Genral Chemistry مترجمه

8/26/2022
Chem 110
Chapter 1
Matter and Measurements
Prepared by Dr Atef Korchef

Course coordinator
2022-2023
https://www.routledge.com/Understanding-General-
Chemistry/Korchef/p/book/9781032189147
1
to 4 66 6
1
At await
case
a 4
Matter
• Ht is the study of matter and the changes that matter undergoes
Chemistry
• t
Matter is defined as anything that has a mass
and is made up of particles.
ish
and occupies space (volume)
• iv of w
States Matter
– Solid
• particles aimed
a close together in orderly fashion
meetup wow
• little freedom of motion
g and shape
Gi volume
• a solid has a fixed dew
– Liquid
• particles closewww.sw we rigidly
together but not held a in position
• particles are free to movestew
past one another
saw • a liquid sample has a fixed volume but conforms
msn.scto the shape of the part of the container it fills
it – too
Gas
• particles randomlyinmates
spread apart
• particles have completesaw
freedom of movement
Ease • a gas sample assumes both shape and volume of container.
Quai.se.net Dr Atef Korchef 2022-2023
2
1
8/26/2022
aim
Classification of Matter
Imma
u
6
se on Esa m
train
Dr Atef Korchef 2022-2023 3
s'd
Substances
at cannot www.t
•
Element
j
be separated into simpler substances by chemical
even iron (Fe), oxygen (O), magnesium (Mg),
means. Examples:
oh
Em
hydrogen (H), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P)
at is formed
• Compound It when two or more elements chemically Ea
w combined
in definite ratios.
y
Examples:y salt ont(NaCl), water H2O, carbon dioxide CO2, glucose
C6H12O6, magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
• The properties of the compounds are different from the properties of their
o.ws.a wiwss
elements
wi
to HW6jeWiw.c.su
• Compounds can be separated into their elements by chemical means
such as:
Cbi tu
Heat decomposition of mercuric oxide (HgO)
w5 Jo.w HgO(sd) Hg(lq) + ½ O2(g)
stat
Electrolysis of water :
H2O(lq) H2(g) + 1/2O2(g)
4
Dr Atef Korchef 2022-2023
2
8/26/2022
G
Mixtures
• Mixture: physicalHIcombination of two or more pure substances
III AW – Substances retain distinct identities
LIES • I of Mixtures
Types
– Homogeneous Mixtures : A homogeneous mixture is one in which the
a
components are uniformly distributed. The composition of the mixture is
Imma
uniform throughout rat
• Example: sugar I dissolved
um in water,
so s'd
air, seawater, of NaOH
t.sn Plasma,
solution (and all solutions), …
Jk is composed dice
✓ Solution Of of the soluteya and the solvent.
a
i A at Solute: the substance exists in the smallest amount
GM as Solvent: the substance exists in the largest amount.
Example: in NaCl solution, NaCl (sd) is the solute and
water H2O is the solvent.
is is the maximum
✓ Solubility of.mn
quantity (amount) of the solute cm in a
six that will dissolve
wants given amount of the solvent, at a given temperature. Solubility depends on it.co.th
mama temperature.
Example: The solubility of sugar in water at 20 oC is 2040 g/L. 5
Mixtures cam be Separated to their components by different Physical methods
Heterogeneous Mixtures : mixture is made of different substances

that remain physically separate. Heterogeneous mixtures always
aww
have more than one phase (composition is not uniform throughout) ans
• Example: Sugar mixedtowith iron filings, Water and
Q
oil, Blood, ….
a
time
wise
Mixtures can be separated www.ima.ae
to their components by different
i z
physical methods such as filtration and distillation:
É je
seems solid-liquid mixture
➢Filtration: used to separate a heterogeneous
a
Example: mixture of water and sand
y
EE
sw used to resolve
➢Distillation: w a homogenous
am
__
mixture
sad in water, sea water
Example: salt NaCl to
6
3
8/26/2022
on.ws
Properties of matter
twink 25 with or
❑ Chemical properties: The ability of a substance to combine
É into one or more other substances
change
I
Examples: Heat of combustion, Enthalpy of formation, Toxicity.
aglow w missy
Im or
aw that can be observed
❑ Physical properties: Characteristics
measured without changing the composition of the substance
we 45
Examples: Temperature, mass, volume, area, pressure, boiling point.
➢ Intensive properties are properties that do not depend on the amount

