second-hand car from a particular firm, because of the
advertisement that I saw in the newspaper.''
& `Ì followed my father's advice in registering for an MBA, because it will
offer me many future career opportunities; I selected this particular
educational institution because their degrees are recognised
internationally.''
& `Ì saw this firm's closing down sale in a knock-and-drop advertisement,
but was unsure about what type of refrigerator to buy. My final choice was
based on the salesperson's advice.''
Task 5.9
Study-read You have been commissioned to conduct a concept test for a new cell
section 5.2.2 in phone. Identify your target market (in terms of demographics and life-
the prescribed styles). Compile five statements, on separate cards, that represent creative
book concepts. Then ask ten people who represent your target market to rank
the concepts, from the one they like the most to the one they like the least.
After you have finished the concept test, interview your respondents and,
on the basis of what they tell you, work out whether you should have
included other creative concepts.
OUR COMMENTS
Depending on your target market (eg young adults, as innovators and early
adopters), your creative concepts could have dealt with specifications based
on the following themes:
& national access
& receiving unlimited number of calls
& voicemail retrieval
& access to emergency numbers
& rental options
& free talk time during weekends
& standby time
In your opinion, have we included all the creative concepts which meet your
needs as a (potential) cellular phone user? What about risks and securities if
your phone is stolen? What about being offered reduced tariffs if you only
want to use your phone for incoming calls? What about accessories such as
data/fax compatibility, real-time clock, diary, number memories or graphic
displays?
When you interviewed your respondents, did you come to the conclusion that
you could have used other creative concepts?
COM306-D/1 157
Task 5.10
Study-read section Choose advertisements (eg those printed in your local newspaper) which
5.2.2 in the use the nine elements of creative concepts discussed in section 5.2.2 in
prescribed book the prescribed book.
OUR COMMENTS
We have given examples of each of the nine elements below; these examples
were taken from printed advertisements that appeared in South African ma-
gazines and newspapers at the time of writing:
(1) Advertisements that promise a (new or existing) benefit for the consumer
or user
& ``We don't know what the future will look like ... but we can guarantee
what it will sound like.'' ``3 year guarantee.'' (Technics)
& ``When you need help ... we're all the help you need'' (Automobile
Association of South Africa)
(2) Advertisements that provoke curiosity

& `Èxpand your view'' (DStv)
& ``Pump up your performance'' (SASOL SUPER 100)
& ``0±10 000 bubbles in under ten seconds'' (Panado)
(3) Advertisements that contain an amplification of the product/service and/or

its benefits
& ``The GP's choice. For headaches, pain and fever. (Contains
Paracetamol. Read the package insert.) Paracetamol 500 mg/tablet.
B2.8/858 *Reg. T.M.'' (Panado)
& ``Don't throw the bones. When deciding on a calcium supplement.
CALSUPP tablets contain the highest form of elemental calcium
formulated in balanced proportions of magnesium and Vitamin D,
necessary for the maintenance of healthy bones and teeth'' (CALSUPP)
(4) Advertisements that contain claims and proof to support such claims
These two furniture firms rely on their reputation as proof for the claims
they make:
& `Ìt's easier to live better with ELLERINES''
& ``LUBNERS are the greatest!''
(5) Advertisements that urge the consumer or user to take some specific
action
& ``DON'T DELAY! For immediate dispatch, order by .............''
(At the end of an advertisement for a videotape entitled ``Dancing
Made Easy''.)
& ``So take advantage of this exclusive opportunity and invest now. Visit
our website at ............''
(At the end of an advertisement that introduces a Private Money Fund
from Investec Private Bank.)
158
(6) Advertisements that have a brand name that is repeated verbally and/or
visually (pictorially)
The following verbal copy accompanies a picture of a young boy:
``When your mom says she's giving up smoking you have one of two
choices... 1. leave the planet or 2. beg your dad to buy Quit.''
Quit
The ``Q'' is superimposed over and crosses out a burning cigarette and this
combination of the word and visual icon appears in the verbal text; it is
repeated five times on the visual images of the Quit mouth spray.
(7) Advertisements that contain appeals that clearly indicate the target
audience
& A Sterns advertisement of a ``Red, hot up to 70% off sale'', the target is
specified as follows: ``For all our valued account holders''.
& Although the verbal copy in the Quit example refers to ``your mom'', it
ends with an interesting phrase to describe the target, which implies
that the advertisement (and product) is not only targeted at women
smokers, namely
``For people who've given up trying to give up!'' [own emphasis]
(8) Advertisements that contain slogans

The following are examples of slogans used by some South African Sunday
newspapers and broadcast and telecommunication firms:
& ``The people's paper'' (City Press)
& ``The best of your world'' (Sunday World)
& ``The paper for the people'' (Sunday Times)
& ``Let's make things better'' (Philips)
& ``The Pulse of Africa's Creative Spirit'' (SABC)
& ``Quality Shows'' (SABC-TV3)
& `Òne voice'' (Grintek Telecom)
& ``The better connection'' (MTN)
& ``Connecting people'' (NOKIA)
& ``Cellular solutions'' (VODAC)
& ``When you need to express it'' (Teleflorist)
(9) Advertisements that use a factual approach

& ``SEVEN GOOD REASONS for using the Sunday Times magazine as an
advertising medium:
i A weekly quality circulation of 467 477 copies.
i Strong representation across all language/cultural groups.
i 46% or 843 180 readers with a monthly household income of
+R6 000,00.
i Entertaining, leisure reading for 1 833 000 readers.
i Shelf-life of at least a week, due to the comprehensive 8 page TV
guide.
i 44% or 806 520 female readers and 56% or 1 026 480 male
readers.
i 54% or 989 820 readers within the 16±34 age group. 46% or 843
180 readers within the 35±50+ age group''
(Note that the advertisement above was published in the Sunday Times
COM306-D/1 159
Magazine 1999-10-31, and the factual figures that it contains will almost
certainly have changed by the time you read this example.)
& ``The Q-Trunk radio trunking network offers the best and most cost-
effective method of communicating with your vehicle fleet.''
(Q-Trunk)
(10) Advertisements that use an emotional approach

& ``Life. Your future in good hands.'' (Sanlam)
& ``You're somebody special'' (Mutual & Federal; Commercial)
& ``Helping families the world over.'' (Family Insurance Advisory
Services)
& ``Make your world a better place.'' (Metropolitan Life)
& ``Partnership is our policy.'' (CGU Insurance)
& `Àll a nappy needs to be'' (Cuddlers Ð disposable nappies)
We shall now discuss research that focuses on the readers, listeners and viewers of
print and broadcast media.
5.3 Audience analyses of print and broadcast media

In this section we shall focus on the research methods that are used to analyse print
and broadcast media audiences.
The following mindmap summarises the main points dealt with in this section in the
prescribed book:
160
COM306-D/1
Audience analyses
Analysing the
General research audiences of print and
methods used broadcast media
Analysing the
audiences of print media
audience profile
field research (demographics; reader-
survey research nonreader
psychographics;
lifestyles) studies
experimental
research uses and
gratifications
item-selection typography and studies
studies lay-out research
161
Study-read The term `àudience'' refers to a public group of individuals who are listening and
section 5.3 in the watching a performance. However, in this study unit `àudience'' refers specifically to
prescribed book recipients (readers, listeners and viewers) of mass-mediated communication.
When analysing audience profiles, you are essentially interested in summarising the
most important demographic characteristics and AIO's (activities, interests and
opinions) of the audience of a particular mass medium (eg the readers of a women's
magazine). Using Likert scales and open-ended questions enables you to segment an
audience into smaller lifestyle groups. This information is used by media owners,
sponsors and advertisers when mass-media content is changed or new content
planned.
The objective of item-selection studies Ð which apply specifically to the print

media Ð is to establish which type of readers prefer to read specific sections of a
publication. In these studies, the data-collection methods used are usually
questionnaires, interviews and aided-recall techniques.
The term ``reader'' in reader-nonreader studies not only refers to ``readers'' of print
media, but can also be used to refer to recipients of other forms of mass
communication, such as television viewers. In addition to establishing who does and
who does not ``read'' a mass medium (eg a specific radio station), the objectives of
these studies also include the following:
& finding out the demographic and lifestyle characteristics of both readers and
nonreaders
& finding out why certain people are nonreaders
Reader-nonreader studies may involve using interviews, questionnaires, aided-recall

and unaided-recall techniques; reader-nonreader studies help to build up a
multidimensional profile of an audience of one mass medium. However, it is important
to note that your operational definition of the ``readers'' versus `'nonreaders'' directly
influences whether a respondent is categorised as either a reader or nonreader.
Mass-media audiences have a cognitive need for information, and affective needs for
escapism and entertainment. They also have social needs and personal identity needs.
These are examples of the kind of data collected when undertaking uses and
gratifications studies. These studies are usually conducted by using self-administered
questionnaires with two objectives in mind, namely to find out:
& why audiences select (use) certain media and certain content
& what gratifications audiences obtain (or perceive to obtain) from exposure to a
certain medium and content
Typography and layout research, as the description indicates, applies to the print
media. Readers are asked to evaluate different typographic fonts and other elements of
page layout. In these tests, elements such as different headings, column widths,
margins or photographs are used as independent variables.
Before you continue with the next section, which deals with researching media
efficiency, we suggest that you do the following self-evaluation and portfolio tasks.
162
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Task 5.11
Study-read Assume that you are the editor of a morning daily newspaper with a
section 5.3 in the declining circulation. What types of research would you conduct to find
prescribed book out why readership has declined and to find out what can be done to
increase readership?
OUR COMMENTS
The scenario sketched in task 5.11 indicates two aspects that have already
been established, namely that:
& the circulation (ie the number of copies of the newspaper per issue) has
dropped
& it can be assumed that the ratings by readers have also dropped
It therefore appears unnecessary to conduct either a circulation study or a
ratings study. Instead, you can undertake a research project with the objective
of answering the following research questions:
What is our readers' profile in terms of demographics, psycho-
graphics and lifestyle?
and
Why are fewer readers buying or subscribing to the newspaper?
To answer the first research question, you can undertake a survey by inserting
a self-administered questionnaire in one of the issues. The items in this
questionnaire would then measure:
& demographic characteristics, such as age, gender and income
& psychographic characteristics, in other words respondents' opinions,
attitudes and interests
& lifestyles, in terms of work-related and leisure-time activities
The questionnaire items may consist of a battery of attitudinal questions and/
or a battery of attitudinal statements. The researcher could use a Likert scale
that measures the degree to which respondents agree or disagree with a
particular statement.
If the newspaper already has an audience (reader) profile, then you could
concentrate on answering the second research question.
Several studies can be undertaken to investigate why fewer readers are
buying or subscribing to the newspaper, namely:
& an item-selection study, combined with a typography and layout study
& a reader-nonreader study
& a uses and gratifications study
In all three studies, a survey can be conducted by means of self-administered

questionnaires, telephone interviews and face-to-face interviews.
An item-selection study,
study combined with a typography and layout study,
study will
enable you to reconsider aspects of the newspaper that can be changed, such
as:
COM306-D/1 163
& length of articles
& types of content
& typographical styles
& layout
& use of photographs and graphics
In a reader-nonreader study,
study you can use aided-recall techniques, unaided-
recall techniques and recognition techniques (discussed in sections 5.2.4 and
5.3.3 in the prescribed book); an open-ended question would be the best way
of finding out why certain respondents are, or have become, nonreaders.
The findings of such a study will indicate whether any of these or other factors
(related to this specific newspaper) have caused the drop in circulation:
& typographic style and layout
& content
& time of delivery or availability
& points of distribution
& language
& preference for another morning newspaper
& cost
You can obtain more in-depth information by conducting a uses and gratifi-
cations study with the same respondents sampled in the above studies. A uses
and gratifications study will tell you more about the qualitative gratifications
sought and the satisfaction obtained from reading this particular newspaper.
In other words, these gratifications and satisfactions will provide reasons why
respondents choose (do not choose) to buy/read the newspaper. These rea-
sons, in turn, will help to explain why circulation has dropped.
Task 5.12
Study-read Assume that you want to start publishing a new community newspaper.
sections 5.2 and Describe the types of research you would undertake before you went
5.3 in the ahead with this project.
prescribed book
OUR COMMENTS
The types of research that should be undertaken will be influenced by factors
such as how regularly the newspaper is to be published; whether it is spon-
sored by advertisers or whether readers will have to pay for it; whether it has
to compete with an existing community newspaper; and whether it is to be
published in one or several languages. You will obviously have to do a needs
analysis and not simply assume that there is a need for such a publication.
A needs analysis can consist of several studies, of which the following are
examples:
(1) A profile of the people living in the community will provide an indication
of variables such as the age distribution, first-language choice, literacy
levels, gender divisions, and AIOs (activities, interests and opinions).
(2) A profile of the institutional nature of the community will indicate the
organisations found in the particular community; the types of housing in
the community; the educational, training and day-care centres; health
facilities; banks and building societies; police stations; businesses and
recreational facilities and clubs.
164
(3) A formative (survey) study (discussed in section 5.2.1 in the prescribed
book) can be undertaken (based on the above two profiles) to identify
opinion leaders who could serve as innovators or early adapters of this
new community newspaper. A purposive sample can be drawn of the
following representatives:
& individuals whose AIOs indicate that they are mainly driven by
physiological needs
& individuals whose AIOs indicate that they belong to the so-called
``mass market'' individuals whose AIOs indicate that they value inner
growth
& institutions found in the community
& executive and legislative authorities (eg people on local governmental
councils)
(4) Focus-group interviews can be conducted with the respondents in the

purposive sample to establish what needs (such as informational and
entertainment) your proposed community newspaper can meet.
(5) Based on the responses received during the focus groups, concept testing
can be undertaken in which respondents rank the appeal of certain
creative concepts.
This research will enable you to establish whether or not there is a need
for a newspaper that serves a particular community, and will also give you
some indication of what the content of the newspaper should be. For
example, the local police may need a medium through which they can
inform the community of anti-crime measures they are implementing.
Task 5.13
Study-read section Conduct a pilot uses and gratifications study among 20 people living in
5.3.4 in the your neighbourhood and find out why they read the community news-
prescribed book paper, or, if no such paper exists, why the read a local daily newspaper.
OUR COMMENTS
A self-administered questionnaire can be used to find out the gratifications
and satisfactions readers look for in a community newspaper. However, you
must remember that different mass and community media may be used for
different reasons. This is why you first need to do a content analysis of the
actual newspaper and categorise the type of content it intends to include.
A content analysis of your community or local newspaper will probably reveal
that the following types of content appear regularly:
& news stories (local events)
& human interest stories (in-depth profiles of people, events, places and
organisations, and forthcoming events and weekly entertainment listings)
& investigative stories (eg ``New highway to spoil our neighbourhood'')
& editorials (including letters to the editor)
& feature columns (which deal with a variety of topics from health matters,
to religion)
& reviews and criticism (of films, arts, radio and television broadcasting)
& competitions
COM306-D/1 165
& rt1
& sport stories
& advertisements
It would be worthwhile labelling each section of your community (or local)
newspaper by using the nine categories listed above. By simply counting the
number of sections that can be coded in each of the nine categories, and by
measuring the sizes of columns' lengths and widths (in centimetres) you may
well find that the content mainly consists of
& news stories
& human interest stories
& competitions
& sport stories
& advertisements
If this is true of your community or local newspaper, then the self-ad-

ministered questionnaire can be designed to focus mainly on whether these
content categories:
(1) are read because of needs for surveillance, diversion, personal identity and
relationships and
(2) provide satisfactions for needs of surveillance, diversion, personal identity
and relationships
As the average reader may not understand the meaning of a term such as
surveillance, the statements to which respondents must respond (in a Likert
scale), must use terms which the average reader will understand.
The following is an example of one such item:
For each of the statements (1±5) circle one of the options to indicate how
you feel.
SA = Strongly agree (with the statement)
A = Agree (with the statement)
N = Neither agree nor disagree (with the statement)
D = Disagree (with the statement)
SD = Strongly disagree (with the statement)
You read the following sections of Field Gazette because of your need for
information:
(1) news stories SA A N D SD

(2) human interest stories SA A N D SD
(3) competitions SA A N D SD
(4) sport stories SA A N D SD
(5) advertisements SA A N D SD
A similar item can be inserted in the questionnaire later on to investigate

whether this need for information is in fact satisfied. For example:
166
For each of the statements (28±32) circle one of the options to indicate how
you feel.
SA = Strongly agree (with the statement)
A = Agree (with the statement)
N = Neither agree nor disagree (with the statement)
D = Disagree (with the statement)
SD = Strongly disagree (with the statement)
You read the following sections of Field Gazette, because they actually
satisfy your need for information:
(28) news stories SA A N D SD

(29) human interest stories SA A N D SD
(30) competitions SA A N D SD
(31) sport stories SA A N D SD
(32) advertisements SA A N D SD
The last section of this study unit deals with researching media efficiency.
5.4 Researching mass-media efficiency

Study-read In this section we shall focus on the research methods and techniques that are used to
section 5.4 in the analyse the efficiency or effectiveness of the mass media.
prescribed book
The following summarises the main points that are dealt with in this section in the
prescribed book:
Researching mass-media efficiency

(1) Research methods used
(1) & field research
& survey research
& experimental research
(2) Formulas and calculations used

(1) & reach
& frequency
& gross ratings points
& circulation
& rating
& share
& cost per thousand
& ratings via the Internet
(3) Nonratings research

(1) & audiences profiles
& uses and gratifications studies
& formative research
& summative research
& Appreciation Index
& music call-out research
COM306-D/1 167
When researching the effectiveness of the mass media, you will have to choose, once
again, whether to use mainly quantitative or qualitative research. The choice you make
will be determined by which of the techniques listed in the summary above should be
used in your research.
If media owners, managers, sponsors or advertisers are interested in the quantitative

number of individuals or households that receive their messages, any research study
undertaken would need to calculate the following:
& reach of the medium
& frequency of exposure
& Gross Ratings Points (GRPs)
& circulation figures of the print media
& ratings of the broadcast media
The meanings of these terms and formula used for the calculations are discussed in
sections 5.4.1 and 5.4.2 in the prescribed book and are not repeated here.
In contrast, if the effectiveness of the mass media is researched from a qualitative

approach, you would be more concerned with whether audiences are satisfied/
dissatisfied with, for example, media programmes and you would want to know their
opinions about a particular media issue (eg a change in radio programming schedules).
The methods that are used in this case are discussed in sections 5.2 and 5.3 in the
prescribed book and include, among others:
& audience profiles
& uses and gratifications research
& formative evaluation
& summative evaluation
When reconsidering the cognitive, affective and conative (behavioural) dimensions of

persuasive effects (discussed in section 5.2.4 in the prescribed book), the following
summary is a useful guide about which research techniques and methods are normally
used:
Steps in the persuasive Examples of research methods
process Ð linked to the and techniques used to test
dimensions of persuasive effects effectiveness
Exposure; contact; presentation Circulation; reach, frequency and
/
GRPs
Attention/awareness Reader, listener and viewer aided
/
and unaided-recall tests
Comprehension Reader, listener and viewer aided
/ and unaided-recall tests; blind
test; checklists
Conviction; interest; desire; Motivational research; concept
evaluation testing; Readability Ease tests;
/
ratings research; nonratings
research; PEAC; projective tests
168
Steps in the persuasive Examples of research methods
process Ð linked to the and techniques used to test
dimensions of persuasive effects effectiveness
Action; purchase behaviour; Interviews at the point of
adoption purchase, telephonically or
/
questionnaire; audits of actual
sales data
To learn how both the quantitative formulas and qualitative techniques are used to
research the effectiveness of the mass media, we suggest that you study-read section
5.4 in the prescribed book and, at the same time, work through the following self-
evaluation and portfolio tasks. Once again, you will get the most out of doing these
tasks by working through them first before reading our comments. Also, keep a written
record of your responses to these tasks in your portfolio file. Finally, please keep a
pocket or computer calculator handy before you start these tasks.
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Task 5.14
Study-read section What does the following statement mean? `À radio advertisement that is
5.4.1 in the broadcast between 08:00 and 08:30 on a particular radio station over a
prescribed book period of one month has a reach of 60%.''
OUR COMMENTS
If you revise the definition of reach in section 5.4.1 in the prescribed book, you
will see that the statement made in Task 5.14 means the following: the cu-
mulative audience which was exposed to a radio advertisement during a
specific half-hour time slot over a period of a month consisted of 60% of the
target population.
Task 5.15
Study-read Consider the following figures and calculate the average frequency of
section 5.4.1 in exposure.
the prescribed In a sample of households, the total number of exposures to a television
book news broadcast is 1 680 and the reach is 8%.
OUR COMMENTS
The average frequency of exposure is calculated by dividing the total number
of exposures for all households with the reach. In the example given in Task
5.15, the average frequency of exposure is 210 (1 680 7 8 = 210).
Task 5.16
Study-read section What is the purpose of calculating gross ratings points (GRPs)?
5.4.1 in the
prescribed book
COM306-D/1 169
OUR COMMENTS
GRPs are used to enable an organisation to compare two mass media (eg two
radio stations) or two genres (eg a phone-in programme broadcast in the
morning versus one broadcast in the afternoon on one radio station). The
purpose of such a comparison is to enable an organisation to select a particular
mass medium or a particular genre in which to place an advertisement.
Task 5.17
Study-read Consider the following scenario and decide in which newspaper your
section 5.4.1 in employer should place an advertisement:
the prescribed Details about newspaper A: It has a reach of 45% and an average fre-
book quency of 10.
Details about newspaper B: It has a reach of 50% and an average fre-
quency of 5.
OUR COMMENTS
In view of the fact that the information in Task 5.17 does not contain details
such as the cost of an advertisement for the same size space, you can only
decide in which newspaper to place the advertisement by calculating the
gross ratings points for the two newspapers.
GRPs are calculated by using the following formula:
GRPs = Reach 6 Average frequency.
Newspaper A: 45 6 10 = 450
Newspaper B: 50 6 5 = 250
With a GRP of 450, you would probably advise the organisation to select
newspaper A.
Task 5.18
Study-read A Government Department wants to advertise a number of vacancies but,