of matter
Ed
or boiling point, concentration,
Examples: Temperature, density,
solubility, color
in
➢ Extensive properties are properties that depend on the amount of
matter
Examples: mass, volume, surface area
2ham Dr Atef Korchef 2022-2023

7
iii GO.w.IE
E
116.1
Chemical Change
wit involves
❑ A chemical change g or breaking
me making t chemical
a bonds to
name create new substances. Chemical changes include the following:
is and gaining
• Oxidation reduction (Redox) reactions: loss on of electrons:
cos
The oxidation of iron(II) to iron(III) by hydrogen peroxide in acidic medium
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e-
H2O2 + 2 e- 2OH-
Overall equation: 2Fe2+ + H2O2 + 2H+ 2Fe3+ + 2H2O (Redox reaction)
• Reaction of base and acid (neutralization reaction):

HClsol + NaOHsol H2O lq + NaCl aq
Etat • Heat decomposition: HgO(sd) Hg(lq) + ½ O2 (g)
• Electrolysis of water: H2O(Lq) H2(g) + 1/2O2(g)
• Iron rusting (corrosion): 4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3
owe• Combustion (of ethane C2H6): 2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O
fame• Cellular respiration: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
4
8/26/2022
Physical Change
❑ A physical change alters a substance without changing its
ago
chemical identity.
❑ No new substance is created, no formation of new chemical
Ya bonds during a physical change.

❑ physical changes occur when substances are mixed but
don’t chemically react
• Physical changes include the following:
I
• Phase changes such as vaporization, condensation,
as
y
a
freezing, sublimation, melting and deposition.
Example: HIt2O(lq) upon H2O(g)
e
can • Dissolving sugar and salts in water

I • Mixing sand with water or mixing oil with water
I • crushing
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
and the System International (SI) units
am
❑ Fundamental (basic) quantities cannot be defined in terms of other
physical quantities
Examples:
quantity Length
A
Mass Temperature 119 Time on
Amount of
substance
SI basic unit m
Examples:, kg K (Kelvin) s (second) mol
(meter)
if quantities can be defined in terms of the fundamental physical
❑ Derived
quantities
Examples:
quantity area Volume
II
density Ey
concentration y
Pressure
SI derived m2 m3 kg/m3 mol/m3 Pa (Pascal)
unit
d = m/V P = F/A
10 m: mass and V: volume F: force and A: area
10
5
8/26/2022
8 I at
4 i
SI Prefixes
ion
109
106
103
lot
in
ios
ios
Practice: Convert the following to the desired unit:

9
1 ng = …………g
110
1 g = ………ng
Answer:
1 ng = 10-9 g
1 g = 109 ng
11
0 sb a Wu
10 4 4 M and W
A'S ate
I Ion
k YW
12
12
6
8/26/2022
tf37223
ED1.828 32 82sn40
Practice on temperature conversions
4
118 32
C 104 402
s 40 273 313K
1 87332800
300 K = (300-273) °C =27 °C =(1.8×27)+32 °F= 80.6 °F
1
13
13
depend is quantity.
• Volume is an extensive property. Volume is a derived
The SI derived unit of volume is m3 (meter cubed)
but the unit liter (L) is more commonly used in the laboratory setting.
1m3 = 1000 L 1dm3 = 1L 1cm3 = 1mL
A a a
it
14
14
7
8/26/2022
• Density: Density is an intensive property (does not depend on the

it quantity.
amount of matter). Density is a derived
m mass
d d =
I ay
mu
V
d = density; m = mass and V = volume
– The SI unit for density is kg/m3
I
There are other common units for density such as (g/cm 3 or g/mL, g/L)
(*gas densities are usually expressed in g/L)
Gasask
d s d Is 13.6
❑ Practice: A sample of mercury has a volume of 0.25 L and a mass of 3.4
kg. Calculate the density of mercury in g/cm3.
Answer: non
ÉPÉE
1 L = 1000 cm3, Volume = 0.25 x 1000 = 250 cm3
1 kg = 1000 g, Mass = 3.4 x 1000 = 3400 g
d It 313 13.691
d = m/v = 3400 g/ 250 cm3 = 13.6 g/cm3
15
15
Measurement
• Exact numbers with defined values
– Examples: counting numbers, conversion factors based on definitions
• Inexact numbers obtained by any method other than counting
– Examples: measured values in the laboratory. They have a degree of
uncertainty
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES are used to express the uncertainty of
inexact numbers obtained by measurement
– The last digit in a measured value is an uncertain digit - an estimate
IME 1581 I
6 or 7 cm
6.7 or 6.8 cm
6.75 or 6.76 cm
16
16
8
8/26/2022
Rules to determine the significant figures
❑ Any non-zero digit is significant

Hijabs 3455 cm 4 significant figures (4 SF)
0559616 28.7 cm 3 significant figures (3 SF)
In c im
Ost ❑ Zeros between non-zero digits are significant
Me 12051 m 5 significant figures
25400032 nL 8 significant figures
108.036 cm 6 significant figures
4468 4140 ❑ Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant
0.0058 g 2 significant figures
❑ Zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are significant if a decimal is
present
25.00 mL
30.0 g
op5 significant figures
3 significant figures
❑ Zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant if the decimal
is not present
2500 mL 2 significant figures 17
2.5×102 mL (Scientific notation) 2 significant figures Dr Atef Korchef 2022-2023
17
Seo Simplified Rounding rules

➢ If the number is less than 5 round “down”.
8. 242313 when rounded off to 6 significant figures gives 8. 24231
3. 674 when rounded off to 3 significant figures gives 3. 67
Sea
➢ If the number is greater than 5 round “up”.
3.679 when rounded off to 3 significant figures gives 3.68
12.4997when rounded off to 5 significant figures gives 12.500
aid www.otisi
2291 is ➢ When the first digit dropped is 5, make the preceding digit even
3.305 is rounded off to 3.30 if we need 3 significant figures in
measurement; Note that zero is an even number
18
18
9
8/26/2022
or
Calculations with measured numbers
Es's
❑ Addition and subtraction
The answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal than any
of the original numbers
• Example: 102.50 +
2 digits after
0.231 –
O
12.1 =
O
90.6
3 digits after 1 digit after 1 digit after
decimal point decimal point decimal point decimal point
Calculator answer: 90.631 rounded off to 90.6.
❑ Multiplication and division

The final answer contains the smallest number of significant figures
▪ Example: 1.4 x 8.011 / 5.12 = 2.2
2SF 4 SF 3 SF 2SF
(Limited by 1.4 to 2 significant figures in the answer)
(Calculator answer: 2.1905078125 round to 2.2)
19

19
2.20 0.0111
PRACTICE: Calculate the following to the correct number of significant

figures :
(2.20 - 0.0111)/0.1165 = ?
its ➢ (2.20 - 0.0111) = ? (correct answer: 2.19 (2 decimals))
(2 decimals) (4 decimals) (2 decimals)
2.20
ii 0.01– Calculator answer: 2.1889 2.19 (with 2 decimals)
25 535 ➢ 2.19/0.1165 = ?
3SF 4SF 3SF
– Calculator answer: 18.7982832618 18.8 (3 SF)
(2.20 - 0.0111)/0.1165 = 18.8
20
20
10
8/26/2022
Accuracy and precision