section 5.4.2 in owing to budget cuts, has to make sure that it selects the most efficient
the prescribed newspaper as an advertising medium. Consider the following scenario and
book indicate which newspaper you would advise the department to select:
Newspaper A:
Circulation figures: 1 883 000
Cost of an advertisement for the same size space: R1 000
Newspaper B:
Circulation figures: 1 224 000
Cost of an advertisement for the same size space: R960
OUR COMMENTS
In order to measure the advertising efficiency of the two newspapers, you
have to calculate the cost per thousand circulated copies. In the case of
170
newspaper A it is R0,53 (calculated as follows: R1 000 7 1 883); and in the
case of newspaper B it is R0,78 (calculated as follows R960 7 1 224).
From these calculations, we can conclude that newspaper A is a more efficient
advertising medium owing to the lower cost per thousand circulated copies.
Task 5.19
Study-read A local community newspaper is distributed free of charge on a weekly
sections 5.3.3 and basis; it is financed by selling advertising space. Assume that you are the
5.4.2 in the editor of such a newspaper and you want to conduct a readership study.
prescribed book Which research method would you select and which techniques would you
apply?
OUR COMMENTS
Readership studies are conducted to determine the size of the readership (ie
the number of people who read the newspaper), and the composition of this
readership (eg demographic characteristics).
A survey would be the most appropriate method, during which use can be
made of interviews and the following:
(1) unaided-recall techniques
(2) aided-recall techniques
(3) masked-recall techniques
(4) recognition techniques
However, because you are measuring the readership of one specific local
community newspaper, it would be inappropriate to use unaided-recall
techniques, because although respondents may remember having read a daily
or major Sunday newspaper, they may not necessarily think of the local
community newspaper. Given that we are interested in the readership of one
specific newspaper, it would therefore be more appropriate to use aided-recall
or masked-recall techniques. Finally, if you want to verify the accuracy of
respondents' claim that they can remember the content of the last publication,
you can apply a recognition technique.
Task 5.20
Study-read Study-read the scenario below and do the following calculations:
section 5.4.3 in (1) Calculate each television stations's audience share.
the prescribed (2) Project the total number of households in the population which are
book watching each of the three stations.
(3) Calculate the CPT for a R1 000, 30-second advertisement to be
broadcast on TV2.
Scenario: Assume your local television broadcasting market consists of

three stations: TV1, TV2 and TV3. The market consists of 200 000 house-
holds that have television sets. A research company draws a random
sample of 1 200 households, and its findings indicate that the following
percentages of the sample watch the these stations:
& 25% of the sample watches TV1
COM306-D/1 171
OUR COMMENTS
The share of the audience refers to the percentage of the sample of house-
holds using television (HUT) which are tuned to each of the three television
stations.
The share is calculated by using this formula:
Households
= Share
HUT
In the case of TV1, 25% (HUT) of the sample of 1 200 households means that
TV1's share is 300 households.
In the case of TV2, 15% (HUT) of the sample of 1 200 households means that
TV2's share is 180 households.
In the case of TV3, 10% of the sample of 1 200 households means that TV3's
share is 120 households.
To project the total number of households in the population which are watch-
ing each of the three stations, means that we have to calculate 25%, 15% and
10% of the market (which consists of 200 000 households). Accordingly, the
projected total number of households are:
& TV1: 50 000 households
The formula used for the calculation of the cost per thousand (CPT) house-
holds is given in section 5.4.3 in the prescribed book. In the case of TV2, the
CPT for a R1 000, 30-second advertisement is therefore calculated by dividing
the R1 000 by 30 (thousand households) = R33,33.
By using the same formula, the CPT for the other stations is:
& TV1: R20,00
& TV3: R50,00
Task 5.21
Study-read You have been requested by a local radio station to conduct music call-out
section 5.4.4 in research. Perform a pilot study by following these steps:
the prescribed & Compile a 7-point semantic differential scale which you want to use as
book measuring instrument.
& Edit several selections of music recording onto a cassette, of about 15
seconds each.
& Ask 10 people to rate these music selections, by filling in the semantic
differential scales.
OUR COMMENTS
To do this self-evaluation and portfolio task, you need to revise the con-
struction of a semantic differential scale (discussed in unit 3 in the prescribed
book), and calculate the mean (discussed in unit 4 in the prescribed book).
When compiling the semantic differential scales, you would (as in any other
research study) be guided by:
172
& main research problem, subproblems and assumptions
& goal and objective(s) of the study
& research questions and/or hypotheses
& theoretical and operational definitions of constructs
These are discussed in unit 2 in the prescribed book.

For the purpose of our comments, we have compiled the following scenario,
using the above headings.
(1) Main research problem, subproblems and assumptions
Our main problem (formulate as an open-ended question) is:
What type of music do listeners prefer ``Radio Air'' to broadcast
between 06:00 and 07:00 in the morning?
Assumption:
Demographic variables, especially age, gender and whether listeners
leave home to go to work, will influence listeners' musical preferences.
Subproblems:
& Does a preference for popular music (versus `òldies'') depend on
listeners' age?
& Do men and women have different musical preferences?
& Do listeners' who leave home to go to work prefer a different type of
music from listeners who stay at home?
(2) The goal and objective(s) of the study

The goal is applied research because we want to find a solution for a
practical problem. The objectives are to explore and describe listeners'
preferences (of the type of music they prefer ``Radio Air'' to broadcast
between 06:00 and 07:00 in the morning).
(3) Research questions
(1) Does the type of music which ``Radio Air'' currently broadcasts be-
tween 06:00 and 07:00 correspond with listeners' preferences?
(2) If listeners prefer music which differs from that currently being
broadcast, what changes should be made?
(4) Theoretical and operational definitions of constructs
To reach a theoretical definition of listeners' music preferences we have
formulated the following explanations of the construct ``preference'':
& an evaluative attitude
& linked to listeners' affective (``feeling'') reaction
& varies in quality and intensity (from positive through neutral, to
negative)
& possesses social referents that reflect social contexts in which it was
learnt
& relatively stable and enduring
COM306-D/1 173
We would therefore define a musical preference as follows:
An enduring system of affective and evaluative attitudes that have
been learned in social contexts.
As an affective reaction, a musical preference is a covert or implicit

response. This means that the data have to be collected by means of an
indirect measurement (eg using semantic differential scales) that uses
emotive concepts as bipolar adjectives.
The following is an example of semantic differential scales that can be
used as a measuring instrument to evaluate each of the hooks (a hook is a
segment of music).
The purpose of this scale is to measure your evaluation of each of

the musical extracts broadcast between 06:00 and 07:00 on ``Radio
Air''. Please judge each musical extract on the following set of
descriptive scales by placing a tick (V) in one of the seven spaces
on each line, between the pairs of words. For example, if you feel
that the musical extract is boring, place your tick in the first space
right next to the word ``Boring''. If you feel that the musical extract
is only slightly described by the word ``Boring'', place your tick in
the second or third space. If the two words in a pair are equally
descriptive of the musical extract, or if neither words apply, place
you tick in the fourth (middle) space. If you feel that the musical
extract is only slightly described by the word `Èxciting'', place
your tick in the fifth or sixth space. If you feel that the musical
extract is totally exciting, place your tick in the seventh space right
next to the word `Èxciting''.
This musical extract is

boring :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: exciting
majestic :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: ordinary
solemn :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: jovial
appalling :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: assuring
heartening :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: depressing
degrading :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: dignified
happy :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: sad
disturbing :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: calming
To determine listeners' evaluations of each musical segment, we would

calculate the mean of each scale (for each segment).
For example, assuming the 10 respondents rated the first musical segment
as follows on the ``boring'' Ð `èxciting'' scale:
174
Score f
1 0
2 0
3 2
4 2
5 2
6 2
7 2
N = 10
With a mean of 5, this indicates that the particular musical extract was
rated as slightly being described by the word `èxciting''.
Because not all the positive words are arranged on one side of the scale,
we would have to reverse the coding, when interpreting, for example,
responses on the ``heartening'' Ð ``depressing'' scale. In other words, if
the same responses as given above were recorded for the ``heartening'' Ð
``depressing'' scale, a mean of 5 would indicate that the particular musical
extract was rated as being slightly described by the word ``heartening''.
Lastly, the results of this type of research would also depend on the actual
musical segments that you choose to test. Such selection should be guided
by your assumptions and research questions.
For example:
& If you want to compare listeners' preferences for popular music (versus
`òldies''), then the musical segments you choose must include both
types of music.
& If you want to determine whether the type of music which ``Radio Air''
currently broadcasts between 06:00 and 07:00 corresponds with
listeners' preferences, then the musical segments you choose must
reflect such current broadcasts.
& If you want to establish what other types of music should be broadcast,
then you need to choose a variety of different types of music, such as
the TOP 10, rock, jazz, gospel, country and western and classical music
5.5 Conclusion
In this study unit, we discussed advertising message research. We dealt with
understanding consumers' behaviour, message content, the structure and effectiveness
of an advertisement. The methods used to research message content included focus-
group interviews, motivational research and concept testing. Methods used to research
message structure included element research, formative research, summative
research, ratings research, Readability Ease tests and pilot tests. Finally, the methods
used to research message effectiveness included preadvertising tests, aided-recall
techniques, unaided-recall techniques, blind test, PEAC and projective tests.
We then discussed with the methods and techniques that are used to analyse
audiences of print and broadcast media and the techniques and formulas used to
research mass-media efficiency (calculating the reach, frequency, gross ratings points,
circulation, share and cost per thousand). We concluded this study unit by
concentrating on ratings versus nonratings research.
COM306-D/1 175
However, before you continue with study unit 6, your are encouraged to evaluate the
achievement of your learning outcomes by following the guide (for the assessment of
learning outcomes) given at the end of unit 5 in the prescribed book.
176
S T U D Y U N I T
6
ORGANISATIONAL
AND DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION
RESEARCH
OVERVIEW
In this study unit, we shall discuss research in the contexts of organisational and
development communication. First, we deal with environmental monitoring research,
which addresses publics, issues and communication problems that are external to any
organisation context. We shall then consider five conceptual frameworks for
participatory research action strategies, either in organisational or development
contexts. The study unit ends with a discussion of the methods and techniques that are
used when conducting a public relations audit and a communication audit.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this study unit you should be able to demonstrate your ability to
undertake pilot research studies in the contexts of
& environmental monitory research
& a social audit
& participatory action research
& a public relations audit
& a communication audit
6.1 Introduction
Please note that this study unit concentrates on the application of the research
methods and techniques discussed in study units 2, 3, 4 and 5 to organisational and
development communication research.
This study unit focuses on four main types of organisational and development
communication research, namely:
& environmental monitoring research
& a social audit
COM306-D/1 177
& a public relations audit
& a communication audit
Study-read Table 6.1 in the prescribed book summarises the different contexts or settings of these
section 6.1 in the four types of research. These contexts are described as follows:
prescribed book
& publics, issues or communication problems that are external to an organisation
(environmental monitoring research)
& publics, issues or communication problems that are external and/or internal to an
organisation (a social audit, or a public relations audit)
& publics, issues or communication problems that are internal to an organisation (a
communication audit)
The contexts dealt with in this study unit will draw your attention to issues such as
nation-building, reconciliation, reconstruction and development; these form the
background of monitoring research and audits. As you work through this study unit,
you will be given the opportunity to further develop your problem-solving skills, self-
responsibility skills and environmental literacy skills. At the same time, you will have a
greater understanding of the community and society in which you live. This study unit
will hopefully increase your awareness of the relevance of communication research in
different settings and help you to realise how such research can contribute to achieving
national priorities (eg economic development and democratisation).
Let us start with why and how you would undertake environmental monitoring
research.
6.2 Environmental monitoring research

Study-read In our introductory comments, we made a distinction between three types of audits
section 6.2 in the and environmental monitoring research. Please note, however, that environmental
prescribed book monitoring research can also form part of a social audit and a public relations audit.
Whether an environmental monitoring research is undertaken independently, or in
combination with an audit, would depend on the research goal and objectives.
The goal would in all cases be applied research, because you would be monitoring a
particular socio-economic environment (to solve a practical problem). The objectives
of this type of research are usually descriptive Ð the researcher concentrates on
describing those social events and changes in public opinion that could influence how a
particular organisation functions.
During the first phase of the monitoring process, you would do content analyses of
mass-mediated messages and conduct survey interviews with prominent opinion and
community leaders. Your objective would be to:
& monitor social events which are a cause for public concern
& monitor public opinion
& identify new topics or issues of interest that are reported
By monitoring the above, you would be concerned with those events, opinions and
issues which may have repercussions for, or significantly influence, the organisation for
which you are doing the research.
178
During the second phase of environmental monitoring research, you would also do
content analyses of mass-mediated messages and conduct survey interviews with
prominent opinion and community leaders. Please note that the time-period changes
to that of longitudinal research. The objective would now be to monitor whether
previously identified opinions and issues have changed in any way over a period of
time.
Before we continue with the next section, which deals with conducting a social audit,
we suggest that you do the following self-evaluation and portfolio task before reading
our comments.
As suggested in previous study units, you are again encouraged to keep a record in
your personal portfolio file of your responses to these tasks.
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Task 6.1
Study-read Select an organisation (eg in the spheres of print media, broadcasting,

section 6.2 in the health, education, social welfare or correctional services) and follow these
prescribed book procedures:
& Undertake an analysis of the mass media for a period of two weeks as
part of `èarly warning'' (environmental monitoring) research.
& Identify those social events that could be a cause for public concern
(and that involves the organisation you have selected).
& Describe the nature of public opinion about these social events. (For
example, do letters addressed to newspaper editors contain debates and
conflicting opinions?)
& Identify new or emerging issues or topics that can be of interest to the
selected organisation. Can you predict how these new issues or topics
could influence the organisation's corporate strategy, future operations
or goals?
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are We have selected social welfare as our sector, as reported by newspapers,
based on section radio and television programmes over a five-week period.
6.2 in the Social welfare is a very broad sector, involving social services and facilities;
prescribed book family life; human rights; disability; the needs of people living with HIV/AIDS;
aging; the abuse of alcohol and drugs; crime prevention; and the alleviation of
poverty. During our monitoring period, several of the media reported and
discussed child neglect and child abuse. Since child abuse is, unfortunately,
not a new problem, we do not regard this as part of the so-called early
warning (environmental monitory) research. However, because child abuse
has been a serious problem for a number of years in South Africa, and because
of its continued occurrence, the public have, once again, expressed concern
about the issue.
Public opinion (as conveyed by the mass media) was not divided over the issue
of child abuse. The public called for more family support services and com-
munity-based professional foster care (instead of institutional care). There
was a greater awareness of the traumatic effects on children who are the
COM306-D/1 179
secondary or indirect victims of violence; and the public recognised the need
for a multidisciplinary approach (involving economic, social and justice sec-
tors) to prevent violence against children.
An emerging issue or topic that could be of interest to the Department of
Welfare includes more control over child pornography, especially the dis-
tribution (loading or down-loading) of child pornography over the Internet.
This is an offence, legally provided for (in South Africa) by the Films and
Publications Act, 1996 (Act 65 of 1996). The question that arises is: is existing
legislation sufficient to prevent the commercial sexual exploitation of chil-
dren?
In the next section, we shall focus on both external and internal publics and research
issues.
6.3 Social audit

When doing a social audit of an organisation, your objective is to measure the
organisation's social performance. Education; housing; health; social welfare; finance;
the mass media; posts and telecommunications; and arts, culture and religion are just
some examples of the diverse sectors in which organisations function. The meaning of
the term ``social performance'' will therefore obviously differ, depending on the type of
organisation and its constitution, goals, objectives or mission. The following three
examples illustrate this diversity.
The Medical Research Council (MRC) is an autonomous science council which reports
to the Department of Health. The major goals of the MRC can be summarised as
follows (Government Communication and Information System 1999:456):
& improving people's health status and quality of life;
& providing scientifically-based information on the nation's health status (for policy-
making)
& building and developing human and institutional research capacity and infrastructure
& improving the cost-effectiveness of, and equity in, health care
One of the objectives of the SA Advertising Research Foundation (SAARF), which is

written into its constitution, reads as follows (Leahy & Voice 1992:45):
To establish comprehensive and continuous media audience and product usage

surveys, to provide comparable multi-media, multiracial and multi-product
information reports on research on marketing and advertising.
The objectives of the South African Police Service are (Government Communication
and Information System 1999:250):
To prevent, combat and investigate crime, maintain public order, protect and
secure the inhabitants of the Republic and their property, and uphold and enforce
the law.
These three examples illustrate how organisations can differ greatly as far as social
performance is concerned. Section 6.3 in the prescribed book demarcates and deals
with three areas of research (to allow for the different reasons for undertaking a social
audit):
180
& organisational (corporate) climate
& organisational substantive nature
& organisational and management structures
We shall briefly reconsider each of these areas of research in the sections that follow.
6.3.1 Organisational (corporate) climate

Study-read An organisation such as Unisa:
section 6.3.1 in
the prescribed & is distinctive from other universities (eg its outward appearance)
book & creates different impressions, beliefs or feelings based on what people (internally
and externally) know and have experienced about the institution
The above two descriptions are usually referred to as an organisation's corporate

identity and corporate image. Collectively, the identity and image make up the unique
character of the organisation, that is, its corporate personality.
When you undertake a social audit of an organisation (ie when you are researching the
organisational climate), your objective is to identify and evaluate an organisation's
philosophy. In order to evaluate whether an organisation's nature and the principles
that govern its existence are acceptable to the public, you could first conduct a survey
of its internal staff (internal publics), before undertaking a survey of the public at large
(external publics). In the case of Unisa, internal staff consists of employees whose work
ranges from administration, research, tuition to technical and various other support
services. The external public, that is, the public at large, consists of different groups,
such as the students, the Department of Education, the South African Qualifications
Authority (SAQA) and students' employers.
These two surveys would essentially be based on two questions:
(1) What are the target publics' view of the organisations' corporate identity?
(2) What impressions do the target publics have of the organisation as an institution,
including its services and/or products?
Responses to these two questions will guide follow-up research to determine what
changes (if any) need to be made.
6.3.2 Substantive nature of an organisation

Study-read The substantive nature of an organisation includes its rights, duties and responsibilities
section 6.3.2 in to its employees (as internal publics). At the same time, the organisation must
the prescribed obviously adhere to the laws and other agreements reached with external publics such
book as trade unions and the government.
COM306-D/1 181
The following mindmap summaries the four broad areas that can be distinguished
when doing a social audit of the substantive nature of an organisation:
Employment policies
and conditions of
service Affirmative
3 " action
Substantive nature
of an organisation
"
!
In-service training
and mentorship Social investments
and services
Employment policies and conditions of service

The policies, conditions and procedures that are usually evaluated are as follows:
& recruitment of new employees
& appointment of new employees
& conditions of employment
& remuneration
& performance appraisal
& promotion, transfer and demotion
& termination of service
Researching employment policies and conditions of service usually means that the
research has three objectives:
(1) To become familiar with the policies in order to compile a conceptual scheme that
can be used as an evaluation scheme (by doing a content analysis of the relevant
documents).
(2) To determine whether employees are aware of policies and procedures.
(3) To determine whether there is a discrepancy between what appears on paper and
what either occurs, or is perceived to occur, in practice.
182
(The last two objectives are researched by means of a group-administered
questionnaire survey and in-depth interviews.)
Affirmative action
Those of you who live in South Africa will no doubt already be aware that the
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) and the Employment
Equity Act (Act 55 of 1998) aim to achieve equality of employment in both the public
and private sectors. `Àffirmative action'' is generally treated as processes (programmes,
policies and procedures) that proactively remedy past discrimination based on race,
gender and disability.
As discussed in section 6.3.2 in the prescribed book, affirmative action has met with
both support and hostility. This is why the prescribed book distinguishes between
researching overt and covert discrimination. The prescribed book gives fifteen
research questions for investigating overt discrimination; any one of these questions can
become the focus point of investigating affirmative action as part of research into the
substantive nature of an organisation.
For example:
`Àre short-, medium- and long-term affirmative action targets or goals formulated
by the organisation?''
The assumption here is that there may still be covert discrimination. This could be due
to people's inability to adapt to changing working conditions, or due to people's values
and beliefs (which they may not consciously be aware of). In addition, therefore, to
conducting focus-group and in-depth interviews (to research covert discrimination),
you could also investigate the representativeness of management-labour committees.
Finally, you could observe the interactions between individuals during meetings and on
the shop floor.
Any research undertaken with the objective of researching the affirmative action policy
and experience in a particular organisation will have to take into account provisions
made by labour laws (eg the Employment Equity Act) Ð this means (Ecolar 1999:2)
& identification of employment barriers
& identification of extent of under-representation
& review of employment policies
& specification of employee demographics (race, gender, disabilities) within job
categories by a specific date
& analysis should further predict what the head count is to be in the time frame of six
monthly intervals for the next one to five years
& the company's affirmative action targets
In-service training and mentorship

In South Africa, the Skills Development Act, 97 of 1998, provides for the development
of a variety of skills; the Act clearly regards the workplace as an active learning
environment. When undertaking a social audit of an organisations' in-service training
and mentorship programmes, it may be wise to first explore what both top
management and employees' needs are.
COM306-D/1 183
The self-administered questionnaire which is included at the end of this study unit is a
good example of how an organisation such as Unisa conducts research to determine
employees' training and development needs. The questionnaire is reproduced with
the kind permission of OV Kilpert, Ms A Venter and Dr M Heese from UNISA's
Bureau for University Teaching.
The following activity asks you to consider your own in-service training needs or the
training needs of someone you know well.
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ACTIVITY 1
Write down what you would include in an in-service training

programme in each of the following areas:
& managerial or supervisory tasks
& communication skills
& the history of the organisation
& basic living skills
OUR COMMENTS
Your choice of what to include in each area may not correspond with our list
below. This is quite acceptable, because your views would be guided by your
personal position in the hierarchy of an organisation and the type of work that
you do. Such differences also illustrate that the needs of employees and the
nature of the organisation must be used as a guide in the formulation of
research objectives and questions (ie fixed evaluation schemes are irrelevant
here).
Managerial or supervisory tasks obviously apply to training middle and top
management with leadership skills. This training will influence their own
performance and those whom they supervise. Such training programmes
should include learning how to plan in advance; how to set performance
standards; how to evaluate these standards and how to motivate employees.
In addition to the skills listed in the prescribed book, communication skills
could include: how to chair meetings; how to write minutes; how to write and
present reports; how to deal with the miscommunication and the ``grape-
vine''; how to become an effective listener; how to conduct an interview; and
how to create the right impression in an interview.
The history of the organisation includes the corporate climate, corporate
image and corporate personality (discussed in section 6.3.1 and the prescribed
book). Understanding an organisation's goal, objectives or mission, and the
`ùnwritten rules'' of behaviour, helps integrate the individual employee into
work groups and the culture of the organisation as a whole.
Basic living skills refer specifically to in-service training given for semi- and
unskilled employees, such as how to plan a monthly budget.
Some organisations have a formal system of mentorship: in this case, a senior or more
experienced employee is officially appointed to act as counsellor, tutor or trainer of a
newly-appointed employee. The effectiveness of mentoring depends on several
variables, such as:
& the extent to which both the mentor and trainee are committed
184
& whether a contractual agreement has been negotiated and agreed to by both
parties
& the procedures used to evaluate a trainee's performance
& the procedures in place for dealing with a conflict of interest
The mentor should not only guide or teach, but should also support the trainee.
When researching the effectiveness of a mentorship programme, you would essentially

be concerned with the aim or purpose of such a programme. You would also find out
whether the mentor and the trainee regard the programme as effective. For example,
you may find that employees are appointed as mentors based on their knowledge and
skills in a particular work area, but that they have never been trained in the skills
needed to function as learning facilitators. In such cases, the mentorship programme
should not only focus on the trainee employee, but should also include the training of
the mentors as facilitators.
Social investments and services

We shall now discuss another area of doing a social audit of the substantive nature of an
organisation Ð namely, its social investments and services.
An organisation's social investments and services refer to the holistic support and
opportunities an organisation gives its employees. Apart from remuneration, child-care
facilities, housing subsidies, pension, medical aid, leave allowances and in-service
training, the research question is:
``How does the organisation improve employees' quality of life and thus help
them achieve self-fulfilment?''
The answers could be found in several areas, such as:
& opportunities to acquire higher academic and professional qualifications
& planning a career path for employees as individuals
& providing opportunities to work in groups, to promote individual development
& providing in-house clinics for employees experiencing physical, psychological or
welfare problems
We shall now discuss investigating organisational and management structures.
6.3.3 Organisational and management structures

Study-read Unit 1, section 1.6 in the prescribed book discusses the difference between a
sections 6.3.3 and quantitative and qualitative approach to research organisational communication. If
1.6 in the organisations are to survive in the economic democratisation brought about by
prescribed book
globalisation, the arguments put forward in section 6.3.3 (in the prescribed book) can
be summarised by two key remarks:
& Organisational and management structures need to change from being autocratic to
being flexible.
& Management styles ought to include democratic, representative participation by
employees.
COM306-D/1 185
The more than 20 research questions formulated in section 6.3.3 in the prescribed
book show that, although diverse issues can be the focus of a social audit of
management structures, you should differentiate between:
(1) ideal management structures and styles that appear in policy documents
(2) evidence of these structures and styles in practice
We shall return to this area of research in the next subsection, when we consider the
application of participatory strategies as a research method. But before we do so, we
suggest that you do the following self-evaluation and portfolio task. This task gives you
the opportunity to plan, conduct and report on a pilot research study (by doing a
content analysis and conducting interviews) as part of a social audit of the substantive
nature of an organisation.
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Task 6.2
Study-read Select one of the following areas of research that could form part of a
section 6.3 in the social audit into the substantive nature of an organisation:
prescribed book & employment policies and conditions of service
& affirmative action
& in-service training and mentorship
& social investments and services
Obtain a copy of the policy documents that deal with the selected area (eg
affirmative action) of two similar organisations (eg two car manufacturers,
or two educational institutions). If such policies do not exist, obtain a copy
of the organisations' human resources development programmes.
The goal of your audit is applied research and the objectives are mainly
exploratory. Do a content analysis of the documents by working though
and answering the questions given in section 6.3.2 (in the prescribed
book).
Contact either the organisation's corporate communication manager, or
public relations specialist, or the human resources manager and arrange
for a semi-structured interview. The purpose of the interview is twofold:
(1) to find answers to those questions which an analysis of the policy
documents failed to reveal
(2) to establish whether the opportunities, programmes and activities
which the policy documents refer to are, in fact, a reality in practice
Compare the profiles of the two organisations and compile a list of pro-
posals that explains how each organisation can improve its overall social
responsibility to its employees.
186
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are This task is aimed at encouraging your environmental literacy by doing a
based on section social audit (specifically of the substantive nature of an organisation). Apart
6.3.2 in the from planning, conducting and reporting on a pilot research study, this task
prescribed book tests your research, problem-solving and communication skills.
You were given a choice between four areas of research (which are listed
above in the task). We have decided to focus on affirmative action as part of a
social audit and our comments relate to this area of research.
The phrase `àffirmative action'' need not necessarily be included in policy
documents that deal with the development of human resources. Instead, you
may find that the policy deals with a broad and more general approach to
human resources development. This approach may include the following
components (which can accommodate affirmative action):
& a financial policy which caters for training programmes and market-skills
development specifically for previously disadvantaged groups
& a strategic plan that includes short-, medium- and long-term development
targets
& equal access to in-service training programmes based on demonstrated
competence
& a mentorship system
& official policies that ensure fairness in employment and labour practices
& on-going research to monitor the above components, to identify changing
organisational and human needs and to encourage the development of
future programmes
Depending on the two organisations that you selected, you may have found
that
(1) some of the questions asked in section 6.3.2 could not be answered sa-
tisfactorily
(2) trying to get answers to these questions was extremely frustrating
(3) the profiles for the two organisations differ
(4) your proposals ended up being rather haphazard
Although we are not in a position to discuss or rectify (1) and (3), we can make
suggestions about how you can both reduce your frustration and make pro-
posals which are relevant and which will, therefore, constitute meaningful
feedback to the organisations concerned.
Having done a content analysis of policy documents, we need to ask ourselves
``Who and what should be investigated?''. If our clients and the most im-
portant stakeholders are blacks, women and disabled employees (the ``who''),
the question arises whether we would have obtained more meaningful
answers by interviewing representatives of these groups. Whereas, if all
employees are affected by the issue, are they not in a better position to
identify which behaviours, procedures and conditions should be researched?
Having determined the ``who'' and ``what'', our proposals must also consider
``how'' these clients, behaviours, procedures and conditions are to be in-
vestigated. In addition to doing a content analysis of policy documents and
conducting semi-structured interviews,
interviews there are three other methods that
can be used to identify problems and to find out the relationships between
problems and possible solutions in a changing social environment:
COM306-D/1 187
& field observations done by independent observers of meetings, interactions
and processes that are to be observed
& focus-group interviews,
interviews if necessary followed by in-depth interviews with
individual clients and stakeholders
& self-monitoring of experiences, behaviours, procedures and conditions
(stakeholders fill in a self-administered questionnaire and/or keep a daily
record in a diary)
When it comes to the ``how'' of your research, you will have to consider
several variables, of which the following may apply to the institutions that you
selected:
& the population parameters of stakeholders to be researched (eg drawing a
random sample from a few thousand employees in a company that consists
of diverse subgroups will undermine the reliability and validity of our
research Ð this is because the existence of the subgroups makes stratified
sampling more appropriate)
& the time-dimensions involved (the duration and frequency of observation
periods, of self-monitoring periods; as well as time lapses between
observations, or between self-monitoring periods) will influence our
findings
& the extent to which measurements are unobtrusive
& whether ethical requirements such as the anonymity and confidentiality of
responses can be met
& the experience and training of interviewers, facilitators (in focus-group
interviews) and observers
& the kind of behaviours to be observed (Please note that De Vos [1998:394]
reports that if particular skills have to be observed, these skills must be
demonstrable; alternatively, subjects can be asked to role-play the
performance of these skills. In both instances these demonstrations can be
videotaped and subsequently analysed with the purposes of evaluation
and/or to plan future training programmes.)
Based on the above arguments, your proposals could have been presented
using the following headings as broad guidelines:
& the clients and stakeholders that ought to be involved in the research
& a definition of the behaviours, procedures and conditions that need to be
investigated
& identification of present or potential problems
& the methods and measuring instruments to be used to collect reliable and
valid data
As you may have done this task in organisations in which you are not em-
ployed, or with which you are not directly concerned, it is worthwhile that you
repeat the task. Doing this will make you aware of the provisions and op-
portunities included in your own employer's or union's human resources po-
licy.
In the next section, we will discuss five analytical frameworks. These frameworks can
be used to guide your research in either organisational and/or development contexts
involving wider communities.
188
6.4 Researching participatory strategies in organisational and
development contexts
This section serves two functions, namely:
(1) It is an extension of the social audit, because it provides strategic frameworks that
can be used to conduct organisational research and research into wider social
communities.
(2) It gives conceptual frameworks which, in turn, provide a theoretical basis for the
practical application of participatory action research (see section 6.5).
Study-read These participatory strategies are called:
section 6.4 in the & educational-therapeutic strategy
prescribed book & behavioural change strategy
& supplementary employees strategy
& strategy of cooptation
& strategy of community empowerment
Each of these strategies is aimed at fulfilling particular objectives; each is based on

particular assumptions, and each requires particular organisational conditions or
makes certain organisational demands.
To understand these three variables (objectives, assumptions, and conditions) we
suggest that you do the following self-evaluation and portfolio task, whilst study-reading
section 6.4 in the prescribed book. The task also gives you the opportunity to develop
interviewing skills and problem-solving skills.
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Task 6.3
Identify a community resource that provides a supportive service to the

community, or to families or individuals who need rehabilitative care, or
who are facing some sort of crisis. Obvious examples are: Alcoholics
Anonymous, Suicides Anonymous, Life line, Child line, Gay line, Victims
line, Police crisis line, St John's Ambulance foundation, Medic Alert, or the
Salvation Army.
Contact the organisation's corporate communication manager, public re-
lations specialist, or human resources manager and arrange for a semi-
structured interview. The goal of your research is applied research and the
objectives are exploratory and descriptive. The objective of your interview
is twofold, namely:
(1) to explore and describe how the organisation or service functions
(2) to explore and describe which participative strategy(-ies) is/are used
in the organisation or particular service centre
For the first objective, you could use the following headings to help you
compile your interview schedule:
& general information (name of the organisation/service; geographic area
it serves; where it is situated; the physical facilities; and how accessible
the facilities and services are)
COM306-D/1 189
&
financial support and funding mechanisms
& organisational (corporate) climate, including the nature and goal of the
organisation or service
For the second objective, you could use the following headings to help you
compile your interview schedule:
& A description of the participatory strategy(-ies) used by the organisa-
tion.
& A description of the specific (target) external public for which the or-
ganisation/service was established.
& Client admission (or selection) procedures.
& Communication procedures (eg how are calls/requests handled and by
whom?)
& The nature of documentation and record-keeping.
& The nature of the relationships between care-givers and clients; and
between clients.
& The treatment of clients Ð measures that are taken to maintain contact
with reality and to enable the individual to remain functional in the
community. (Are individuals' families involved in any rehabilitation
programmes? Are clients referred to other resources?)
& The participatory strategy(-ies) that you would regard as appropriate to
enable this organisation or service function more effectively as a
community resource. (What changes can be made?)
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are This self-evaluation and portfolio task contains a number of headings that you
based on section can use as guidelines when compiling the interview schedule and actual re-
6.4 in the port. We have chosen the South African Department of Health and, specifi-
prescribed book cally, the services offered to deal with TB as part of a primary health care
(PHC) approach. We comment on these services by using the headings sug-
gested in the task.
& General information

At the time of writing, the following statutory bodies represent the health
service professions in South Africa:
& Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA)
& South African Dental Technicians' Council
& South African Nursing Council
& South African Pharmacy Council
& South African Council for Social Service Professions
The Department of Health follows a district model in providing public

clinics and hospitals as part of a primary health care (PHC) approach.
South Africa has been divided into 42 health regions and 162 health
districts.
& Financial support and funding mechanisms
The Department of Health is funded by public finance provided for by the
National Budget at national, provincial and local governmental levels.
190
& Organisational (corporate) climate, including the nature and goal of the
organisation or service
TB is one of the most common communicable diseases in South Africa.
The others are malaria, measles and STDs (sexually transmitted diseases).
Immunisations against TB are available free of charge to children up to the
age of five. This is aimed at reducing death and disability, and is provided
for by the South African Expanded Programme on Immunisation.
The Integrated Management of Childhood Illnesses (IMCI) has been in-
stituted as part of the Department of Health's policy of a National Health
System for Universal Primary care.
& A description of the participatory strategy(-ies) which is/are followed by

the organisation
The participatory strategies followed by the Department of Health are
mainly an educational-therapeutic strategy and a behavioural-change
strategy. As discussed in section 6.4.1 in the prescribed book, the ob-
jectives of these strategies are:
& to develop and improve participants as individuals
& to develop a group (as a system or subsystem) through behavioural
change
To achieve these objectives, the Department of Health has provided

training and courses at provincial level; this includes the development and
use of training manuals, treatment guidelines, posters and charts.
& A description of the specific (target) external publics for which the orga-
nisation/service was established
When considering the prevention and treatment of TB, the specific (target)
external publics can, in turn, be divided into several subgroups:
& children (to prevent them from contracting TB)
& patients who have contracted TB for the first time (to cure them of the
disease)
& patients who have contracted TB previously (to keep track of their
treatment)
& patients who have been cured from TB (for regular check-ups)
In response to the continuing spread of TB, the Department of Health

implemented the DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment Strategy), which is
also advocated by the International Union against TB, and the World
Health Organsation's Global Programme against TB.
The Medical Research Council's Reference Centre for the Chemotherapy of
Mycobacterial Diseases and the various medical faculties at South African
universities are also involved in TB research.
& Client admission (or selection) procedures.

Treatment for TB is offered free of charge at all public clinics and hos-
pitals. In terms of Directly Observed Treatment Strategy (DOTS), patients
are identified through the microscopic examination of their sputum for TB
bacilli.
COM306-D/1 191
& Communication procedures
Patients are referred to TB clinics from other clinics by health workers
and, sometimes, by private practitioners. Patients who suspect that they
might have contracted TB or who have been in contact with a TB sufferer
can go to a TB clinic on their own initiative.
& The nature of documentation and record-keeping

In terms of DOTS laboratory results, treatment and outcomes of treatment
are documented for each patient; and there is a national reporting system
that tracks the treatment and outcomes of infectious patients.
& The nature of the relations between care givers and clients; and between
clients
Once patients have been identified as having contracted TB, they receive
support from a health worker who ensures that they actually take the
drugs and that the correct drugs are administered for the correct period of
time. Follow-up clinic visits are arranged. However, compliance with TB
treatment is a problem because, once they have returned home or gone
back to work, patients tend not to comply with the follow-up visits. In
some instances the health workers (clinic nursing employees) are unable
to trace the patient concerned and/or do not have the means to locate the
patient. In these cases, care groups or self-help groups in the community
have an important monitoring function.
& The treatment of clients Ð measures that are taken to maintain contact
with reality and to enable the individual to remain functional in the
community
The idea behind DOTS is that treatment is observed and regulated by, for
example, a member of the client's family, to enable the patient to remain
in the community. Support is also given by members of the community,
who form care groups, and who receive training in the form of health
educational programmes conducted by health workers.
& The participatory strategy(-ies) you would regard as appropriate to enable

this organisation or service to function more effectively as a community
resource. (What changes can be made?)
It is estimated that 40% of all South African live in poverty, and that, of
these, 75% live in rural areas. Although considerable achievements and
improvements have been made during the past few years (eg the de-
ployment of foreign medical practitioners in rural areas), access to af-
fordable health services in rural areas remains a problem. To maximise the
community's participation in the health service (one of the reasons for
decentralising the health services), we propose that a supplementary
employees strategy would be an appropriate strategy to follow. To a cer-
tain extent, this strategy has already been implemented:
& through the flying doctor programme and tele-medicine system (in
Northern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal) to provide health care, tele-
education and tele-care services to rural areas
& through Phelophepa (good health), the Transnet's health-care train
which has, since its inception in 1994 treated more than 200 000
patients, and which has successfully detected cases of TB
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Although the supplementary employees strategy relies on using
employees as volunteers, programmes such as the two described
above, provide unique training and further educational opportunities
for health-care providers and students specialising in virtually all
brances of medicine.
Now that you have study-read section 6.4 in the prescribed book, and undertaken
your own case study, you will no doubt agree that although the five conceptual
strategies differ, they do have one characteristic in common, namely participation of all
stakeholders.
In the next section we shall concentrate on one key question: how can participatory
research be applied in practice for the purposes of social upliftment?
6.5 Participatory action research

Study-read As the name indicates, participatory action research means that researchers participate
section 6.5 in the with members of the organisation or community being researched; and the research
prescribed book strategy involves some form of action.
Irrespective of whether the context is organisational communication or development

communication, the central research objective is knowledge development and
utilisation directed at solving practical problems and thus improving a community's
quality of life. Towards this end you need to:
(1) become familiar with the demographic, psychographic and lifestyle characteristics
of the participants as individuals and subgroups (discussed in unit 5 in the
prescribed book)
(2) identify what action or intervention behaviour is relevant to solving the problem
being researched
(3) identify the social, environmental, political and any other conditions that are
relevant to the problem (in terms of both its cause and possible solution)
Given the proposals, strategies and policy framework of South Africa's Reconstruction
and Development programme (dealt with in section 6.5 in the prescribed book), your
participatory action research needs to meet certain theoretical and practical
prerequisites.
The following activity asks you to be critical of these prerequisites. Also, the answers
are not necessarily found in section 6.5 in the prescribed book, so this activity tests
your insight and the extent to which you understand the nature and implications of
qualitative research. In other words, this activity gives you the opportunity to reflect on
what you have learnt and to justify your view point (based on the knowledge and
insight that you have gained).
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ACTIVITY 3
Within the framework of the RDP goals, the following prerequisites

need to be met, prior to and/or during participatory action research.
In each case, on a separate piece of paper (preferably in your personal
research portfolio) write down a reason why these prerequisites must be met.
COM306-D/1 193
(1) Participants must be truly representative of the various stakeholders.
(2) The majority of people in the organisation or community must agree that
change is needed.
(3) The demarcation of roles and tasks (of participants and the researcher)
needs to be negotiated.
(4) Consensus needs to be reached on what action programme needs to be
implemented and by whom.
(5) A community's or organisation's own resources need to be mobilised.
(6) No fixed or prescriptive research plan can be followed.
(7) The research process is a cyclical, never-ending process.
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are We shall consider each of the above statements separately:
mainly based on
sections 6.3Ð6.5, & Participants must be truly representative of the various stakeholders.
but also include Research that is focused on development projects involve different stake-
units 1Ð3 in the holders (eg health workers, teachers, parents, community leaders, gov-
prescribed book ernment representatives and communication specialists). There are at
least two reasons why each of these subgroups must be represented. Each
subgroup representative brings:
(1) inputs to the research process (eg knowledge, experience, skills, fi-
nancial and other resources) from which other participants can benefit
(2) needs and problems that may be unique to that group and not
experienced by the other groups
& The majority of people in the organisation or community must agree that
change is needed.
From your point of view as the researcher, there is little point in being
excited and enthusiastic about undertaking research which you believe
will contribute to social upliftment, if the people who make up the orga-
nisation or community do not agree with you. This point also underlines
the importance of acknowledging, identifying and respecting the senti-
ments and needs of the subgroups involved. Perhaps an even more im-
portant reason is that it will be the stakeholders' support or lack of support
that determines the legitimacy of your research project and recommen-
dations.
& The demarcation of roles and tasks (of participants and the researcher)
needs to be negotiated.
negotiated.
The reason for this prerequisite is the empirical approach to communi-
cation research that was followed in the past. In this type of research, the
emphasis was placed on collecting quantifiable, numerical data; little or
no attention was given to how participants experienced problems. (These
aspects are discussed in units 1±4 in the prescribed book.) A second
reason can be found in the fact that our roles as researchers have changed
from being `òutsiders'' ``looking into'' that which we analyse, to that of
facilitators and change agents who are involved in the process.
Table 6.3 in the prescribed book summarises the possible contributions
and gains which stakeholders in the community (or organisation) and
researchers can expect to make and benefit from. However, these con-
tributions and gains should not be formulated solely by the researcher.
194
Instead, they ought to be discussed and negotiated so that each individual
knows exactly what will be expected of him or her.
& Consensus needs to be reached on what action programme needs to be

implemented and by whom.
The reasons for this prerequisite are similar to the ones listed above.
However two additional reasons can be identified, namely:
(1) the collection and interpretation of research data is a collective effort
involving previous identified participants and the researcher, so im-
plementing the action plan should also be a collective effort
(2) the processes involved in reaching consensus have other positive
``side-effects'' for everyone involved (eg encouraging voluntary par-
ticipation; the accommodating different interest groups; sharing dif-
ferent value preferences, needs, aspirations, expectations and
personal goals through open dialogue; allaying fears; and helping to
build mutual trust)
& A community's (or organisation's) own resources need to be mobilised.