Is
a
❑ Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the accepted
value (or true value).
in 4 ❑ Precision is how closely measurements of the same thing are
i
aimed to one another
Precision
Practice: The true value of a neutralization volume is 12.370 mL.
Describe accuracy and precision for each set of measurements:
Pina • Set A (12.345 mL, 12.346 mL, 12.344 mL) Floor
Precise, not accurate
notPrecise • Set B (12.357 mL, 12.337 mL, 12.393 mL) Not precise, not accurate
t e as
not accurate • Set C (12.369 mL, 12.370 mL, 12.371 mL) Precise and accurate
Explanation:
• The values in set A are close to one another but are not close to the true
value so set A is precise but not accurate.
• The values in set B are not close to one another and are not close to the
true value so set B is neither precise nor accurate
• The values in set C are close to one another and close to the true value so
set C is both precise and accurate. 21
21
Practice on chapter 1
Q1. Glucose is
a) an element b) a compound c) a heterogeneous mixture d) a homogeneous mixture
Q2. The density of water at 20oC is 0.9982 g/mL. Which of the following sets of density measurements is precise
but not accurate?
a) (0.9989, 0.9993, 0.9991) b) (0.9981, 0.9980, 0.9982)
c) (0.9881, 0.9880, 0.9882) d) (0.8989, 0.8993, 0.8991)
Q3. Which of the followings is a derived quantity?
a) Mass b) Volume c) Temperature d) Amount of substance
AQ4. The correct answer to express the arithmetic operation (2.00×0.009)/(9.410-8.0) is

a) 0.014
Q5. Electrolysis of water is
b) 0.01 3 x'i
c) 0.0142
i 2 d) 0.0143
a) a physical change b) a chemical change c) a neutralizationz.ooxo.co

process d) none of these
Q6. The number of significant figures (SF) in 0.0100 is
a) 1 SF. b) 3 SF. c) 4 SF. d) 5 SF.
Q7. A temperature of 173 K, when converted to °C equals
a) 273 °C b) 446 °C c) -100 °C d) 100 °C
Q8. Rounding off 3.1055 to four significant figures results in
a) 3.105 3.100 b) 3.106 c) 3.1057 d) 3.100
91
Q9. 600 nm equals
a) 6 x 10-3 m b) 0.6 µm c) 6 x 10-2 µm d) 6 x 103 m
Q10. Which of the followings is an intensive property?
a) Volume b) Mass c) Amount of substance d) Density
Q11. Which of the followings is the smallest measure of the mass of a substance?
m
a) 6 Mg b) 6 mg c) 6 ng d) 6 µg
22
22
11
8/26/2022
Q12. Determine the number of significant figures in each measurement.
1234586 cm 7 significant figures

131.21 cm 5 significant figures
0.00018 g 2 significant figures
205 m 3 significant figures
100041 m 6 significant figures
30.002 m 5 significant figures
12.00 mL 4 significant figures
3700 mL 2 significant figures
0.0050700 km 5 significant figures
2.145×10-3 m (Scientific notation) 4 significant figures
1.03×104 m (Scientific notation) 3 significant figures
Q13. Convert the following to the desired unit:

a) 1m3 = ………… mL.
b) 1 nL= …………. cm3
Answer:
a) 1m3 = 1000 L = 103 L = 103 × 103 mL = 106 mL.
b) 1 nL= 1 × 10-9 L = 1 × 10-9 ×103 mL = 10-6 mL =10-6 cm3
Q14. A cube of metal has a mass of 4.0 g and a length of 2.0 cm on each side. Calculate
its density.
a) 2.0 g/cm3 b) 0.50 g/cm3 c) 0.20 g/cm3 d) 5.0 g/cm3
V =2×2×2 = 8 cm3; d= m/ V = 4/8 = 0.5 g/cm3
23
23
12
26/08/2022
Chem 110
Chapter 2
Atoms, molecules, Ions and

Moles

Course coordinator
2022-2023
The atomic structure

Atom consists of three subatomic particles:
n PJ e
Protons (p) : have a positive charge (+) p ft
Neutrons (n): are neutral and have a mass slightly greater than that of the protons
t
Electrons (e): have a negative charge (-) and a tiny mass
Most of the atom is empty