The reasons for this prerequisite can be found in the goals of the Re-
construction and Development Programme, such as:
& the development of human resources by Ð amongst others Ð
empowering individuals and communities to take an active part in
identifying needs and solving problems
& building the economy by Ð among others Ð recognising the roles
fulfilled by community-based centres
In the words of Violet Nevhri of Elim in the Northern Province who gave
testimony during Speak Out on Poverty Hearings, organised by the Human
Rights Commission (among others), and quoted by Mona (2000:10):
We want to be taught and resourced to fish.
We don't just want fish to eat.
& No fixed or prescriptive research plan can be followed

Participatory action research is essentially qualitative research involving
discussions and negotiations between participants and the researcher.
Accordingly an allowance must be made for changes to take place
throughout the research process Ð from the initial identification of the
nature of the problem, to how and by whom the effectiveness of the action
plan will be monitored.
The effectiveness of this type of research therefore depends on the extent
to which you can design your research objectives to reflect the needs and
conditions of the population involved.
& The research process is a cyclical, never-ending process

The ultimate goal of participatory action research is to gradually enable
participants to take responsibility for implementing the action plan, and to
evaluate and, if necessary, alter the action plan. The reasons for the above
prerequisite are therefore that (1) you have a responsibility to contribute
to the continual development of theoretical assumptions, research pro-
cesses, techniques and methods; (2) you have a responsibility to enable
COM306-D/1 195
those who participated in the research to acquire an awareness of certain
social problems and (3) you have a responsibility to help the people in-
volved to develop appropriate problem-solving skills.
Having study-read section 6.5 in the prescribed book, you will have realised that
participatory action research is unique because, as a researcher, your role is to be a
proactive and supportive facilitator, so that any group consensus obtained is meaningful.
Nevertheless, you do need to pay attention to certain cautionary warnings (discussed

in the prescribed book) when selecting and undertaking participatory action research.
The self-evaluation and portfolio task that follows gives you the opportunity to obtain
practical experience in helping to achieve some of the goals of the RDP. By initiating a
community development project, you will have to reconsider the conceptual
framework of participation strategies (discussed in section 6.4 in the study guide and
the prescribed book). You will also have to deal with the practicalities involved in
undertaking participatory action research. Keeping a record in your portfolio file of how
you dealt with this task, and what you learnt from this experience could also serve as a
useful reference source when you conduct research in future.
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Task 6.4
You are asked to research the feasibility of initiating a community project

in your neighbourhood: the goal of this project is to improve the quality of
life for a specific group in the community (eg a feeding scheme, care for
street children, the elderly or the homeless, literacy training).
Your research is applied research and your main objective is exploratory.
Describe the procedure that you would follow to research the feasibility of
the project by answering the following questions:
(1) What are the research goal(s) and objective(s)?
(2) Who would you identify as the stimulator(s), initiator(s) and legiti-
miser(s) of the project?
(3) Who or what (units of analysis) would you research to find out
whether the project fulfilled a community need?
(4) Who are the major role players? (For example who would you ap-
proach for financial support?)
(5) You want to use participatory action research, and you want to involve
all stakeholders. From your point of view as a researcher, what are the
kind of problems or issues which participants would have to deal
with?
(6) What other research methods would you want to use (and why)?
196
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are Before choosing a community project which will improve a specific group of
based on sections people's quality of life, you have to be professionally qualified or experienced
6.4 and 6.5, and in the social area concerned. If you are not professionally qualified in the
units 3 and 4, in relevant social area, then you will first need to have a series of extensive
the prescribed consultations with professionals and practitioners. For example, you will get
book an idea of how primary health care should be implemented in the community
if you first undertake a series of visits to one of the district community health
services in your community.
In order to comment on this task, we chose the problems of caring for the aged
as our project. Our comments are structured according to the headings sug-
gested in the task.
(1) What are the research goal(s) and objective(s)?

Our goal is applied research (because we want to solve a specific problem)
and our objectives are to explore the needs of the elderly, and the care,
support and security the community can give them.
According to Statistics South Africa (1999:25), which reported on the
1996 South African population census, 9,7% of the South African popu-
lation are in the 55±64 years age group, whereas 9,6% of the population
are 65 years and older. (Please note that these percentages are expected to
remain the same for the next five to ten years.) We consulted these sta-
tistics in order to confirm whether undertaking this project would, in
terms of the size of the population concerned, be feasible.
(2) Who would you identify as the stimulator(s), initiator(s) and legitimiser(s)
of the project?
The stimulator is an elderly man who was previously accommodated in a
home for the aged in an urban area; he can no longer afford to live in this
home. Initiators are elderly people who are destitute and who live in a
particular geographic urban area. (If elderly people living in disadvan-
taged and rural communities were to be included as initiators, the project
would be a national project and would not focus on a particular commu-
nity. Please note that elderly people who are in need of 24-hour frail-care
facilities are excluded from our project, because the South African gov-
ernment provides for such people in government-subsidised homes.) Le-
gitimisers are the local Government Department of Health and Social
Welfare.
(3) Who or what (units of analysis) would you research to find out whether the
project fulfilled a community need?
Individuals are the units of analysis who reside in a specified urban
community and who we have stratified into five groups, based on age,
current place of residence, personal resources (experience, skills and
knowledge). These five groups are as follows:
& Group (1): elderly (retired) people who are currently accommodated in
private and/or subsidised homes for the aged.
& Group (2): elderly (retired) people who are living in their own homes.
& Group (3):elderly (retired) people who are living with members of their
family or accommodated in a nonrelated family setting.
& Group (4): people between the ages of 55 and 64.
COM306-D/1 197
& Group (5): elderly (retired) people who are resourceful in terms of
experience, skills and/or knowledge.
Three other groups of individual units of analysis are included, namely:

& caregivers (eg nurses and social workers who work in old-age homes,
and family members who care for the elderly)
& representatives from the provincial and local governmental
departments (eg the Department of Health)
& representatives from NGOs that provide services in social
development, welfare and/or security
(4) Who are the major role players? (For example who would you approach for
financial support?)
In addition to the groups identified above as units of analysis, other role
players would include education, religious and business leaders, and re-
presentatives from groups that deal with issues such as discrimination
against women and disabled people.
(5) You want to use participatory action research, and you want to involve all
stakeholders. From your point of view as a researcher, what are the kind of
problems or issues which participants would have to deal with?
The following are examples of problems or issues:
& What are the needs of the elderly?
& How can the community's awareness of these needs be increased?
& What problems are experienced by those families that act as a core-
support system for elderly people?
& How can we help to develop a culture of tolerance that makes it
possible for elderly people to remain at home, with their families?
& How can people in the 55±64 age group be prepared for a meaningful
retirement and a more productive old age?
& How can the community benefit from the experience, skills, and
knowledge of elderly people?
& What kind of community support can be given to those families or
households that care for elderly people?
& How can existing community-based services be made more accessible,
more relevant and more affordable?
(6) What other research methods would you want to use (and why)?
These methods would depend on the actual community, and the nature of
the project. Survey questionnaires, focus-group discussions, and un-
structured face-to-face interviews can be used to find out: (1) the needs of
the aged; (2) the needs of their caregivers; and (3) how the community can
benefit from the resources older people have to offer.
For example, a once-off door-to-door survey in your community might
reveal the following:
& an 81 year old woman is a retired teacher and is teaching an illiterate
domestic worker to write
& an 89 year old pensioner spends his time repairing furniture and
making small, wooden chairs for young children
198
& an 56 year old retrenched worker uses his skills to weld security bars,
fences, gates and poles
& an unemployed elderly lady bakes bread and rusks which she sells at a
small profit
& a retired mineworker is a self-taught barber and cuts hair for a
donation
The reason why we have chosen to use a survey questionnaire, focus-

group discussions, and unstructured face-to-face interviews as research
methods (in addition to participatory action research), is because these
survey methods have certain advantages (discussed in unit 3, in the
prescribed book):
& Self-administered questionnaires are useful for researching topics that
are sensitive or personal (because responses can remain anonymous
and confidential).
& Focus-group discussions encourages people to share their ideas.
& Unstructured face-to-face interviews are useful, because they are so
flexible, they can reveal information and ideas that the researcher may
not have considered or predicted.
Sections 6.2±6.5 in the prescribed book discuss the fact that an organisation cannot
function in isolation from issues and communication problems that apply to both its
internal and external publics. In the next section we shall concentrate on a type of
communication research usually associated with the work done by public relations
practitioners. Although we have used the expression ``public relations audit'', please
note that the research techniques discussed can also be applied in other organisational
contexts and communication-related occupations.
6.6 Public relations (PR) audit

Study-read Usually, the goal of a PR audit is not basic research (eg developing theoretical models of
section 6.6 in the public relations). Instead, the goal is usually applied research; for example, measuring
prescribed book the effectiveness of communication with both internal and the external publics of
finding out how such communication (eg a PR campaign) can be improved.
The following activity asks you to reflect on the research methods and techniques that
can be used to conduct a PR audit, and to reflect on the different stages usually
involved in such an audit.
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ACTIVITY 4
Imagine that you are a communication practitioner in an

organisation that functions in one of the following sectors: print
media, broadcasting or telecommunications. You are aware that
employees have become disgruntled as a result of certain changes that have
taken place in the organisation and you are concerned about clients' (ie the
external public's) impressions of the organisation.
Given this situation, you want to approach top management for funds to
conduct a PR audit and you decide to use the following methods, techniques
and/or arguments in your proposal. In each case, on a separate piece of paper
write down one or more reason(s) why you would make these statements.
COM306-D/1 199
(1) The PR audit will concentrate on researching the organisation's corporate
image (rather than on researching a PR campaign).
(2) The first phase of the audit will consist of a content analysis of messages
communicated internally, and environmental-monitoring research.
(3) Part of the first phase of the audit will also include face-to-face interviews
with internal publics.
(4) The second phase of the audit will consist of conducting two surveys using
self-administered questionnaires.
(5) The third phase of the audit will consist of formulating proposals (about
whether or not a PR campaign should be launched).
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are We shall comment on each of these statements separately.
based on unit 3, (1) The PR audit will concentrate on researching the organisation's corporate
and sections 6.2 image (rather than on researching a PR campaign).
and 6.6 in the
prescribed book A PR audit can consist of two quite distinct studies that can be conducted
separately or together. The one study involves investigating the opinions
of internal staff and external publics. These opinions may be based on
employees' and clients' experiences of the organisation's products and
services, and on the communication that exists between the organisation
and these two groups of people. The other study involves researching the
planning, implementation and eventual impact of a PR campaign.
Since the scenario sketched in this activity does not refer to the im-
plementation of a PR campaign, the objective of your PR audit will be
based on the first type of investigation.
(2) The first phase of the audit will consist of a content analysis of messages
communicated internally, and environmental-monitoring research.
Messages communicated within an organisation are done using various
media, such as notice boards, memos and electronic mail. Today, in big
organisations, the main medium is electronic mail (e-mail). Doing a con-
tent analysis of the messages communicated internally would enable you
to do two things: (1) code the actual content or topics addressed in the
messages, and (2) identify specific subgroups which are important to in-
ternal staff over a period of time. For example, certain communications
from top management are only sent to section heads or shop stewards.
You have already been introduced to the monitoring of social events,
public opinion and new or emerging issues (in section 6.2 in the pre-
scribed book). There are two reasons for conducting environmental-
monitoring research:
& to determine the external publics' opinion of the organisation
& to identify the most important individuals, subgroups and
organisations in the external publics
If the content analyses and monitoring are conducted as longitudinal

studies, then the objective would be to monitor the extent to which the
public's opinions towards the organisation (and its products or services)
have changed.
(3) Part of the first phase of the audit will also include face-to-face interviews
with internal publics.
Apart from content analyses, focus-group interviews, surveys using self-
200
administered questionnaires and telephone surveys are the most popular
research methods in a PR audit. You could have put forward the following
reasons for deciding to conduct face-to-face interviews with internal staff:
& They enable you to obtain in-depth information from the respondent's
viewpoint.
& Unstructured face-to-face interviews would enable you to obtain
greater insight into, and knowledge of, the topic being investigated;
unstructured interviews also allow the respondent the freedom to
respond in his or her own words.
& The interview schedule can be adapted by asking different open-ended
questions and follow-up questions.
& If individuals are sampled to represent specific subgroups, face-to-face
interviews enable you to obtain information which may be unique to
those subgroups and which you are unlikely to have anticipated
yourself.
& Such interviews enable respondents to identify problems and issues
which you could investigate further (ie in a subsequent survey).
(4) The second phase of the audit will consist of conducting two surveys using
self-administered questionnaires.
The self-administered questionnaire should contain Likert and semantic
differential scales, because these scales will enable you to measure res-
ponses that range from favourable to unfavourable. The fact that two
surveys are specified means that you are interested in doing a comparison
between two or more groups Ð for example, between:
& the opinion of the internal public and the opinion of the external public
& the opinions of different subgroups in the internal public (eg technical
employees and administrative employees)
& the opinions of different subgroups in the external public (eg male/
female clients)
Apart from being used to compare the opinions of different groups, two
surveys can also be used to do a comparison between respondents' view of
an `ìdeal'' organisation versus the ``real'' organisation. Section 6.6.1 in
the prescribed book contains an example of how a semantic differential
scale can be used (in two surveys) to rate the ideal public television
broadcasting organisation, and to rate a specific television organisation.
(5) The third phase of the audit will consist of formulating proposals (about
whether or not a PR campaign should be launched).
Once you have completed the content analyses, environmental-monitor-
ing research, interviews and comparative surveys, you should be able to
identify the areas in which the organisation can improve its corporate
image, services and/or products. If the data supported the launching of a
PR campaign, you would have to:
& differentiate between a short-term versus a long-term campaign
& identify specific themes (eg positive image-building themes or
defensive themes?)
& specify the objectives of the campaign
& identify specific target groups
& consider the communication media to be used
COM306-D/1 201
& specify how you would conduct a pilot test involving a sample of the
target groups
The above activity asked you to think about the different phases and methods that can
be used when researching an organisation's corporate image (as part of a PR audit).
Once you have study-read section 6.6 in the prescribed book, you will know that a PR
audit can also concentrate on researching a PR campaign Ð its planning,
implementation and impact. The following three self-evaluation and portfolio tasks give
you the opportunities to apply some of the research skills required in such an audit. To
benefit from these practical tasks, you should Ð as we have suggested throughout this
study guide Ð try your hand at doing them before reading our comments. You will
note that tasks 6.6 and 6.7 not only deal with doing a PR audit, but are also linked to
achieving some of the goals of the RDP.
Doing these three tasks will also enable you to monitor your own achievement of the
learning outcome set for this study unit (ie the learning outcome that relates specifically
to conducting a PR audit).
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Task 6.5
Study-read unit 3 Imagine that you are a public relations practitioner for a major car ma-
and sections 5.2.4 nufacturer. Describe how you would conduct a PR audit to measure the
and 6.6 in the effectiveness of the manufacturer's communication with various publics
prescribed book and how the manufacturer can improve this communication (ie through a
PR campaign).
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are You were asked to imagine that you are a public relations practitioner for a
based on unit 3 major car manufacturer and you were asked to describe how you would
and sections 5.2.4 conduct a PR audit to measure:
and 6.6 in the (1) the effectiveness of the manufacturer's communication with various
prescribed book publics
(2) how the manufacturer can improve this communication (ie through a PR
campaign)
As we indicated in Task 6.5, our research would be guided by these two
research questions:
& What is the manufacturer's standing in the eyes of its internal publics?
& What is the external public's opinion of the manufacturer?
Because we are unsure of the views and opinions of both groups of people, our
research objectives are exploratory and descriptive.
Who are the target publics? Answering this question constitutes the first
phase of our PR audit. Based on a content analysis of brochures, pamphlets
and advertisements of various automobile manufacturers, the internal publics
can be placed in the following groups: technical employees with electrical/
electronic skills; financial management employees; service and engineering
202
specialists; maintenance; the training division; customer services; accounts;
marketing; and specific employees in human resources and trade unions.
To identify subgroups in the external public,
public we need to analyse who actually
buys the cars manufactured by this firm. The description of the organisation
as a ``major car manufacturer'' does not indicate whether these vehicles are
trucks, tour buses, combi's, 4 X 4 vehicles or ordinary cars.
Nor does the description differentiate between cars manufactured for the
mass market versus luxury cars manufactured for those in the top-income
bracket. In addition to individual buyers, certain makes of cars are also used
as fleet cars for car rental firms and large corporations. Since this group of
buyers will not necessarily have the same needs as individual buyers, their
views and opinions of the manufacturer may also differ.
When compiling a semantic differential scale Ð the second phase of our PR
audit Ð we would therefore have to ensure that it contained bipolar op-
positions that were appropriate both for the internal public (which will include
all the groups listed above) and for the external public (which will also include
the various subgroups we have mentioned). For example, the car manu-
facturer's corporate image that is aimed at the mass market will need to
incorporate certain lifestyle appeals in its PR campaign. The corporate image
which the PR campaign therefore aims to create and maintain would therefore
be that of an organisation that respects buyers' preferences for cars that are
stylish, comfortable and fashionable.
However, if the manufacturer mainly makes luxury cars for the elite and those
in the top income bracket, the corporate image which the PR campaign aims
to create and maintain will be that of an organisation that acknowledges and
respects social status.
To recap: Semantic differential scales consist of a series of seven-point spaces
which have opposite adjectives or adverbs (referred to as bipolar ratings) on
either end of each scale.
COM306-D/1 203
For example:
The purpose of this scale is to measure what the concept ``the ideal
motorcar manufacturer'' means to you in terms of the cars that it
manufactures. Please judge the ideal motorcar manufacturer against the
following set of descriptive scales by placing a tick (V) in one of the seven
spaces on each line, between the pairs of words. For example, if you feel
that the ideal motorcar manufacturer is always stylish, place your tick in
the first space right next to the word ``Stylish''. If you think that the ideal
motorcar manufacturer is only slightly described by the word ``Stylish'',
place your tick in the second or third space. If the two words in a pair are
equally descriptive of the ideal motorcar manufacturer, or if neither words
apply, place your tick in the fourth (middle) space. If you think that the
ideal motorcar manufacturer is only slightly described by the word
``Boring'', place your tick in the fifth or sixth space. If you feel that the
ideal motorcar manufacturer is always totally boring, place your tick in the
seventh space right next to the word ``Boring''.
The ideal car manufacturer's cars are

stylish :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: boring
affordable :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: expensive
old :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: modern
plain :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: luxurious
smart-looking :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: dull-looking
common :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: unique
FIGURE 6.1
A semantic differential scale for eliciting perceptions of the ideal motorcar

manufacturer's cars
Having measured the staff and external public's perceptions of an ideal mo-
torcar, the same scale is administered to the same respondents sampled after
an elapse of two to six weeks. They are then requested to indicate their
perceptions of a specific motorcar.
204
The purpose of this scale is to measure what the concept ``The SA-CAR as
motorcar manufacturer'' means to you in terms of the cars that it
manufactures. Please judge the SA-CAR as motorcar manufacturer
against the following set of descriptive scales by placing a tick (V) in one
of the seven spaces on each line, between the pairs of words. For example,
if you feel that the SA-CAR as motorcar manufacturer is always stylish,
place your tick in the first space right next the word ``Stylish''. If you feel
that the SA-CAR as motorcar manufacturer is only slightly described by
the word ``Stylish'', place your tick in the second or third space. If the two
words in a pair are equally descriptive of the SA-CAR as motorcar
manufacturer, or if neither words apply, place you tick in the fourth
(middle) space. If you feel that the SA-CAR as motorcar manufacturer is
only slightly described by the word ``Boring'', place your tick in the fifth or
sixth space. If you feel that the SA-CAR as motorcar manufacturer is
always totally boring, place your tick in the seventh space right next to the
word ``Boring''.
The SA-CAR as a car manufacturer's cars are

stylish :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: boring
affordable :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: expensive
old :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: modern
plain :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: luxurious
smart-looking :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: dull-looking
common :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: unique
Key: Broken line ---- a profile of the ideal