Mass of proton ≈ mass of neutron >> mass of electron
Dr ATEF KORCHEF - 2022-23 2
1
26/08/2022
at M a ss Num be r pin
A
X Elem ent
4 A Atom ic Num ber Z
K
Atomic Number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus
Mass Number (A) is the number of protons and neutrons (P + n)
Number of neutrons (n) = Mass Number (A) – Atomic Number (Z)
For neutral atom: Number of protons = Number of electrons

Examples: 6 NCA
Ne
M a ss N u m b e r 12 pyo6
C
M P G
n o . o f (P ) = 6
n o . o f (e ) = 6
A to m ic N u m b e r 6 n o . o f (n ) = 12 - 6 = 6
aces naps non p
197 79 118 197
a A u
79
z
no. of (P) = 79
no. of (e) = 79
no. of (n) = 197 - 79 = 118
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of a given element that differ in the number of neutrons (same
atomic number) e I
Examples:
Hydrogen
Isotopes of hydrogen 1
1H O
2 H
031H
AtomicH
1
D T Deuterium
number
Tritium
Isotopes of carbon
Isotopes of oxygen
4
Dr ATEF KORCHEF - 2022-23
2
26/08/2022
on neutral Atom lost electrons
Ions: Anions and Cations

A neutral atom becomes an ion either by losing electrons (cation) or by gaining
electrons (anion)
Na Na+ + 1e- Cl + 1e- Cl-

Mg Mg2+ + 2e- O + 2e- O2-
Fe Fe3+ + 3e-
Molecules
A molecule is a neutral group of two or more atoms bonded together

that may or may not be the same element.
➢ Homonuclear molecules formed by one type of atoms

Examples: O2 , O3 , H2 , N2 , Cl2 , Br2 , I2 , F2, …
➢ Heteronuclear molecules formed by more than one type of

atoms.
Examples: H2O, NH3 , NaCl , NaOH, CaSO4·2H2O , Na2CO3 , ….
3
26/08/2022
WH EA died
❑ Molecular Formula represents the actual number and types of atoms in a
molecule
Examples: H2 , Cl2 , H2O2 , C6H6 , C6H12O6 , CaCO3, Fe2O3 , CaSO4·2H2O , ….
❑ Empirical or Simplest Formula is the formula that gives only the relative
number of atoms of each type in a molecule (gives rise to the smallest set of whole
numbers of atoms)
Molecular formula = D × (simplest formula)
D means how many times simplest formula repeated to give molecular formula.
D = 1,2,3…
Examples: H2O2 D=2 Empirical formula: HO
C6H12O6 D= 6 Empirical formula: CH2O
C3H6O3 D=3 Empirical formula: CH2O
H2O D= 1 Empirical formula: H2O
❑ Structural Formula is the formula that indicates the attachment of atoms

EYExamples: methane CH4 Ether C2H6O Ethanol C2H6O

7
Mole J se I Atom
The mole
a that contains the same number of
Mole - the amount of a substance
entities as there are atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12.
This amount is 6.022x1023. The number is called Avogadro’s number
jab
and is abbreviated as NA. (NA = 6.022x1023 )
p
079 1631
One mole (1 mol) contains NA = 6.022x1023 entities
6.022mg
entities: atoms (ex: H, C, O, Cl, Ca, Fe, …); molecules (ex: H2, O2, CaCl2, NaOH, …);
ions (ex: H+, Cl-, OH-, SO42-, NH4+, …)
Examples:
• 1 mole of C = 6.022×1023 of C atoms = 12 g of C
• 1 mole of H2O = 6.022×1023 of H2O molecules = 18 g H2O
• 1 mole of NO3- = 6.022×1023 of NO3- ions = 63 g NO3-
8
4
26/08/2022
Q1. 12C, 13C and 14C are called
a) molecules b) compounds c) ions d) isotopes
is aim Q2. The simplest (empirical) formula of glucose C6H12O6 is
a) C6H12 O6 b) C3H4O3 c) CHO d) CH2O
again Q3. Cations form when

a) neutrons are added to or removed from an atom CHOb) electrons are removed from an atom
c) electrons are added to an atom d) all of these
Q4. The formula that indicates the attachment of atoms in a molecule is the
a) structural formula b) ionic formula c) molecular formula d) simplest formula
Q5. Which of the following is a homonuclear molecule?
a) H2O b) CaF2 c) KNO3 d) Cl2
Q6. The atomic number of an element is the number of
a) protons and electrons b) neutrons and electrons c) protons d) protons and neutrons
Q7. The numbers of neutrons (n) and electrons (e-) in radium ion 2+ are
a) 226 n and 88e- b) 138 n and 88 e- c) 138 n and 86 e- d) 226 n and 86 e-

Q8. The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called
a) groups or families b) isotopes c) periods
22 d) ionic compounds
3+
Q9. When the cation Ti gains an electron, it becomes
a) Ti+ b) Ti4+ c) Ti2+ d) Ti-
Q10. One mole of H2O contains
a) NA molecules of H2O b) NA atoms of hydrogen
amiss X
c) 3 molecules of H2O d) 2×NA molecules of oxygen
9
5
Chem 110
Chapter 3
Calculations in Chemistry

Course coordinator
2022-2023
isotopes
massof
all 24
average s1.6610
ag
I amu IN
Atomic mass
Atomic mass (the mass of one atom) is the average mass of all the
je
isotopes of an atom. na ta
• It is commonly expressed in unified atomic mass units (amu)
•1 atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a single carbon-12 atom:
1amu = (1/12) × 12/(6.022 ×1023) = 1/(6.022 ×1023)=1.660x10-24 g
1amu = (1/NA) g = 1.660x10-24 g

inass moiatinass
Atomic
• Hydrogen (H) atom has a mass of 1 amu
__ (C) atom has a mass of 12 amu
• Carbon
O
IT
• Oxygen (O) atom has a mass of 16 amu
The atomic masses of the elements are given in the periodic table of elements.
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 2
2
6612
62103 72
12 12,96
molecularmass
Determine the
Hasaand C É
2 32 164 98 amy Molecular mass
Has
Molecular Mass (mass of one molecule) =
E
Sum of atomic masses of all the atoms in the molecule
2 3216.4 98
I it
Practice: Determine the molecular 126 12105180
mass of H2SO4 and C6H12O6 Hz504
Atomic masses: H=1, C=12, O= 16, S= 32
➢ One molecule of H2SO4 contains 2 atoms of H, 1atom of S and 4 atoms 21 1 40

of O:
Molecular mass of H2SO4 = 2×(atomic mass of H)+1×(atomic mass of S) g am
+ 4×(atomic mass of O)
= (2 × 1) + (1 × 32) + (4 × 16) = 98 amu
➢ One molecule of C6H12O6 contains 6 atoms of C, 12 atoms of H and 6

atoms of O:
Molecular mass of glucose C6H12O6
= 6 ×12 + 12×1 + 6×16 = 180 amu
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 3
for anelement3
Atomic massamu
MolarMassag
Molar Mass
❑ For monatomic elements, the molar mass is the numerical value on the
periodic table expressed in g/mol
EXAMPLES: HQ
Fgm
Element Atomic mass Molar mass (M)
Atomicmass any H 1 amu 1 g/mol 18am
Molecular mass amu Na 23 amu 23 g/mol

Fe 56 amu 56 g/mol
Molar mass g mol
❑ For molecules, the molar mass is the sum of the molar masses of each of the
atoms in the molecular formula.
1023 EXAMPLES: (Atomic masses: H=1, C= 12, 0=16 and Ca=40)