Solid line Ð a profile of the specific organisation
FIGURE 6.2
A comparison between an ideal profile and a real profile of a corporate

image conveyed by manufacturers' cars
Based on the above comparison, we can conclude that the particular firm can
improve its corporate image in the following areas, in terms of the cars being
manufactured: investigating more modern designs which are affordable and
stylish.
Task 6.6
You have been approached by the Department of Health to assess the

effectiveness of the impact of a PR information campaign designed to
persuade people to use condoms as a protection against HIV/AIDS and
STDs (Sexually Transmitted Diseases). Describe how you would conduct a
PR audit to measure the effectiveness of this PR campaign.
OUR COMMENTS
All communication research is conducted in particular social contexts. The
Department of Health and the effectiveness of the impact of a PR information
campaign on which we comment in this task, is situated in South Africa. If you
live in another country, such as Israel, Nigeria or Japan the objectives of the
COM306-D/1 205
PR campaign may be similar, but the target public and communication media
used will almost certainly differ.
The objective of the campaign is to inform and to persuade people to use
condoms as a protection against HIV/AIDS and STDs (Sexually Transmitted
Diseases).
The external (target) public can be divided into the following groups:
& individuals between the ages of 15 and 24, because it is estimated that, of
the more than a thousand persons becoming infected every day,
approximately 50% of the people concerned fall in this age group
(Government Communication and Information System 1999:394±395)
& employers in the private and public sectors, because organisations have to
draft AIDS policies that include legal and practical advice, and also need to
involve them as partners in the distribution of condoms and AIDS
education (of their employees)
& all sectors that are involved in caring for HIV-infected persons, working in
coordination and under the guidance of the Directorate: HIV/AIDS and
Sexually Transmitted Diseases, including the Interministerial Committee
on AIDS and other groups, such as the Women in Partnership Against AIDS
Since your self-assessment task requires you to describe how you would
conduct a PR audit to measure the effectiveness of this PR campaign, you
would normally need to describe how you would measure the cognitive, af-
fective and conative dimensions of effectiveness. However, the situation here
is a bit different. Although the campaign does aim to inform and to persuade
(which involves both the cognitive and affective dimensions) the main test is
whether people are actually using condoms (conative dimension).
We shall therefore focus on the conative dimension of effectiveness, and we
shall illustrate how this can be measured using the first group (young adults
between the ages of 15 and 24) as the external target group.
Section 5.2.4 in the prescribed book explains that, when measuring the co-
native dimension of message effectiveness, we are actually measuring two
categories of behaviours:
& subjects' attitudes to an issue (in this case the use of condoms when having
sex)
& subjects' actual behaviour
Before you could ascribe a change in attitude specifically to the PR campaign,

you would have had to conduct a survey among a representative sample of the
target population before the campaign, and you would have measured the
same respondents after the campaign. Since we are not in a position to
conduct (the ideal) pre-campaign survey, we shall describe how a post-
campaign survey can be conducted.
The measuring instruments that can be used include interviews (face-to-face
in-depth questioning, or telephonic) and/or a self-administered questionnaire.
For the purposes of this research, we are going to assume that the majority of
our target public are literate. We know that they are distributed throughout
South Africa. Given this, a self-administered questionnaire would be the most
appropriate measuring instrument to use. Having said this, if, we find that
some of the individuals sampled are illiterate, our other option would be to
conduct face-to-face interviews. Given that our research focuses on an ex-
206
tremely sensitive and personal issue (ie attitudes towards, and actual use of,
condoms), focus-group interviews would not be appropriate.
Since a sampling frame (a complete list of members of the target population)
is not available of all young adults between the ages of 15 and 24, we would
opt for an area probability sample (which is discussed in unit 3). According to
Statistics South Africa (1999:26), of the total population of 40 583 573 (based
on the population census of 1996), the following number of citizens belonged
to the following age-group categories:
10±14 years:
4 654 100
15±19 years:
4 180 716
20±24 years:
3 982 353
Depending on when we conduct our survey (eg in the year 2002) we would
have to calculate the target population by keeping in mind that young people
who were 10±14 years old, in above survey, will fall in the 15±24 years target
population in the year 2002.
According to the figures above, we can assume that we have to sample a
population of approximately 10 million young adults (that is 4 180 716 plus
3 982 353; or 4 180 716 plus 4 654 100).
Drawing an area probability sample involves more than one stage of sampling.
We have to start by dividing the country into the nine provinces and we then
have to calculate the proportionate stratification of these young adults for
each province (which is done below). We can then identify organisations in
each of these provinces that represent the three largest economic sectors
offering employment for people above 15 years, namely:
& community, social, personal and public service sector
& manufacturing sector
& trade sector, as well as
& schools, training and educational institutions
During this stage of the sampling process we draw a simple random of these
organisations, and finally a simple random sample of individuals between the
ages of 15 and 24.
The table below reflects the position if we were to use figures provided by
Statistics South Africa (1999:24).
COM306-D/1 207
Province 10±14 years 15±19 years 20±24 years
Eastern Cape 864 708 732 397 548 044
Free State 289 816 271 018 257 658
Gauteng 581 979 581 315 790 119
KwaZulu-Natal 1 018 217 914 304 851 952
Mpumalanga 336 576 298 126 278 970
Northern Cape 95 746 85 362 74 411
Northern Province 708 069 598 061 452 966
North West 375 982 349 913 330 979
Western Cape 383 006 350 219 397 253
TOTAL 4 654 100 4 180 716 3 982 353
Assuming that we are doing the PR audit in 2002, then there is little point in
considering the 20±24 age group, because these figures are based on the last
population census (conducted in 1996). We therefore need to concentrate on
the 10±19 age groups who, by 2002, will be in the 15±24 age group. When
calculating the above figures as percentages of the totals (eg Eastern Cape:
864 708 + 732 397, calculated as a percentage of
4 654 100 + 4 180 716 = 18,1%), this means that our sample has to be
stratified in the following proportions. (Proportionate stratified random
sampling is discussed in unit 3 in the prescribed book.)
Eastern Cape 18,1%
Free State 6,3%
Gauteng 13,2%
KwaZulu-Natal 21,9%
Mpumalanga 7,2%
Northern Cape 2,0%
Northern Province 14,8%
North West 8,2%
Western Cape 8,3%
As indicated above, our questionnaire would aim to evaluate:
& subjects' attitudes (predisposition) to the use of condoms when having sex
& whether subjects actually do use (or would use) a condom when having sex
Predisposition can be measured by testing respondents' attitudes and opinions.
(Likert scales and semantic differential scales are the best means of doing
this.) (These measuring scales are discussed in unit 3 in the prescribed book.)
In order to encourage respondents' to express their attitudes and opinions in
their own words, we can also use open questions. (Examples of these scales
and questions follow below.)
An example of a Likert scale:
Please indicate your opinion of this statement by making a tick (V) in the
box next to the option that best describes your opinion.
The use of condoms when having sexual relations is a health measure.
t Strongly agree
t Agree
t Undecided
t Disagree
t Strongly disagree
208
The same 5-point scale is repeated as response categories for the following
statements; (*) is an indication that these items are against the use of con-
doms and, when scoring responses, the weights for their response alternatives
must be reversed.
& The practice of using condoms prevents the propagation of humankind.(*)
& Everyone should use condoms when having sexual relations.
& Only a fool will insist on the use of condoms when having sexual
relations.(*)
& The use of condoms increases the happiness of married life.
& The use of condoms destroys people's sexual relationships.(*)
& The use of condoms can prevent the spread of AIDS.
& Information about the use of condoms is freely available in our community.
& The use of condoms is morally wrong, despite its possible benefits.(*)
An example of semantic differential scales:
The purpose of this scale is to measure what the expression ``condoms

used when having sexual relations'' means to you. Please state your views
about the use of condoms placing a tick (V) against the following set of
descriptive scales in one of the seven spaces on each line (between the
pairs of words). For example, if you feel that using condoms is always
selfish, place your tick in the first space right next to the word ``Selfish''. If
you feel that use of condoms is only a bit selfish, place your tick in the
second or third space. If you believe the two words in a pair are equally
descriptive of the use of condoms, or if you believe that neither word
applies, place your tick in the fourth (middle) space. If you feel that the
use of condoms is only slightly described by the word `Ùnselfish'', place
your tick in the fifth or sixth space. If you feel that the use of condoms is
always totally unselfish, place your tick in the seventh space right next to
the word `Ùnselfish''.
The use of condoms when having sexual relations is

Selfish :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: Unselfish
Immoral :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: Moral
Healthy :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: Unhealthy
Disadvantageous :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: Advantageous
Justified :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: Unjustified
Discouraged :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: Encouraged
Necessary :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: Unnecessary
Disagreeable :.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....::.....:: Agreeable
The following are examples of questions which are used as contingency

questions after filter questions have been asked. (These types of questions are
discussed in unit 3 in the prescribed book.) In contrast to the Likert scales and
semantic differential scales used above, which concentrate on measuring the
attitudes people have towards condoms and the actual use of condoms, the
following questions deal more specifically with the information given out as
part of the PR campaign.
COM306-D/1 209
22 Have you read any printed messages during the past month about the
use of condoms when having sex?
t yes
t no
If yes, please answer the remaining questions (questions 23 onwards).

If no, please skip questions 23±26. Go to question 27 on the next page.
Question 22 functions as a filter question; this question identifies the sub-

group of respondents who have received printed messages during the past
month, about the use of condoms when having sex. These respondents are
then asked to answer the contingency questions 23±26, which the other
respondents skip. Similar filter questions can be asked to determine whether
respondents have heard messages on the radio, watched television adver-
tisements or discussion programmes about the topic, or whether they have
encountered the topic in any other media used during the PR campaign (eg
having been part of group discussions held by a teacher or health worker).
The following are examples of contingency questions that follow on question 22.
23 In what language was the printed message written?

..............................................................................................................
24 Please describe in your own words where you obtained the printed
message about the use of condoms when having sex.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
25 What can you remember of what you read about the use of condoms
when having sex? (Please write your answer in the space below.)
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
The above questions are open questions; more specifically, they are free-
narration questions which invite respondents to tell their own ``stories''.
26 If you were asked to talk to your local youth club of what you read
about the use of condoms when having sex, what would you tell
them? (Briefly list two or three things that you would tell them.)
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
210
This last question is an example of an open role-playing question, in which
respondents are given the opportunity to respond from a specific person's
perspective.
Lastly, because we want to test the following assumptions we would end the
questionnaire with closed-ended questions to determine respondents' gender,
gender
age and living area:
area
& Girls' attitudes to using condoms are more positive than boys.
& Younger respondents' attitudes to using condoms are diverse and
ambiguous compared with older respondents. Their actual use of condoms
also differs from that of older respondents.
& Respondents living in rural areas are less informed about HIV/AIDS and
the implications of using condoms than respondents living in urban areas.
GENERAL COMMENTS
The following are worth noting as far as this self-assessment task is concerned.
According to an economist from the University of Natal, Professor Alan
Whiteside (Beeld 1999b:9) the HIV/AIDS prevention programme has failed; he
bases his conclusion on the following statistics and projections:
& By 1999, South Africa had 4 million AIDS sufferers; many more people
have either not been diagnosed, or are refusing to disclose their diagnosis
(ie that they are HIV-positive).
& 200 000 South Africans are expected to have died from HIV/AIDS by the
year 2000;
& It is projected that this figure will increase to 450 000 by the year 2005.
& It is further projected that the figure will increase to 600 000 by the year
2010.
The PR campaign is marred by problems such as the following:

& A lack of transparency Ð people are still uninformed about the devastating
effects of HIV/AIDS, not only on those who are infected, but also on the
financial and psychological impact the disease has on families.
& Communities use euphemisms; they refer to AIDS as a ``four-letter
illness'', or a ``foreign illness''. It is not unusual to hear references being
made to the ``lost generation'' because of the HIV/AIDS epidemic.
& The use of condoms is not the only issue; people's life-styles need to
change.
& There is also the problem of fallacious beliefs (eg a man will be cured of
AIDS by having sex with a virgin). These beliefs need to be tackled by
welfare and health workers, and by educationists, religious organisations
and traditional leaders.
& The question can also be asked whether so much emphasis should be
placed on statistics obtained from pre-natal clinics when estimating the
total HIV/AIDS figures for the country.
& Certain cultural traditions prohibit the discussion of certain topics in the
presence of young boys and girls.
Given these problems, future PR campaigns need to pilot test the groups they
want to reach to find out the following:
(1) the media and methods which the group finds the most acceptable (a
COM306-D/1 211
young woman conducting focus-group discussions with older men will
almost certainly be unacceptable to participants)
(2) how the effects of HIV/AIDS can be brought home to people in a concrete
manner (by using copy testing of verbal and visual messages Ð copy
testing is discussed in the prescribed book, in unit 5, section 5.2.2)
(3) the combination of different age groups in face-to-face information ses-
sions
(4) the combination of both genders in face-to-face interviews
(5) whether current HIV/AIDS sufferers can be used as opinion leaders in
preventative programmes
Task 6.7
Identify an organisation in your community that is dependent (either

partially or entirely) on the goodwill of the community (eg the SPCA Ð
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals). Do a gatekeeping re-
search analysis of your local community newspaper over a period of a
month by evaluating the content and style of reports that deal with this
organisation. Use the research questions formulated in section 6.6.1 (in
the prescribed book) as guidelines for the content analysis.
OUR COMMENTS
We did a content analysis of a local community newspaper that is published in
Afrikaans and English and which is distributed free of charge on a weekly
basis Ð we concentrated on reports that refer to the SPCA Ð the organisa-
tion suggested in the task. We used the research questions asked in section
6.6 in the prescribed book to guide our analysis.
Three types of ``reports'' were published, namely
(1) a report on training sessions offered for dogs
(2) a weekly column, as a special service to the community, on animals that
have been lost and found
(3) an item in a list of announcements of all forthcoming events (eg charity
events, markets/arts and crafts; lectures etc)
In view of the fact that none of these items are examples of actual news
stories, some of the questions asked in section 6.6.1 (in the prescribed book)
will not apply. Nevertheless, we have used these questions as headings for our
comments
& What are the main themes or topics addressed in the content of the news
story?
(1) A brief report under the heading `Òpleiding vir honde'' (Training for
dogs) describes the classes currently offered by the SPCA's dog
training school and invites the public to register and bring their dogs
to the next series of training classes. Since this is also a fundraising
exercise, dog owners have to pay a nominal fee.
(2) A column under the heading ``Pet Detective'', lists the birds, cats
and Ð especially Ð dogs that have been lost and found, together with
descriptions of what they look like, when and where they were lost/
found, whether a reward is available, telephone numbers and persons
to contact.
212
(3) A forthcoming Miss and Mr SPCA competition in aid of the local SPCA
is advertised as one of 35 items listed under the heading `Èvents/
Gebeure''.
& Is the report balanced? For example, is more than one side of an argument
presented, and can opinions be distinguished from fact?
This question does not apply to these items. All three items are factual.
& Is a news story an appropriate genre to use? In other words, would an

advertisement have been more appropriate?
The items are not ``news stories'' and therefore this question does not
apply. The third item is written as an advertisement anyway and therefore
an appropriate genre is used in this case.
& Is immediacy conveyed by the report using present tense?

(1) ``Training for dogs'' uses present and future tense.
(2) ``Pet detective'' mainly uses the past tense, because the animals were
lost or found in the past. For example: `Àn African Grey parrot flew
away in the Mayville area ...''. There was, however, one interesting
example that used present tense, indicative of the fact that the animal
is still lost. (`À female cat is Lost in the Rooihuiskraal Nursery School
vicinity ...'')
(3) The advertisement of the competition reads as follows:
``Miss & Mrs SPCA competition in aid of Pta SPCA Nov 19 Sunny-
park shopping centre 6pm. Entry forms in centre. Great prizes,
various age categories.''
You will notice that this advertisement does not use any past, present or
future tense. Although this may sound strange, it is an accepted con-
vention in advertisements to use an abbreviated form of writing. The
reader ``fills in'' the tenses and missing phrases, as we have done between
brackets below.
``Miss & Mrs SPCA competition in aid of Pta (Pretoria) SPCA (to be
held on) Nov 19 (at) Sunnypark shopping centre (starting at) 6pm.
Entry forms (are available) in (the) centre. Great prizes (can be won),
(and the competition takes place in) various age categories.''
& Are mainly active voice (instead of passive voice) used?

Only the active voice was used in the first two items. This question does
not apply to the third item (because of the absence of tenses).
& Are mainly concrete (rather than abstract words) used?

Only concrete words were used in these items, such as: `À small female
light brown dog was found ... medium length hair, with white feet.''
& Are the majority of the sentences formulated in a declarative form?

All the sentences are formulated in a declarative form and, in addition to
the content conveyed, the newspaper conveys its commitment to fulfilling
COM306-D/1 213
a community service (to animal lovers and a worthy organisation Ð the
SPCA).
& If photographs or video inserts are included, what messages do they

communicate?
Only the second item had a graphic drawing of a dog carrying a bag of
bones on a stick. Because the dog's hair is long and hanging over its eyes,
one cannot determine whether the dog is happy or sad. However, the stick
and bag with bones suggests that the animal is travelling Ð that this
animal is a ``homeless tramp''.
& How do the visuals enhance the main topic of the story?
The graphic drawing of a homeless animal summaries the theme of the
column, namely animals that are lost and found.
& What other type of photographs or visual images could have been used to
enhance the verbal report?
As the heading of the lost and found column is ``Pet Detective'', the dog
could have been drawn holding a magnifying glass.
& What is the average RE of the news reports?

The Readability Ease could not be calculated, because the items were all
shorter than 100 words and therefore too short to conduct a reliable RE
calculation.
& Do the headlines summarise the stories?

``Training for dogs''; ``Dog Detective'' and `Èvents'' all summarise the
contents of the items. In the case of `Èvents/Gebeure'', together with
seven subheadings in the first item not only summarise the 35 events, but
also group them in meaningful categories.
& Would the headlines arouse readers' interest?

``Training for dogs'' would definitely arouse the interest of dog owners.
The headings of the other two items are not necessarily aimed at arousing
interest, because they appear in each edition.
So far we have discussed environmental-monitoring research, conducting a social audit

and a PR audit. In the last section, our focus is specifically on investigating
communication with people who are internal to organisations Ð in other words,
conducting a communication audit.
214
6.7 Communication audit
Study-read A communication audit differs from a social audit and a PR audit in that it concentrates
section 6.7 in the specifically on measuring the effectiveness of communication that takes place internally
prescribed book in an organisation.
You have already been introduced to research methods such as readership studies
(study unit 5), content analysis and Readability Ease (RE) studies (study units 3 and 4).
All of these methods can be used to determine:
& which employees read which messages
& the content of messages communicated internally
& the ease with which messages can be read
Although these methods can be used to research communication within an

organisation, they would normally be used with a specific objective in mind, such as to
measure the RE.
A communication audit can be conducted solely by using a very specific type of self-
administered questionnaire, or in combination with other methods. The questionnaire
is divided into eight sections which evaluate the following:
(1) Receiving information from others Ð the amount of information which a

respondent currently receives about a specified topic and the amount of
information respondents need to receive about the specific topic in order to work
effectively.
(2) Sending information to others Ð the amount of information which a respondent
currently sends about specified topics and the amount of information the
respondent needs to send on that topic in order to work effectively.
(3) Action on information sent Ð namely the amount of action that is currently taken,
and the action that needs to be taken by specific employees, based on information
sent to the specified people (eg head of a section).
(4) Sources of information Ð the amount of information a respondent currently
receives from specified sources, versus the amount of information the respondent
needs to receive from specified sources in order to work effectively.
(5) Timeliness of information received from key sources Ð the extent to which
information from specified sources is usually received in good time.
(6) Communication relationships Ð the evaluation of a variety of factors that can
influence communication with fellow-employees (eg trust, honesty, attitudes,
acknowledgement, listening skills), influencing operations in a section or
contributing to the accomplishment of the organisation's objectives.
(7) Communication and work satisfaction Ð evaluating a respondent's satisfaction or
lack of satisfaction with work-related issues (eg the organisation's communicative
efforts in general and promotion possibilities).
(8) Channels of communication Ð the amount of information that a respondent
currently receives through specified channels and the amount of information the
respondent needs to receive through specified channels.
From the example included in the prescribed book, it is clear that the actual items can
be adapted to accommodate a particular organisation. For example, if terms such as
``head of section'' or ``head of division'' do not apply in a particular organisation, they
COM306-D/1 215
can be changed to suit the nature of the organisation and job titles used (eg
``management committee member'' or ``shop steward''). Or to give another example:
if an organisation makes extensive use of electronic mail and information workshops as
channels of internal communication, then these and any other channels can be added
to the questionnaire.
The example in the prescribed book also illustrates the use of a communication
experience form. Although the experience form follows each of the eight sections and
therefore invites respondents' responses that are specifically concerned with the
preceding section (eg ``Receiving information from others'') these forms can also be
used on their own. You will notice from the example in the prescribed book that the
experience form consists of both closed and open-ended questions. The open-ended
questions are particularly useful for obtaining a description of the circumstances and/or
people who were involved in the effective/ineffective communication experience.
Asking employees to keep a communication diary gives the researcher even more
flexibility as data-collection method, because respondents can record their
communication experiences when they want to. However, to make it easier for you to
do the content analysis of diary entries, it is advisable to suggest categories that the
respondents can use before they actually start keeping a diary. The above eight
categories (used for the questionnaire) can be used as categories and, if you are
interested in specific issues, others can be added, such as:
& the topic of the communication
& whether the communication is work-related or informal socialising
Filling in a communication experience form and keeping a diary are two useful self-
reporting methods that enable employees to respond freely and to give data that
reflect their personal communication needs and experiences.
Questionnaires, communication experience forms and diaries can also be combined or

followed up with personal and focus-group interviews. For example, if you discover
that secretaries in different sections control the flow of information between top
management and employees, you can investigate this further and perhaps interview
the secretaries with a view to improving the situation.
The value of conducting a communication audit will always depend on:

& the extent to which employees feel secure about responding openly
& the objectivity with which findings (and, especially, problems) are reported
& the corrective measures you propose
In some instances these ``corrective measures'' may involve active intervention that has
monetary implications (eg arranging for in-service computer training). In other instances
it could entail a relatively minor correction, such as allowing employees to be
accompanied by a translator when attending policy meetings, or persuading top
management to move away from, say, a very formal tone of communication.
From the above discussion it is clear that the most important objective of a
communication audit is to improve the quality, effectiveness and timeliness of internal
216
communication. See the discussion in section 6.4.2 in the prescribed book, which
examines what is involved in considering a behavioural change strategy, namely that
employees must:
& be assured that their participation in the communication audit is regarded as
meaningful and is appreciated by the organisation
& experience some form of reward, such as being acknowledged for their part in the
gains made as a result of the communication audit
& be actively involved in the decisions that are taken as a result of the communication
audit
The last two self-evaluation and portfolio tasks that follow below ask you to describe
which research methods and techniques you would regard as appropriate when
conducting a communication audit in an organisation which has semi-literate
employees. These tasks also ask you to compile a questionnaire to research the role of
interpersonal communication as part of a communication audit.
Again, we suggest that you first do these tasks before reading our comments in order
to monitor and evaluate your progess.
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Task 6.8
You are requested to research an organisation's communication efforts

amongst its employees, some of whom are semi-literate. Briefly describe
which research methods and techniques you would regard as appropriate
and briefly explain the reason(s) for your choice.
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are A content analysis of all written/printed material, including e-mail messages,
based on section can be undertaken to measure the Readability Ease of such messages. When
6.7 in the surveying literate employees, any one or all of the measuring instruments,
prescribed book methods or techniques discussed in section 6.7.1 (in the prescribed book) can
be used.
To include illiterate and semi-literate employees in a communication audit, we
can use measuring instruments that use verbal communication, namely:
& personal interviews (to explore and enable responsents to describe specific
communication experiences)
& follow-up personal interviews (to elaborate and explain responses)
& focus-group interviews (for doing a network analysis of communication
links and to find out the roles fulfilled by individuals)
COM306-D/1 217
Task 6.9
``Central to the effectiveness of organisational communication is the

acknowledgement of the importance of interpersonal communication
between individuals and in small-group settings.'' This is the view held by
the management of an organisation that has asked you to conduct a
communication audit.
Instead of compiling a comprehensive questionnaire, compile a ques-
tionnaire consisting of approximately 20 items (a mini-survey) to
evaluate:
& how employees experience interpersonal communication in the orga-
nisation
& how they perceive the ideal (ie what they need) in terms of inter-
personal communication, in order to do their work effectively
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are A comparison between the real and the ideal would require the use of two
based on section Likert scales for each item. Unlike the questionnaire printed in section 6.7.2,
6.7 in the which visually repeats the same scale, we have devised another variation in
prescribed book which one scale is used that measures both the ``real'' and the `ìdeal''.
In order to comment on this task, we are taking a training college called EDUP
which specialises in courses in electronics as used in radio, television, video,
refrigeration, air conditioning and motorcars. The employees consist of
academic employees, administrative employees (eg typists), technical pro-
fessionals, and employees who fulfill essential support services, such as IT
staff.
Although we are designing a mini-survey questionnaire of 20 items, we can
use the eight topic areas that are normally used in a comprehensive self-
administered questionnaire as guidelines. Take note of how these topic areas
are reflected in the questionnaire below:
& receiving information from others
& sending information to others
& action on information sent
& sources of information
& timeliness of information received from key sources
& communication relationships
& communication and work satisfaction
& channels of communication
218
Directions:
Circle the one number below each item or question that best represents your
present situation. Also, for each item or question, place the letter `Ì'' (for
`ìdeal'') under the one number that best represents the ideal situation for
you.
For example:
I am well-informed about promotion possibilities
Always Most of the time Sometimes Seldom Never
1 2 3 * 4 5
I
.............................................................................................
This example illustrates that you are seldom well-informed about promotion
possibilities and the ideal (for you) is to always be well-informed.
(1) I prefer receiving evaluations of my work performance verbally.

1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(2) I prefer receiving evaluations of my work performance in writing.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(3) Information about work duties are conveyed to us in groups, not
individually.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(4) My Head of Department (HOD) regularly discusses my future career-
path with me.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(5) I regularly get the opportunity to discuss my working conditions with
my HOD.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(6) The EDUP annual review adequately reflects the quality of work that I
do.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
COM306-D/1 219
(7) The EDUP annual review adequately reflects the amount of work that I
do.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(8) I obtain the most information about EDUP policies from formal memo's
from top management.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(9) I obtain the most information about EDUP policies via the grapevine.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(10) I am usually the last to get to know about changes in EDUP's service
benefits.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(11) Our HOD is honest with us.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(12) We may disagree with our HOD.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(13) Our HOD understands our work needs.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(14) My co-employees get along with each other.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(15) We are free to tell the HOD when things go wrong.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(16) All communication with other departments must go via the HOD.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
220
(17) I trust EDUP's top management.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(18) We have a say in decisions that affect our work.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(19) I contribute to the accomplishment of EDUP's teaching objectives.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
(20) EDUP's management acknowledges outstanding performance of all
employees.
1 2 3 4 5
................................................................................................................
In the example above you will notice that references are made to the res-
pondent's personal situation and experience (using `Ì'' and ``my'' types of
address); versus the respondent's perceptions of others (using `ùs'', ``we'',
`òur'', `èach other'' and `àll employees'' as types of address). By including
this type of items (items 3, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18 and 20) we are not only
measuring a respondent's individual experience, but we are also indirectly
measuring a group climate. In other words, we are finding out respondents'
opinion of their group's present situation and ideal situation.
To illustrate this point, let us reconsider item 12:
``We
We may disagree with our HOD'' could elicit a negative response, be-
cause the respondent believes this is not the case in reality.
Whereas:
`ÌI may disagree with my HOD'' could elicit a very positive response,
because the respondent is in a senior position.
6.8 Conclusion
In this study unit, we discussed the research methods and techniques that can be used
in different organisational and development contexts. The various research goals and
publics that can be investigated are as follows:
& environmental-monitoring research usually investigates publics that are external to
organisations
& a social audit and public relations audit usually investigate both publics that are
internal and external to organisations
& a communication audit usually investigates publics that are internal to organisations
Emphasis was placed on research of organisations' (corporate) climate; the substantive
COM306-D/1 221
nature of an organisation; and organisational and management structures (as part of a
social audit). Since the passing of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 108
of 1996, and especially after passing the Employment Equity Act, 55 of 1998, the
substantive nature of organisations have and will continue to change. That is why we
discussed a social audit as applied to the following:
& employment policies and conditions of services
& affirmative action
& in-service training and mentorship
& social investments and services
Given the need to develop human resources and to build the economy, in this study
unit we also focused on:
& a conceptual scheme to research participatory strategies
& participatory action research
that can be applied in development contexts.
In the next and final unit, we shall deal with the last step in the research process,
namely writing the research report.
However, before you continue with study unit 7, your are encouraged to evaluate
whether you have achieved your learning outcomes by, once again, following the guide
given at the end of unit 6 in the prescribed book.
On the next few pages you will find the self-administered questionnaire which we
mentioned in section 6.3.2 under the subheading In-service training and mentorship.
222
COM306-D/1 223
224
COM306-D/1 225
226
COM306-D/1 227
228
COM306-D/1 229
230
S T U D Y U N I T
7
THE RESEARCH
REPORT
OVERVIEW
This study unit contains a framework of criteria and guidelines for evaluating published
research reports and for writing your own research report. These criteria and
guidelines are dealt with in four sections: thematic evaluation, methodological
evaluation, contextual evaluation, and an evaluation in terms of presentation criteria
and credibility. This study unit is also an overview or summary of the previous six study
units.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this study unit you should be able to demonstrate your ability to
& analyse and evaluate a research report or article (by applying scientific criteria and
guidelines)
7.1 Introduction
This last study unit deals with the last step in the research process, namely the research
report. A research report is a document that explains clearly and precisely what a
researcher's goal, objectives, method and findings were. The way in which unit 7 in
the prescribed book is written Ð consisting of guidelines and a checklist of scientific
criteria Ð also means that this unit can be used:
& when conducting a literature review
& when evaluating a published research report and articles
& as a summary of the previous six study units
& to make you more critical of the quality of published material (ie is it reliable,
authentic, valid, and accurate.)
Someone once said:
When the cook tastes the soup, that is formative evaluation. When the guests
taste the soup, that is summative evaluation.
This analogy summarises your task and the learning outcomes that you are expected to
COM306-D/1 231
achieve in this last study unit. In other words, you are now the ``guests'' (critics) who
are required to ``taste the soup'' (evaluate the research) which was prepared by
another ``cook'' (other researchers). To help you achieve the learning outcomes, we
include a research article (in section 7.3), which we evaluate by applying the guidelines
and criteria discussed in unit 7 in the prescribed book.
& What are these guidelines?
& What are these criteria?
These two questions are answered in section 7.2.
Once you have worked through this next section, you will know what to look for
when critically evaluating a research report. You will also realise that peer evaluations,
literature reviews and writing research reports are not haphazard exercises.
7.2 Evaluation criteria

Guidelines and criteria for evaluating a research report differ, depending on the
purpose of your evaluation. For example, an examiner of postgraduate research will be
guided by the criteria appropriate to the research design and other academic
requirements. A critic who is a member of a journal's editorial board will be guided by
the criteria set out in the journal's policy. The criteria discussed in unit 7 in the
prescribed book can be used for many evaluations, from judging research awards or
approving grants for contract and other types of research.
This first activity gives you the opportunity to understand how these criteria work in
practice.
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ACTIVITY 1
Study-read unit 7, Think about four groups of evaluation criteria listed below. And
in the prescribed then, in your portfolio file, summarise (in your own words) what
book criteria you would use to evaluate a research report or write your
own research report.
(1) thematic evaluation
(2) methodological evaluation
(3) contextual evaluation
(4) evaluation in terms of presentation criteria and credibility
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are Thematic evaluation focuses on the decisions taken and formulations made;
based on unit 2 both of these are usually dealt with during the first three steps of the research
and section 7.2, process:
unit 7, in the
prescribed book
& Step 1: Identification and analysis of the problem
& Step 2: Reviewing the literature
& Step 3: Formulating hypotheses or research questions
The introduction to a research report usually contains the rationale, back-
232
ground and relevance of the research study. Other information which is also
usually given in the introduction (albeit briefly), include the following:
& a clearly demarcated research field, together with the main research
problem and subproblems
& the importance of the problem or issue and why it needs to be researched
& a brief overview of the research approach and methods used
& the hypotheses or research questions
& limitations or demarcation of the study
& definitions of key terms often used in the report
& an outline of the content covered in each of the subsequent chapters or
sections
A literature survey indicates how the research problem or question relates to
certain theoretical and philosophical perspectives. If the research study deals
mainly with empirical research, the literature survey will have to include a
critical evaluation of previous research methods and research findings relating
to the study in question.
Hypotheses or research questions, problems and subproblems, limitations and
operational definitions can be clarified and defined by using the theories and
research work discussed in previously published literature. This will support
the limits of the research undertaken by the (new) author.
Our comments are The methodological evaluation is linked to above steps, but focuses on the
based on units 2, remaining steps in the research process, namely:
3 and 4, as well as & Step 4: Selection or development of the research design
section 7.3, unit 7, & Step 5: Writing the research proposal
in the prescribed & Step 6: Pretesting the research design and collecting the data
book & Step 7: Analysing and interpreting the data
The description and application of the methodological research design refers

to the researcher's data-collection and data-analysis methods, which should
be explained in detail. This explanation should Ð among others Ð include a
specification of the variables distinguished in the analysis, the population
parameters, the sample size and details of how the data were collected and
analysed. The inclusion of data generated during field work, surveys or ex-
periments (eg tables, maps, graphs and questionnaire responses) could easily
make this section of the report far too long. This is why only a summary of the
most important data is included in the report itself. The remainder (eg
questionnaires) appear in the appendices.
Our comments are The contextual evaluation of either a research report, or of your own research,
based on units 5 situates the research study in a wider societal context.
and 6, as well as If a research study does not or cannot fulfill one or more of the following
section 7.4, unit 7, functions, then it simply cannot be justified (in terms of time, effort and
in the prescribed money).
book & Adds to existing theoretical knowledge by testing a theory, building on a
theory or testing competing theories.
& Tests a method or methodology.
& Replicates a previous study.
& Corrects previous, invalid research.
& Resolves inconsistent findings in a previous study.
& Solves a communication problem.
& Contributes to information needs in a particular specialist area.
& Provides realistic findings.
COM306-D/1 233
& Can be applied by professional practitioners.
& Takes legal, moral and human welfare into consideration.
& Can be generalised to a wider community.
Our comments are The evaluation in terms of presentation criteria and credibility concentrates
based on units 2 on the actual research report or published article. In other words, the title; the
and 4, as well as way in which the report is structured Ð from introduction to conclusion; the
section 7.5, unit 7, type of language and vocabulary used; technical aspects (eg reference tech-
in the prescribed niques); the credibility, objectiveness and accuracy of the report; the statistics
book used; and whether any limitations are reported.
The data should be fully exploited and every possible variation and conclusion
considered. It is therefore the researcher's ethical obligation to consider and
state all the implications of his or her findings Ð the reader should not be left
``guessing''.
The main points of the report are summarised in the summary and conclusion.
The relevance of the research results or findings should be explained, and the
report should clearly state how any recommendations made should be applied.
Finally, the shortcomings and limitations of the study and the areas requiring
further research should be indicated (if not previously discussed).
The list of references or sources consulted is given at the end of a research
report, with the sources' surnames arranged in an alphabetical order; the
publications of each author, including Internet addresses, are arranged in
chronological order. You should note that the term ``bibliography'' is not used
here, because this refers to all available printed and other sources that deal
with a particular topic. This is clearly not the same as a list of references or
sources studied or consulted for one specific research study.
When writing your own research reports, it is worthwhile remembering that you have
been involved with the research over an extended period of time. Consequently, you
are very familiar with the problem area, the methodological aspects, and the contextual
relevance of your research. The chances are, therefore, that you will want to get the
report writing behind you as quickly as possible Ð after all, you have done the work
and, by the time you come to write the report, you are likely to be feeling tired of it all.
Unfortunately, your peers and readers have not shared your experiences; this is why
your report has to be written in such a way that the `ùninformed'' will be able to
follow in your footsteps and independently duplicate the study on the basis of the
report alone.
The report-writing stage of undertaking research also gives you an excellent

opportunity to develop your ability to be honest and self-critical. The writing process is
a creative one, and you should be prepared to be critical of your own methods, errors
and biases. In short: writing the research report gives you the opportunity to question
your own research, using the same questions discussed in this section.
As indicated in section 7.5 in the prescribed book, the format and style of research
reports are usually prescribed by the institution for which the research was undertaken,
or by the academic journal in which it will be published.
Now that you have made your own list of criteria that you would use in an evaluation,
you can use these criteria to evaluate the article we have included in the next section.
234
7.3 Case study
The following article was published in Communicatio 25 (1 & 2) 1999 and is
reproduced with the kind permission of the editor, Professor Pieter J Fourie, and Unisa
Press, University of South Africa; as well as the author, Mariekie Burger, Rand Afrikaans
University, Johannesburg.
The article was randomly selected from articles published in Communicatio, volumes
24 and 25, and as it turns out, it is a very suitable article for the purposes of evaluation,
for the following reasons:
& The article is an example of participatory research, a form of research which is
receiving more and more acknowledgment from researchers who are doing
applied research.
& Now that any form of discrimination in South Africa is unconstitutional, the article
demonstrates that variables such as age and gender are still relevant when
undertaking (development) communication research.
& The link between development communication and the use of the mass media (eg
radio and television), is not often researched methodically.
& The topic area Ð development communication Ð corresponds with the
emphasis in this module on research that deals with reconstruction and
development (RDP) issues within the Southern African context (also, the article is
based on research conducted in KwaZulu-Natal).
& The article deals with some of the practical ``roots'' of the paradigm shift from
autocratic, top-down management and communication to participatory
management and communication (see units 1 and 6 in the prescribed book).
The next self-evaluation and portfolio task asks you to do a practical evaluation of the
article concerned. This task also gives you the opportunity to evaluate your
achievement of the learning outcomes for this study unit, and one of the learning
outcomes for this Module as a whole
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Task 7.1
Analyse and evaluate the article that is reproduced below according to the
scientific criteria and guidelines discussed in unit 7 in the prescribed
book. Write your evaluation by using the notes that you made for Activity
1 in this study unit.
Imagine that you are a member of the editorial committee of the journal.
If you find that the article is publishable, your evaluation should support
this decision. If, however, you decide that the article should be revised,
your evaluation should contain specific recommendations about what the
author should add or change.
This is a good task to do with one of your fellow-learners, or in a small-group
setting. If you can do this evaluation with someone else, we suggest that you
first do the evaluations individually and then discuss your findings. This will
show you the things you may have missed and which your co-analysts may
have ``spotted''. It will also give you the opportunity to substantiate your
viewpoint about what you believe is missing in the article.
COM306-D/1 235
Write your own
Participatory small-group notes
communication as a medium for

information campaigns in
KwaZulu-Natal
Mariekie Burger*
ABSTRACT gebruik van aangesig-tot-aangesigkommunika-