moleH 6.22
f ➢ One molecule of H2O contains 2 atoms H and 1 atom O:
The molecular mass of H2O is equal to 2×1+1×16 = 18 amu
The molar mass of H2O is 18 g/mol
➢ One molecule of CaCO3 contains 1 atom Ca, 1 atom C and 3 atoms O:
The molecular mass of CaCO3 is equal to 1×40+ 1×12 + 3×16 = 100 amu
The molar mass of CaCO3 is 100 g/mol
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 4
4
m s
Number of moles: n=
M Molar mass
Job n : number of moles of the substance
m : mass of the substance in grams
it M: molar mass of the substance (g/mol)
44mi 40 12 16
Practice: Calculate the number of moles of calcium carbonate CaCO3 in
14.8 g of calcium carbonate.
go
o.nomol
(atomic masses: C = 12, O = 16, Ca = 40)
Answer:
124.5
Molar mass of CaCO3 M = (1 x 40) + (1 x 12) + (3×16) = 100 g/mol
Number of moles: n = m / M = 14.8 / 100 = 0.148 mol
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 5
Molar concentration
The molar concentration (also called molarity) is a measure of the
concentration of a chemical species, in particular of a solute in a solution, in
terms of the amount of substance per unit volume of solution:
𝒏
𝑪=
𝑽
C is the molar concentration
s ationsn is the number of moles of the solute Iaao.o o.s
V is the volume of the solution o.sc
Higgins
Practice: Calculate the molar concentration of 90 g of glucose C6H12O6
dissolved in 0.5 L of water.
Atomic masses: H=1, C = 12, O = 16
Answer:
Molar mass of C6H12O6 M= (6 × 12) + (12 × 1) + (6×16) = 180 g/mol
Number of moles of C6H12O6 n = m / M = 90 / 180 = 0.5 mol
Molar concentration C = n/ V = 0.5/0.5
= 1 mol/L (= 1M) 6
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023
6
Mass percent of an element in a compound:
mass % (element) = (
n x molar mass of element Y
) x 100%
molar mass of compound
I
n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of the compound.
n is determined from the molecular formula of the compound.
massofcompoundPractice : Calculate the mass percent of iron Fe, nitrogen N and oxygen O in Fe(NO ) .
3 3
massof element (Atomic masses: N = 14, O = 16, Fe = 56)
Answer
FeNos Molar mass M of Fe(NO3)3
5631410.9 2 2gimo M = M(Fe) + 3 × M(NO3)
= M(Fe) + 3 × [M(N) + 3 × M(O)]
Fe 522 23.144 = 56 + 3 × [14 + 3 ×16]
= 242 g/mol
N 32442 17.35
mass % (Fe) = [ (1 × M(Fe)) / M(Fe(NO3)3 ] × 100
= [(1 ×56)/242]× 100 FeNsa
= 23.14 %
mass % (N) = [ (3 × M(N)) / M(Fe(NO3)3 ] × 100
0 92 2 59.5 = [(3 ×14)/242]× 100
= 17.36 %
mass % (O) = [ (9 × M(O)) / M(Fe(NO3)3 ] × 100
= [(9 ×16)/242]× 100
= 59.50 % 7
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 23.14 % + 17.36% + 59.50 % = 100.00%
7
Empirical and Molecular Formulas Calculation