sie geõÈmpliseer. Hierdie benadering gee ge-
The paradigm shift from top-down to partici-
meenskappe die geleentheid om in 'n dialoog
patory development has serious communication
met die ontwikkelingsfasiliteerder te tree, met
implications. Instead of using the mass media
die gevolg dat hulle mede-eienaarskap van
(especially radio) to carry development mes-
ontwikkeling neem. Daar word geglo dat dit
sages, the use of face-to-face communication is
tot voortgesette ontwikkeling sal lei. Hierdie
implied. This approach gives communities the
gevallestudie dui aan dat kleingroepkommuni-
opportunity to enter into a dialogue with the
kasie bo radio as draer van ontwikkelingsbood-
development facilitator, resulting in a co-own-
skappe verkies word, aangesien kleingroep-
ership of development, which is believed to lead
kommunikasie dialogies van aard is. Sulke
to sustainable development. This case study
besprekings of werkwinkels moet deur 'n kenner
shows that small group communication is
op die betrokke ontwikkelingsonderwerp gefa-
preferable to radio in carrying development
siliteer word. Daar is ook gevind dat hoe meer
messages ± a preference stemming from the
plattelands en laer die formele skoolopleiding
dialogical nature of small-group communica-
van die respondente in hierdie gebied is, hoe
tion. Small-group discussions or workshops
meer waarde heg hulle aan aangesig-tot-aange-
should be facilitated by knowledgeable people
sigkommunikasie. Hierdie gevallestudie dui
on the development topic under discussion. It
verder aan dat die komposisie van kleingroepe
was also found that the more rural and lower the
vir besprekingsessies gedoen moet word deur die
formal school education level of the respondents
geslagte te skei en tot 'n mindere mate deur die
in this region, the higher they valued face-to-
ouderdomsgroepe in ag te neem. Jonger en ouer
face communication. This case study also
mans verkies om aparte groepe te vorm, terwyl
indicates that the composition of small groups
die ouderdomsgrens tussen vroue in hierdie
for discussion sessions should be according to
gebied 'n kleiner rol speel.
the gender divide and to a lesser extent
according to age groups. Younger and older 1 INTRODUCTION
males prefer to be grouped separately, whilst
the age divide plays a lesser role in the female Many case studies in the field of commu-
groups in this region. nication have proved that information alone
does not change behaviour or lead to the
OPSOMMING acceptance of a new idea. The subsequent
argument from a development perspective,
Die paradigmaverskuiwing vanaf 'n afwaartse
is that development information will there-
na 'n deelnemende ontwikkelingsbenadering hou
fore not necessarily lead to development.
ernstige implikasies vir die kommunikasieproses
Despite this argument, it was believed that
in. In plaas van die massamedia (veral radio) as
information alone would lead to develop-
draer van ontwikkelingsboodskappe, word die
ment and behavioural change when devel-
ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ
* This article is based on a paper presented at the International Symposium: Culture, Communication
and Development held at the HSRC, Pretoria (South Africa) 29±31 August 1996, as well as the
author's master's dissertation titled A communication strategy for development initiatives with special
reference to a population development case study in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal. Mariekie Burger is
lecturer in Communicatio, Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg. email: mbu@lw.rau.ac.za
236
opment aid was first given to Third World
countries in the period directly after World
indicative of a trend in these communities
and probably in similar ones. Write your own
War II. When the desired development did
not take place, it was believed that more
The findings concerning media atten-
dance patterns and media suggested by
notes
information should be dispersed to the rural respondents to be used for information
communities of the Third World. In the campaigns correspond in all three surveys
middle of this century that was done mainly and will be discussed against the back-
via radio, agricultural extension workers and ground of the DC and DSC approaches.
health workers. After a few decades of These surveys reveal information about
development messages being taken to peo- respondents' mass media preference as well
ple in the rural parts of the Third World, little as their media preferences for information
change in behaviour has been seen, and campaigns.
serious introspection regarding the commu-
nication process has been the result.
2 DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION
Since the World War II two main ap-
(DC) AND THE MASS MEDIA
proaches to the role of communication in
development have been popular. The older The concept of development communica-
approach, development communication tion has been used extensively in the last 45
(DC), focused on top-down communica- years. After World War II it focused on a top-
tion, whereby messages were created by a down, authoritarian approach (Ascroft &
communicator outside the developing com- Masilela in Melkote 1991:263), studying
munity. The new paradigm, development how communication should be used `to get
support communication (DSC), argues that communities to develop' or to `catch up'
messages should be created by the devel- with developed nations. The fundamental
oping community themselves with the as- perception embedded in this approach is
sistance of a development facilitator. that a developer knows how development
This article suggests that small-group should take place, and communication is
communication provides the ideal platform used to propagate those ideas to an ùn-
for such message creation, and should developed' community mostly through the
therefore form an important part of informa- use of the mass media, but also through
tion campaigns in rural areas. This argument extension workers ìn the field'.
in favour of interpersonal communication Supporters of the DC approach see
supports the participatory approach to de- development as a diffusion process, in
velopment and the objectives of DSC, and is which technology and culture as well as
supported by the findings of three indepen- political and economic views are transferred
dent surveys in north-eastern KwaZulu- to the developing country or community,
Natal. The first study was commissioned by raising an appetite for modernisation. Tech-
the Chief Directorate: Population Develop- nological innovations are spread to the
ment, Department of Welfare and Popula- developing country, resulting in the transfer
tion Development to monitor the impact of of the socio-political culture of the devel-
an information campaign on the perceptions oped nations. Financial aid is provided in
of respondents. The second was conducted several undeveloped fields in order to
for the Borough of Empangeni, and inves- achieve the ultimate goal: to become like
tigated pedestrian behaviour and percep- the developed countries with a Westernised
tions of basic traffic rules when crossing a elitist structure, where urbanisation and
specific traffic-light intersection in the town. industrialisation are the most important
Third, attendants at a Masakhane I Road- economic growth measures. According to
show in Esikhawini, near Empangeni, were this approach, centralised planning is used
interviewed about their understanding of to overcome causes of underdevelopment
payment of rates and taxes after the show. that lie mainly within the developing coun-
All the respondents live in Zululand in the try (Servaes 1995; Stevenson 1988:176;
rural and semi-urbanised areas north of the Mowlana & Wilson 1990). The focus of
Tugela River, east of Eshowe and as far development efforts is to create a climate of
north as Hluhluwe, in the areas of Mtunzini, acceptance by beneficiaries for external
Esikhawini, Vulindlela, Ngwelezane, Ense- ideas and innovations so that social change
leni, Eshowe, Melmoth, Empangeni, Ri- can take place (Ascroft & Masilela in
chards Bay, Nkwalini, KwaMbonambi, and Melkote 1991:263).
Mtubatuba. In all three cases all respondents Criticism against the modernisation ap-
were Zulu-speaking. The statistical method proach to development is that it does not
employed to analyse the three data sets was take the human factor adequately into
correspondence analysis (cf Greenacre account; it neglects the cultural environment
1993). Although the sample size in all three of predominantly rural societies with its
studies was fairly large, the results cannot be overemphasis on development, and it sup-
generalised to a larger population, but are presses or neglects indigenous social net-
COM306-D/1 237
works and natural social change (Mowlana
& Wilson 1990; Eilers & Oepen 1990:301).
should be used to carry developmental
information. Write your own
The early writings of Everett M Rogers,
Daniel Lerner, Wilbur Schramm and others
In this survey 58 per cent of radio listeners
value radio as a good source of information
notes
(cf Lerner 1958; Rogers 1976) who claim for information campaigns, while 37 per
that the mass media could transform the cent of television viewers value television as
`Third World', are optimistic and have con- a good source, and only 30 per cent of
tinually been questioned (Malan 1996:20; newspaper readers suggest that newspapers
Mowlana & Wilson 1990:65). Modernisa- should be used for development campaigns
tion is a top-down approach, promoting (see table 1). This data may expose a self-
imperialism and may lead to the dependency indicated need of radio listeners for (traffic-
of the peripheral area on the centre (Servaes rule) information, but what is even more
1991:57±58). The exposure of the cultural significant is that radio is the only media to
imperialism of the American information be considered for information campaigns in
empire in the mid-seventies by Herbert this specific area.
Schiller (1971, 1976) and other scholars
(cf Casmir, 1991:5±6; Servaes 1991:58±59; Table 1
Malan 1996:11) placed the top-down de-
velopment communication paradigm with Confidence in media
its emphasis on the mass media further in to
disrepute. Radio % TV % News-
Messages created by a developer or a papers %
change agent, which are not authentic to a Radio
specific community, are diffused to the listeners 58
community with the aim of creating a
climate of acceptance by beneficiaries for Television
viewers 37
ideas. Most often these messages focus on
international or national development and Newspaper
are not community specific. Servaes (1995) readers 30
associates the modernisation ideology of
development with the diffusion theories of
From the findings of the same survey, a
communication where messages are created
profile of the respondents can be sketched
unilaterally by a communicator and dis-
(cf Burger 1996).
persed to a target audience. The hypodermic
Newspaper readers tend to cross the
needle and two-step flow of information
traffic-light intersection more regularly at
theories are often mentioned as examples of
the right time than any of the other media
this approach (Casmir 1991:17). Groene-
groups. Generally they have the highest
wald (1992) calls this the communicator-
educational level of all the media attendance
active approach. The mass media, or `big'
groups, and say that they know when to
media, especially television, radio and news-
cross a traffic-light intersection. They tend
papers, are often used in this communicator-
to cross when the green man appears on the
active, top-down approach to DC (Ascroft
traffic light. They have a lot of confidence in
& Masilela in Melkote 1991:263).
doing so, and do not feel intimidated by
either the motor vehicles or the traffic light.
2.1 Traffic-rule knowledge of Television viewers tend to have a lower
pedestrians and their mass media formal education level, and tend to cross the
intersection with less confidence. Their
preference
explanation of traffic rules is vague, and
The findings of a recent survey in Empan- they tend to cross when the traffic light
geni which investigated pedestrians' per- turns green for motor vehicles travelling in
ceptions of traffic rules support the the same direction as they are. They said that
argument that the mass media does not they are confused when the motor vehicles
allow for participation and formulation of turn.
messages, and that the communities would Radio listeners and magazine readers have
like to be part of those processes. The results little confidence in their own knowledge of
of this survey indicate that respondents are when to cross the intersection. They seem
not confident that the mass media, which unaware of traffic rules and usually cross the
they attend to regularly, should be used as road when everybody else crosses. They
carriers of development information. They have the lowest level of formal schooling.
therefore suggest that television, newspa- Since radio listeners generally do not know
pers and magazines should not be used for when to cross the traffic light intersection, it
information campaigns (Burger 1995:19). seems that they should be the target group
Radio is the only mass medium they suggest for a general awareness campaign on traffic
238
rules, and the medium of radio should
therefore be used to carry such information.
the confidence of earlier DC scholars, with
DSC thinking gaining ground against the Write your own
2.2 Mass media attendance
DC approach. The DC paradigm has fallen
into disrepute mainly because it did not
notes
succeed in getting developing communities
The mass media attendance percentages of
to `catch up'. Alternative views emerged and
these three independent studies were com-
a greater focus on participatory decision
pared to find out which medium is the most
making evolved.
popular in the indicated rural and semi-
Instead of employing the mass media,
urban areas of KwaZulu-Natal. The average
whereby general messages are created out-
mass media attendance indicates that re-
side the developing community, the DSC
spondents tend to expose themselves to
approach supports using `little' media which
radio more frequently than any other mass
give the developing community an oppor-
media (55 per cent). Around 40 per cent of
tunity to co-create meaning with the assis-
the respondents claimed regular television
tance of a facilitator. The DC approach used
viewing, and newspaper and magazine
change agents to diffuse information to
reading are not very high in this region
recipients of development messages (Mel-
(see table 2).
kote 1991:15±18; Malan 1996:5) in the pre-
Rural respondents tend to prefer radio to
seventies DC era (Melkote 1991; & Malan
the other media. The more urbanised the
1996:5). Rogers was indirectly a proponent
respondents, the more they tend to watch
of DSC thinking, and argued in the 1970s
television as well as listen to radio, but radio
that the dominant top-down paradigm of
still has a larger audience than television
development had passed, and should be
among respondents. Since radio listeners
replaced by self-development, which im-
form such a large group of the population, it
plied a new role for communication in the
may lead to information campaigns making
development process (cf Malan 1996:10).
extensive use of radio in rural areas. From
Servaes (1995:46±47) argues that the
these findings it is evident, however, that
central role of cultural identity, empower-
special attention needs to be given to this
ment and participatory communication is
group, since the medium of radio has
emphasised in the participatory/organic
limitations with regards to explaining de-
DSC approach. Ascroft and Masilela (in
tailed information such as traffic rules.
Melkote 1991:262±263) describe DSC
Respondents in all three studies indicated
further as horizontal knowledge sharing to
that they would prefer a participatory ap-
create a climate of mutual understanding
proach to information received via radio.
between benefactors and beneficiaries,
The reason is that individual group members
which take place at grassroots level using
can voice their opinions and ask questions
`little' media, which include traditional me-
in a small-group setting, implying participa-
dia as well as group and interpersonal
tion in the information-sharing stage of the
communication. Unesco translates the DSC
discussion. The development support com-
paradigm to self-management, access and
munication (DSC) approach provides for
participation in the communication process.
such participation, and places the emphasis
Melkote (1991:270) argues that this will
on the `little' and personal media, instead of
necessarily imply a change in the power
the mass media.
structure ± from top-down to a dialogical
3 DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT process. This means that in an authoritarian
COMMUNICATION (DSC) AND agent-community relationship the develop-
COMMUNICATION IN THE SMALL ing agent will lose power to the community.
GROUP CONTEXT Communication in the new approach could
help in the development of a community's
In the 1970s a period of pessimism replaced cultural identity, act as a vehicle for people's
Table 2
Claimed mass media attendance
Radio TV Newspaper Magazine

Population Development Survey 39 26 14 14
Traffic Rule Survey 81 42 19 13
Masakhane Roadshow Survey 47 57 30 33
Average 55 40 20 20
COM306-D/1 239
self-expression, or serve as a tool for
diagnosis of a community's problems
around 36 per cent indicated that they think
radio would be a good medium to be used. Write your own
(Melkote 1991:270). Television is rated slightly lower in impor-
tance than radio (25 per cent) while news-
notes
papers and magazines are both valued
3.1 Incorporation of DC elements into
around 10 per cent (see table 3). These
a DSC framework
percentages are supported by other studies
Malan (1996:14) points out that the dis- (cf Mersham & Hooyberg 1996 Behrens,
credited older DC approach has been de- Hooyberg, Manzini, Mersham, Mthembu &
scribed as `top-down, one-way, mass Nxumalo 1991).
communication, big media, high tech, inter- The Masakhane campaign was completed
national, Westernised, Eurocentric, non- in the township of Esikhawini, the traffic-
African, anti-traditional, academic, (post) rule survey in the town of Empangeni, and
modernist, product- and profit-centred, im- the population development interviews in
perialist strategies by Western manipulators townships and the rural villages of Zululand.
to enslave the illiterate and impoverished, It was found that the degree of urbanisation
underdeveloped souls of the Third World!' is linked to the communication medium
This does not necessarily mean that the DC preference. The more rural the area, the
approach should be discarded entirely. higher small-group communication is va-
Malan asks whether large-scale develop- lued among respondents. People with a
ment in South Africa can be divorced from higher educational level suggested that
mass communication where millions of television should be used in information
people are in need of the most elementary campaigns. Posters, advertisements in taxis,
information. He suggests that the negative brochures, competitions and newspapers
aspects of the DC approach can be used were not recommended by respondents as
constructively in the DSC context. The a means of carrying development informa-
implication is that in large-scale develop- tion.
ment programmes the mass media may be In the survey undertaken for population
used in conjunction with the `little' media as development it was found that although
proposed by DSC. The findings of the three rural people have a great desire for more
surveys support this argument. information about developmental issues,
The three data sets point out that they would like to have an opportunity to
although radio is greatly supported in the discuss these issues, provided that a knowl-
survey areas, it is not the preferred medium edgeable person, for example a clinic sister,
for information campaigns in rural areas. The facilitates these discussions. The same sur-
reason for the relatively unpopular status vey indicated that older women with a high
given to it by the respondents is that it level of formal education attend small-group
implies a one-way process of communica- meetings arranged for population develop-
tion. A characteristic of such communica- ment more regularly than younger women.
tion campaigns is that they are often Most respondents learned about the cam-
manipulative and intolerant, using persua- paign via other people, usually friends and
sive communication techniques (cf Rens- family or a community leader. The higher the
burg & Angelopulo 1996). educational level, the less reliant respon-
The communication approach suggested dents were on interpersonal channels of
by the majority of the respondents in all communication. It was also found that more
three surveys is in line with DSC and the females than males indicated that they
participatory approach. Respondents indi- would prefer information in the small-group
cated that they enjoyed the small-group context.
context, and would like to discuss new These findings support the DSC approach
information to ensure that they understand that focuses on small media and group and
it, and express their ideas, raise problems interpersonal communication. Ascroft and
and pose possible solutions. Jamieson Masilela (in Malan 1991:243±244) suggest
(1991:33) calls this the capacity to respond that traditional knowledge and new (devel-
to information. This will give beneficiaries of opmental) information could be discussed
the development process an opportunity for (and integrated) in a small-group setting.
authentic individual self-expression, spon- The development facilitator would therefore
taneity, truthfulness to themselves and en- not impose new ideas on the tradition and
hancement of the wellbeing of the self, value system of participants of discussion
which may eventually lead to self-respect groups, but would be sensitive to the
and hope. traditional knowledge of participants. Such
All three studies indicated clearly that a facilitator would encourage the discussion
respondents would prefer and value face- process, helping participants to find their
to-face communication in the small-group own solutions to problems they may experi-
context (52 per cent of respondents). Only ence.
240
Table 3
Write your own
Media suggested for development campaigns
notes
Radio TV Newspaper Magazine Face-to-face
% % % % %
Masakhane 27 34 11 3 42
Traffic 54 23 13 9 50
Population
development 29 19 Ð Ð 63
Average 36 25 12 6 52
4 MARKET SEGMENTATION It is recommended that age rather than

gender should be the dividing factor for the
Although market segmentation developed
younger people, although a strong polarisa-
from the field of the mass media, using this
tion between the older and younger respon-
technique in the development process may
dents is evident. There is a great difference
prove fruitful when small discussion groups
in perceptions between men younger than
are formed by people who embrace the same
35 and those older than 35. Both of these
interests, match similar profiles, are influ-
groups can once again be subdivided into a
enced by the same things and have the same
more traditional group, usually with little or
requirements and problems. This will usually
no formal schooling, and a modern group
happen spontaneously in a big community,
with a higher formal educational level. There
but the development facilitator may use this
is also a difference in perceptions between
technique to speed up the natural process.
younger and older females, but it is not as
This is in line with Jamieson (1991:33),
vast as between the male groups. With
who argues for the utilisation of existing
careful planning, the women above twenty
systems of organisation and communication
could be grouped with the older females
in a community to enhance development.
(40±49). Males aged 20±29 are close to
The findings of the three surveys, espe-
females aged 14±19 in terms of issues such
cially the population development study (cf
as family size and other population devel-
Burger 1997), identified homogeneous
opment issues. Older males and females'
groups with a similar profile in terms of
perceptions differ vastly and cannot be
interest in social issues.
grouped together. Males 20±29 and 30±
According to these findings, the commu-
35/39 could also be combined if the young
nity in question could be divided so that
females are not in the same group (see table
younger people, older women and older
4).
men comprised as three separate groups
It was also found that older people,
(see example 1). Alternatively the men can
especially men, would prefer serious matters
be divided into an older and a younger
to be discussed in a serious way, and not be
group, and women of all ages may then be
combined with entertainment. A large per-
grouped together (see example 2).
centage of the respondents indicated that
they would like to receive information about
Table 4 population development in a small-group
Market segmentation examples setting, where learning and the passing on
of information could take place in a partici-
patory process.
Market segmentation example 1
Market segmentation may therefore be
. Males 14±29/35 and females 14±24 employed on the basis of table 4 for
. Males 30/35±49 developmental information in these rural
. Females 25±49 areas. The findings of this survey suggest
that age, particularly gender along educa-
tional levels, should be used in the compo-
sition of small discussion groups.
Market segmentation example 2
5 CONCLUSION
. Males 14±29/35
. Males 30/35±49 The paradigm shift from top-down commu-
. Females 14±24 nication towards participatory communica-
. Females 25±49 tion is made not only in the field of
development support communication, but
COM306-D/1 241
also in advertising, whereby advertising
companies in poor and Third World coun-
information sharing. The second phase of
an information campaign should therefore Write your own
tries are rediscovering ideas discarded in
First World advertising. These communica-
contain detailed development information in
small-group discussions led by a knowl-
notes
tion techniques include word-of-mouth edgeable person in the specific development
advertising (stokvels and other community field.
activities), TNT (Township Network Tele- Sharing developmental information
graph) and zululation (rural communities through a face-to-face communication pro-
singing brand names after the compere of a cess might not be cost-effective in a nation-
roadshow). Such techniques make use of wide project, but it is recommended for
audience participation and are particularly smaller initiatives. Because of financial con-
relevant for groups with a lower educational straints, the communication media for large-
level (Green & Lascaris 1990:45±50). For scale projects may include large-group
the younger people, these communication interpersonal communication instead of
messages are often packaged with enter- small-group discussions. This should be
tainment (edu-tainment). used in combination with the mass media.
The three surveys indicated that an over- Large-group interpersonal media may in-
whelming number of respondents suggested clude community meetings, mass rallies,
that they want to receive developmental community marches and speeches at sports
information. There is also great support for meetings, funerals, weddings and other
such information to be transmitted by a mass gatherings.
credible and knowledgeable person in a When using small-group communication
small-group setting. Using the mass media as a strategy in development campaigns,
on its own is therefore not sufficient for an careful market segmentation can play an
information campaign, because at best it can important role in the project's ultimate
serve as a medium for a general awareness success. In both phases of the campaign
campaign. Radio programmes using the market segmentation should be considered
mass media should therefore aim at includ- in order to create different messages for the
ing community leaders and other prominent various gender and age groups. Various
opinion leaders in the community. Since all radio programmes could be used for this
three studies indicated that music plays an purpose in the general awareness campaign.
important role in the learning process, radio The composition of small group discussion
programmes should include songs with a and workshop sessions should also be done
clear educational or informational basis. by dividing age and especially gender
Such an awareness campaign should run groups.
for a substantial time on the radio, giving The DSC approach thus argues for a
community opinion leaders an opportunity development approach that is sensitive to
to become aware of the new information the needs of the beneficiary. In such a
and spread the message to people with participatory process the beneficiaries and
whom they have contact and set the agenda development facilitators enter into a dialo-
for further informal discussions. This first gue. Information campaigns planned from
phase of the campaign should therefore this perspective should first create an
focus on general awareness and contain awareness about a specific issue and then
general information regarding developmen- provide detailed information, giving com-
tal issues. munities and individuals an opportunity to
Although respondents listen to radio, they take informed decisions that may improve
also indicated that they prefer face-to-face the quality of their lives. This should take
communication in a small-group setting to place in a small-group setting. The concept
radio for development information. This of market segmentation may be adapted to
preference is in line with DSC thinking, compose such small groups.
because it allows for participation and
242
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Write your own
Behrens, M, Hooyberg, V, Manzini, B, Mersham, G M, Mthembu, Z, & Nxumalo, S 1991. Recreation
activities and facilities in Ngwelezane, Nseleni and Esikhawini. Department of Communication notes
Science Survey Report. KwaDlangezwa: University of Zululand.
Burger, K M 1995. Report on the Masakhane I Roadshow held at KwaDiye Store in Esikhawini.
KwaDlangezwa: University of Zululand.
Burger, K M 1996. Pedestrians' perceptions of basic traffic rules: an investigation at the traffic light
intersection Weightman/Main Road, Empangeni. Consultancy report for the Borough of
Empangeni. KwaDlangezwa: University of Zululand.
Burger, K M 1997. A communication strategy for development initiatives with special reference to a
population development case study in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal. Unpublished Masters
Dissertation. KwaDlangezwa: University of Zululand.
Casmir, F L (ed) 1991. Communication in development. Norwood: Ablex.
Eilers, F & Oepen, M 1991. Communication and development: mainstream and off-stream perspectives ±
a German view. In Casmir, F L, (ed) 1991. Communication in development. Norwood: Ablex.
Green, N & Lascaris, R 1990. Communication in the Third World. Cape Town: Tafelberg.
Greenacre, M J 1993. Correspondence analysis in practice. London: Academic Press.
Groenewald, H J 1992. Ontwikkelingskommunikasie: die rol van die massamedia. Ecquid Novi,
13(1):59±78.
Jamieson, N L 1991. Communication and the new paradigm for development. In Casmir, F L (ed) 1991.
Communication in development. Norwood: Ablex.
Lerner, D 1958. The passing of traditional society. Glencoe: The Free Press.
Malan, C 1996. Towards a research framework for development support communication within a
multicultural context. Ekus: Working Papers Series. Development Support Communication
(Descom) Position Paper No 1 Pretoria: HSRC.
Melkote, S R 1991. Communication for development in the Third World: theory and practice. Sage: New
Delhi.
Mersham, G M & Hooyberg, V 1996. Community radio: the case of Reach Out Radio in KwaZulu-Natal.
Communicatio, 22(1):18±26.
Mowlana, H & Wilson, L J 1990. The passing of modernity: communication and the transformation of
society. New York: Longman.
Rensburg, R & Angelopulo, G C 1996. Effective communication campaigns. Johannesburg: Interna-
tional Thompson Publishing (Southern Africa).
Rogers, E M (ed) 1976a. Communication and development: critical perspectives. Beverly Hills: Sage.
Servaes, J 1991. Toward a new perspective for communication and development. In Casmir, F L (ed)
1991. Communication in development. Norwood: Ablex.
Servaes, J 1995. Development communication ± for whom and for what? Communicatio, 21(1):39±49.
Stevenson, R L 1988. Communication, development and the Third World: the global politics of
information. New York: Longman.
COM306-D/1 243
OUR COMMENTS
Our comments are In order to follow our comments below, we refer to the section number in the
based on the article, followed by the number of the paragraph. For example, if we comment
executive on section 1, paragraph 2,2 our comments will apply to the paragraph that
summary of begins with this sentence:
evaluation ``Since the World War II two main approaches to the role of communi-
criteria, at the end cation in development have been popular.''
of unit 7, in the
prescribed book (1) Thematic evaluation
A thematic evaluation includes an evaluation of the problem criteria, the
literature review and theoretical aspects.
Although an explicit problem statement, or subproblems are not spelled
out in this article, the article does imply that a number of research prob-
lems were investigated. This can be seen in the assumptions made, which
include the following:
section 1, & Messages related to development communication should be created by
paragraph 2 the developing communities themselves.
section 1, & Small-group communication provides the ideal platform for the creation
paragraph 3 of such messages.
& Small-group communication should form an important part of in-
formation campaigns in rural areas.
section 2.1, & The mass media does not allow for participation and the formulation of
paragraph 1 (development) messages.
section 2.1, Although not identified as subproblems, we can also interpret the reported
paragraphs 4±7 findings as indications of subproblems, namely:
& How are radio, television and newspapers rated by respondents as `à
good source of information for information campaigns''? (and)
& Is there a correlation between different claimed mass-media
attendance and ``perceptions of traffic rules''?
section 3.1, & Is there a correlation between the degree of urbanisation of
paragraph 5 respondents and their preference for a communication medium?
& Is there a correlation between respondents' level of education and their
preference for a communication medium?
When considering the other problem criteria:
& No subproblems are clearly identified.
& The goal (applied research) and objectives (exploratory/descriptive) are
not specified.
& Research hypotheses or research questions are not formulated.
& Consequently, the main research problem, subproblems, assumptions
are not reflected in hypotheses or research questions.
The selection of the problem area and the way in which this research
relates to communication as a science are explained in the literature re-
view.
view
244
section 1, These paragraphs trace the approaches to development communication,
paragraphs 1 & 2; from the old top-down approach to the approach called ``development
section 2, support communication''. This literature review identifies the assump-
paragraphs 1±4, tions on which these approaches were/are based, and the reasons why the
section 3 authoritarian (top-down) approach failed. This review demonstrates that
the writer has adequately covered the literature which is relevant to the
problem area. When considering the sources that are acknowledged at the
end of the article, the author uses both primary and secondary sources.
Primary sources, such as Everett Rogers, Daniel Lerner and Jan Servaes,
are well-known authorities in the field of development communication.
When we try to understand the link between the literature review and the
research design, the following, however, are not clear:
& how the reported surveys (methodology) relates to existing literature in
development communication research
& which research questions or hypotheses are developed on the basis of
the literature
When considering the theoretical aspects, one of the important questions

that we need to ask is:
Were the most important theoretical constructs (key concepts)
clearly defined and were constructs clarified by means of operational
definitions?
Since the article did not contain any operational definitions, we have to
take a closer look as the theoretical terms used and whether they were
used consistently.
section 2.1, The objective refers to investigating pedestrians' perceptions of traffic
paragraph 1 rules in relation to their confidence (or lack of confidence) in the mass
versus paragraphs media. Yet in subsequent paragraphs the findings are reported with re-
4±7 ference to respondents':
& behaviour when crossing a traffic-light intersection
& educational level
& knowledge about traffic rules
& levels of confidence as pedestrians
Since these abstract concepts are not defined (theoretically or opera-

tionally), this has implications for the methodological evaluation, because
it is not clear how these abstract concepts were measured.
section 2.1, Furthermore, it is reported that respondents (radio listeners) prefer the
paragraph 2; radio as a good source of information for `ìnformation campaigns''; and
section 2.2, respondents in all three surveys prefer a ``participatory approach''. A
paragraph 3 question that arises is: how were the meanings of constructs such as
`ìnformation campaign'' and ``participatory approach'' conveyed to res-
pondents?
section 1, Notwithstanding the above criticism, the researcher's theoretical orien-

paragraph 2 tation is quite clear, namely ``that messages should be created by the
developing community themselves with the assistance of a development
facilitator''. The combination of deductive and inductive forms or reason-
ing are also appropriate to the study. Moving from an overview of the mass
COM306-D/1 245
media as a source of information to a breakdown and analysis of specific
media preferences illustrates deductive reasoning.
section 4 Interpreting responses in relation to demographic variables and synthe-

sising these responses in groups (based on age) to create market seg-
mentation, is an example of an inductive form of reasoning.
(2) Methodological evaluation

A methodological evaluation includes an evaluation of the research de-
sign, and an evaluation of how the data were collected and analysed.
As far as the research design is concerned, we cannot find clear answers
to the following questions:
& Is the quantitative/qualitative nature of the research design
appropriate for studying the problem (eg the measuring instruments
used, the characteristics and number of the population and the type of
sample drawn)?
& What are the goal and objectives of the study?
& Is the objective of the research exploratory, descriptive and/or
explanatory?
& Are the procedures used in conducting the research reported?
& Is the research problem formulated in an unbiased manner?
& Were there any threats to the internal validity of the research design
(eg the effects of history, mortality, testing, instrumentation or
maturation)?
& If there were threats to the internal validity of the research, how were
they controlled?
& Is the research design appropriate for achieving the goal of the
research study?
& Were rival hypotheses considered in the design?
& Did the researcher have to make any compromises or changes to the
research design as a result of organisational, political, financial or
personal constraints?
section 1, To assess the external validity of the research, we have to consider the
paragraph 3 representativeness of the sample; the internal validity of the design; and
replication. Because these three issues (sampling, internal validity and
replication) are not clearly reported, we can question the external validity
of the research. However, threats to the external validity (of the research
design) are dealt with by the indication that ``the results cannot be ge-
neralised to a larger population''.
The second component of a methodological evaluation is the evaluation of
the collection of data.
data
section 1, To support her adoption of a participatory approach to development and to
paragraph 3 show that she meets the objectives of DSC (development support com-
munication), the author refers to the findings of three independent sur-
veys conducted in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal. It is not clear when these
surveys were conducted, whether they were cross-sectional or long-
itudinal surveys, or by whom they were conducted. Nor is it clear Ð when
reading section 1 Ð whether these three surveys formed part of this
study, or whether this study is a replication of one or all three surveys.
246
section 1, In view of the above comments, it is not clear whether the reported
paragraph 4 findings belong to the past, or form part of this study. This lack of clarity
could also be due to the reference made to ``case study'' in the `Àbstract''
at the beginning of the article. A case study is not necessarily the same as
a survey.
section 2.1, However, it is only when reading this section that it becomes apparent
paragraph 1 that the three surveys mentioned above are, in fact, part of this study.
section 1, Although mention is made of `ìnterviews' (in the third survey), it is un-
paragraph 3 clear what type of measuring instruments were used; whether an isiZulu-
speaking interviewer was used; whether a translator was used, or how the
reliability and validity of either the interviews or translations were tested.
The author receives credit for recording this limitation, which does not
minimise the trends that were found: `Àlthough the sample size in all
three studies was fairly large, the results cannot be generalised to a larger
population''.
However, we have to be critical of the fact that the sampling method is not
mentioned, nor is any indication given of the accuracy or level of confi-
dence of the type of sample and sample size (discussed in unit 3 in the
prescribed book) Ð what does a ``fairly large'' sample mean? Although it
is clear that individuals were used as units of analysis and that their
responses (or observations of actual behaviour?) were collected as primary
data, we cannot answer the following questions:
& Was a target or accessible population selected? What population
parameters were applicable? How did these parameters influence the
selection of the data-collection method? (For example a self-
administered questionnaire cannot be used if the population consists of
individuals who are illiterate.)
& Why were these units of analysis selected (sampled)?
& Which type of sample was drawn? Why was this type of sample drawn?
How appropriate was the sampling to the nature of the population
parameters? What was the size of the sample? What sampling error
was tolerated? Were sampling requirements, such as accuracy and
level of confidence, met?
& What time-dimension applied to the research (cross-sectional versus
longitudinal)?
& How relevant was the time-dimension to the goal and objective(s) of
the research?
& Were three surveys (the method) appropriate for investigating the
problem? Since we do not have answers to the questions above, we
cannot evaluate whether focus-group interviews would have been
more appropriate.
& What measuring instruments were used? Was the measuring
instrument appropriate when considering the goal, nature of the
problem and population parameters? Was the questionnaire or
interview schedule in English and understood by respondents whose
first language is isiZulu? Do the test items (eg questions and
statements in a questionnaire) relate to, and actually investigate, the
stated hypothesis(-es) or research question(s)? Do these items meet
ethical and scientific requirements? (For example, do these items
contain mistakes such as double-barrelled statements, or leading
questions?)
COM306-D/1 247
& Was the measuring instrument tested for reliability and validity? If
such tests were not undertaken, what are the ethical implications?
& How did the researcher obtain access to the units of analysis?
& How were errors that could have been caused by the researcher's lack
of objectivity or sources' lack of reliability avoided?
& How was interviewer bias and judgment controlled?
& If research assistants (eg a team of interviewers) were used, how were
they trained?
The third component of a methodological evaluation focuses on data

analysis.
section 2.1, table We commented above about the absence of theoretical definitions and
1 and table 2 how this influences the methodological evaluation. If we consider the
information summarised in Table 1 and Table 2, it is clear that radio
listeners show greater confidence in radio as a good source of information
(58%) and that radio has the largest claimed media attendance. However,
the value of these figures is considerably weakened by the fact that no
indication is given of how ``confidence'' or ``claimed media attendance''
was measured.
section 2.1, It appears as if the purpose of including of Table 1 was to support the
table 1 finding (radio listeners' preference for radio). However, when considering
Table 1, two questions arise, neither of which are answered:
& What were the other media preferences of the 63% television viewers
who did not select television as a good source of information?
& What were the other media preferences of the 70% of the newspaper
readers who did not select newspapers as a good source of
information?
Tables 1±4 On the basis of Tables 1±4, we can deduce that respondents' responses
were coded according to their age, gender and educational levels; the
following categories of media were also used: radio, television, newspa-
pers, magazines and face-to-face communication. Whether it is feasible to
draw a comparison among the three surveys, is impossible to judge, be-
cause we do not know the population parameters or whether the samples
were comparable.
Specific questions which we cannot answer relate to the collection of data,
and include the following:
& What reliability and validity tests were applied during data analysis? (If
these tests were not undertaken, what were the implications for the
reliability and validity of the findings?)
section 1, & Were the statistical analyses used suitable? Reference is made to ``[t]he
paragraph 3 statistical method employed to analyse the three data sets was cor-
respondence analysis''. Without any further explanation of what
``correspondence analysis'' entails, it is difficult to determine the re-
levance of this statistical method and we would have to consult the
source reference given. Until the meaning of ``correspondence analy-
sis'' is determined, it is not clear whether statistical information (eg
standard deviations and sample sizes, statistical significance, or the
magnitude of relationships) should have been reported also.
248
(3) Contextual evaluation
A contextual evaluation focuses on the utility, feasibility, propriety and
generalisability of a research study. We have already commented on the
fact that the research findings cannot be generalised to a wider commu-
nity (population). However, the study does meet the other three require-
ments:
& Utility Ð the findings and conclusions can be used to solve practical
communication and development problems.
& Feasibility Ð the findings are realistic and can be applied in practice.
section 4, & Propriety Ð the discussion about market segmentation and sensitivity
paragraphs 3±6 shown to grouping respondents in future programmes (according to
age and educational levels) indicates that the research takes human
welfare into consideration.
In addition to these four components (utility, feasibility, propriety and
generalisability) let us also consider and answer the questions asked in
section 7.4 in the prescribed book.
section 1, & The institutions which initiated or which were involved in these three
paragraph 3 surveys are acknowledged as being: the Chief Directorate: Population
Development: Department of Welfare and Population Development;
the Borough of Empangeni; and Masakhane I Roadshow.
& The problem(s) appear to have been researchable, with the
acknowledgement that the findings cannot be generalised.
& No political or institution constraints are reported to have been
evident.
& Although the rural/urban nature of geographic areas and language
spoken by respondents are described, other conditions (eg
socioeconomic) were not specifically mentioned.
& The problem(s) researched are relevant at the time when they were
researched and at the time of the publication.
& The report does represent an understanding of the current thinking on
development communication and participatory face-to-face
interaction.
& The time, money, energy and people involved are not specified, but we
can assume that the study was cost effective.
& There are no signs of bias on the part of the researcher (eg based on the
researcher's age, gender, culture, language ability or personal
interests). We know that this article is based on a paper delivered at an
international symposium and the author's master's dissertation.
& We have to assume that the findings will be used by those who
initiated the research and those who initiate any future projects
undertaken to promote reconstruction and population development.
(4) Evaluation in terms of presentational criteria and credibility

We have already commented on limitations, statistics and collecting pri-
mary data above, so we will not evaluate these aspects of the research
again.
Title
At first glance, the title appears to be an appropriate summary of the
article. It suggests that the article will deal with researching the use or
COM306-D/1 249
effectiveness of using participatory small-group communication (as a
medium for information campaigns in KwaZulu-Natal); however, in fact,
this is not what the research is about. Although the title (indirectly) refers
to one of the problems, it does not reflect specific variables, the research
method, the intervention or actions, and/or anticipated outcome.
Introduction
Although the introduction does not use ``labels'' such as ``background
nature of the problem'' or ``need for the research'', such information is
given in the introduction.
Cohesiveness of the organisation of the report

As far as the content presented in each section is concerned, the article is
structured in a logical manner and, because the literature reviews provide
links between what is investigated and the findings, the conceptual in-
tegration is obtained by using both inductive and deductive forms of
reasoning.
The following is an outline of the article
Abstract:
A summary of the communication field to which the article applies,
together with findings.
1 Introduction:
Historical background.
Who initiated the surveys and where they were conducted.
2 Development communication (DC) and the mass media:
Literature survey
2.1 Traffic-rule knowledge of pedestrians and their mass media
preference: Discussion of findings.
2.2 Mass media attendance: Discussion of findings.
3 Development support communication (DSC) and communication in
the small group context:
Literature survey
3.1 Incorporation of DC elements into a DSC framework: Discussion
of findings.
4 Market segmentation:
Discussion of findings
5 Conclusion
Bibliography (sources consulted)
Although specific gaps in existing literature about development support

communication are not identified, the literature overview does contain
critique of the older, ``top-down'' approach.
Register
The article is presented in an objective and formal style. It is worth noting
what kind of phrases are used: the author avoids using personal types of
250
address, such as `Ì found that ...'', or `ìn my opinion .....''. In fact, in
modern South African English, such phrases are regarded as perfectly
acceptable and preferable to the third voice and the passive voice. The
only thing to bear in mind, however, is that the researcher must sub-
stantiate what he or she says. Opinion alone is simply not enough in a
research report. For example:
section 2.1, & ``The findings of a recent survey ... support the argument that ...'';
paragraph 1
section 2.2, & ``Respondents in all three studies indicated that ...'';
paragraph 3
section 3, & ``Servaes (1995:46±47) argues that ...'';
paragraph 3
section 3.1, & ``Malan (1996:14) points out that ...'';
paragraph 1
section 3.1, & ``The three data sets point out that ...''
paragraph 2
section 3.1, & ``The communication approach suggested by the majority of the res-
paragraph 3 pondents in all three surveys is ...''
section 4, & ``The findings of the three surveys ... identified ...''
paragraph 2
Technical requirements
The article complies with technical requirements, such as acknowledging
sources in the reference list, and presenting citations and tables in a
uniform style. The tables are also clear and understandable.
Objectiveness and accuracy

The information is presented in an objective style and there are no signs of
bias, concealment, distortion or fabrication. However, the author fails to
explicitly state the rationale for analytical procedures followed in the re-
search study.
The presentation of findings

The findings are reported in numerical terms (as percentages), which
makes it easier to compare differences (eg between respondents' preferred
medium of communication). However, the following phrases tend to
hamper the objectivity (and accuracy), because they are abstract terms
that cannot be converted into precise percentages:
section 4, & `À large percentage of the respondents indicated that ...''
paragraph 5
section 5, & ``... an overwhelming number of respondents suggested that ...''
paragraph 2
Conclusions
There are no signs that the researcher's gender and/or cultural and social
background skewed the interpretation of results. In fact, the conclusions
drawn are substantiated by both the findings of the surveys conducted,
and the arguments contained in the latest theoretical approach to parti-
cipatory communication, in development support communication and
advertising research.
COM306-D/1 251
7.4 Conclusion
Although we indicated in the introduction that this study unit represents the last step in
the research process, this is only partially true. If you have conducted research, you
may have solved a communication problem; and, by publishing your research, you will
hopefully contribute to existing knowledge. However, as research and development is
an ongoing process, the research report is obviously not the end of the matter. At least
some of the findings and conclusions should be applied in practice and the applications
followed up by future researchers.
Having applied the evaluation criteria (discussed in unit 7, in the prescribed book) to a
critique of an article, you will appreciate that even articles published in accredited
journal are open to criticism Ð this is part of the scientific method.
Based on our comments above in section 7.3, we would suggest that the article be
revised and that the author add an accurate account of the methodological procedures
followed, including sampling procedures, the collection of data and the interpretation of
data.
Do you agree with our evaluation?
In defence of our colleague, the author of the article, we have to add that the kind of
shortcomings which we commented on in section 7.3 are often identified when an
extensive research has to be reported in four or five pages. Academic journals are
known to limit the maximum number of words for an article, which forces researchers
to be selective about what to include in such articles. This article is based on a paper
delivered at an international symposium, and a master's dissertation. So although we
do not apologise for our critique, we appreciate that the shortcomings would have
been addressed in the author's dissertation.
The last comment also serves to illustrate the fact that a report in the form of a journal
article can be treated as a secondary source, if it is based on selective extracts, or an
overview. When this occurs, you should make every attempt to consult the primary
source Ð in this case, the actual dissertation.
In study unit 1 you were reminded that science is a public enterprise, which means that
we have to make our research undertakings and findings freely available to other
researchers. To state that ``scientific research is public'' also implies that our critical
evaluation is (or should be) open to public review. In the case of our evaluation of the
article by Mariekie Burger who would be more appropriate to review our evaluation
than the author herself? We regarded it our ethical responsibility to approach her for
her response, which we reprint below (freely translated from Afrikaans).
``The criticism presented in this study guide is well-founded and valid if this article is
read as an attempt to be a report of a qualitative field study. Unfortunately, the
inappropriate reference to case study in the summary that precedes the article, gave
a false impression.
The purpose of the article was not to be a report of a qualitative investigation or
investigations and therefore all the explanations related to the research
252
methodology and statistical processing of data are lacking. The purpose of the article
was to link that which exists theoretically in the literature about development
communication (DC) and development support communication (DSC) with certain
tendencies which became evident in different quantitative research studies, namely
that radio is not necessarily the best communication medium to convey
development information in rural areas, but that face-to-face communication is
regarded to be a more effective medium in certain cases (as in specific rural areas in
Zululand [KwaZulu-Natal])'' Ð translated from Afrikaans (M Burger)
In conclusion, you are again encouraged to evaluate the achievement of your learning
outcomes for this study unit, and in fact one of the learning outcomes for the Module
as a whole, by following the guide given at the end of unit 7 in the prescribed book.
If you are majoring in Communication, then this is in all likelihood one of your last
modules to be completed for the BA degree or BBA degree. We would therefore like
to take the opportunity to wish you every success in your academic career and look
forward to meeting you as a postgraduate student.
COM306-D/1 253
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Study unit 1: Quantitative and qualitative approaches to

Study unit 2: Steps in the research process 16

Study unit 3: Data collection: sampling, measuring, questioning and

Study unit 4: Procedures for applying a research design and

Study unit 5: Research of advertising, mass-media audiences and

Study unit 6: Organisational and development communication

Study unit 7: The research report 231

SOURCES CONSULTED 254

Welcome to the Department of Communication.

The topic of this module is communication research.

In this introduction, we focus on the following

TEACHING AIMS AND LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THIS

We assume that you have already completed an introductory module on Research in

TEACHING AIMS OF THIS STUDY GUIDE

STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY GUIDE

Study-read Study-read the methods which we use to acquire knowledge Ð

1.3 A conceptual model of assumptions

Study-read Study-read the following statements, which relate to the different

1.4 Quantitative versus qualitative research approaches

Study-read Study-read the following statements/views/assumptions and decide

In view of our above comments, it is important to note that, although there is a

1.5 An application of quantitative and qualitative approaches

After having applied some of these assumptions to research into changes in

Study-read A research study which is based on a quantitative approach will be based

Meaning is measured (in quantitative terms) by means of hypotheses (or re-

Figure 2.1 gives a graphic summary of the steps.

2.2 Step 1: Identification and analysis of the problem

the problem Goals

Communication researchers find themselves in diverse occupational sectors, such as

Study-read Study-read the terms/phrases listed numerically in the left-hand

Study-read Carefully consider the research goals and objectives listed

Study-read section Study-read the examples of communication research problems listed

Examples of main Fill in your Characteristics contained in the

Subproblems must be logically linked to underlying assumptions. In Activity 4 you are

Study-read Study-read the subproblems that are formulated numerically in the

2.3 Step 2: Reviewing the literature

The following are examples of valuable sources:

The following activity asks you to think about certain questions.

(7) What are the shortcomings?

(8) Are the data authentic?

(9) Where will I find this source in future?

2.4 Step 3: Formulating hypotheses or research questions

Identification and analysis

Subproblems Relevant factors

Reviewing the literature

Identify what has been published in the topic

Distinguish primary, secondary, tertiary

Write summaries and do comparisons

Record bibliographic information

Step 3 " Elements

By taking ``temporal regularity '' as an example, we could reformulate it as ``a group of

Study-read Before you can formulate research questions or hypotheses, you

Examples of research studies

Since dichotomous variables are mutually exclusive, we would have to

(4) Independent variables. Independent variables are sometimes called ``ex-

If (A) the decision-making processes in an organisation is based on the principle of