Molecular Formula = D× (Empirical Formula); D means how
many times simplest formula repeated to give molecular formula.
Molar mass of molecular formula
D=
Molar mass of empirical formula
IMI
Wo simplest
Practice 1: The simplest formula of vitamin C is C3H4O3 and its
molar mass is 176 g/mol. What is the molecular formula of vitamin
C? (Atomic masses: H = 1, C = 12, O = 16)
Answer:
Molar mass of empirical formula = 3 xM(C) + 4 x M(H) + 3 x M(O)
= (3 x 12) + (4 x 1) + (3 x 16) = 88 g/mol
Molar mass of the molecular formula = 176 g/mol
D = 176 / 88 = 2
The molecular formula of vitamin C is C6H8O6
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 8
8
1 Identify the
element P B g H O
2 write themass in grams
C
5
3 Convert mass to number of moles Ms
42 image
4Derideby the smallest No
apt p pi 333 3
3
3
round2: Elemental analysis of lactic D 1
sPractice day
PH
acid (M = 90 g/mol) shows that
100 g of this compound contains 40.0 g (C), 6.7 g (H) and 53.3 g (O).
Find the empirical formula and the molecular formula of lactic acid.
Atomic masses: (H = 1, C = 12, O = 16) inn o
d an
Answer:
•The number of moles of C: n(C) = m(C)/M(C) = 40/12 = 3.33 mol
iight
Has
•The number of moles of H: n(H) = m(H)/M(H) = 6.7/1 = 6.7 mol C3.33H6.7O3.33
•The number of moles of O: n(O) = m(O)/M(O) = 53.3/16 = 3.33 mol
Divide each mole number by the smallest number of moles (3.33):
Relative mole ratio of (C) = 3.33 / 3.33 = 1
Relative mole ratio of (H) = 6.7 / 3.33 = 2 The empirical formula is CH2O
Relative mole ratio of (O) = 3.33 / 3.33 = 1
The molar mass of the empirical formula CH2O is
M(CH2O) = 12 + 2×1 + 16 = 30 g/mol
Or the molar mass of the molecular formula is M(lactic acid) = 90 g/mol
So, D = M(lactic acid)/M(CH2O) = 90/30 = 3.
The molecular formula is obtained by multiplying the subscripts of the empirical
formula by 3.
The molecular formula of lactic acid is C3H6O3.
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 9
Imdb l
Balanced Chemical Equations
GitHub A balanced chemical equation occurs when the number of atoms
44 side is equal
y
Jin mis involved in the reactants to the number of atoms in the
am Ew side (equal numbers of each type of atom on each side of the
products
E equation).
Example:
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O
Reactants Products
4C 4C
12 H 12 H
14 O 14 O
Practice: Which of the following is a balanced chemical equation?

a) C2H6 + 7 O2 → 2CO2 + 3 H2O
b) 2HgO → 2Hg + 2O2
c) 2H2O → 2H2 + 1/2O2
d) 3H2 + N2 → 2 NH3
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 10
10
Mass relations in balanced chemical equations
Reactants products
Practice: From the following balanced chemical equation:

N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g)
Calculate
a) the mass in grams of NH3 formed when 1.8 mol H2 reacts.
b) the mass in grams of N2 required to form 1 kg NH3.
c) the mass in grams of H2 required to react with 6 g N2.
Atomic masses (H= 1, N=14)
Answer: N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g)

a) The mass in grams of NH3 formed when 1.8 mol H2 reacts:
3 mol H2 2mol NH3
1.8 mol n(NH 3) = ?
n(NH3) = (1.8×2)/3 = 1.2 mol NH3
mass of NH3 : m(NH3) = n(NH3) × M(NH3) = 1.2 × (14+ 3×1) = 20.4 g
11
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023
11
o
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g)
b) The mass in grams of N2 required to form 1 kg (= 1000 g) NH3:

1 mol N2 2 mol NH3
2×14 = 28 g N2 2×(14+3×1) =34 g NH3
m(N2) = ? 1000 g
m(N2) = (1000/34) ×28 = 823.5 g
c) The mass in grams of H2 required to react with 6 g N2:

1 mol N2 3 mol H2
2×14 = 28 g N2 3×(2×1) = 6 g H2
6 g N2 m (H2) = ?
m(H2) = (6/28) ×6 = 1.28 g
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 12
12
Atomic masses: H = 1, C = 12, N = 14, O = 16, Na = 23, Mg = 24, S = 32, Cl = 35.5, Ca = 40, Fe = 56, Cu = 63.5.
Avogadro’s number: NA = 6.022x1023
Q1. What are the values of (x,y) that make the following reaction balanced ?
2 CxHy + 25 O2 → 16 CO2 + 18 H2O
a) (8,9) b) (8,18) c) (4,18) d) (8,25)
Q2. The number of moles in 275 g of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is
a) 17.5 moles b) 27.5 moles c) 2.75 moles d) 100 moles
Q3. The molar mass of (NH4)2SO4 is:
a) 114 g/mol b) 100 g/mol c) 132 g/mol d) 13.20 g/mol
Q4. The mass percent of sulfur (mass% S) in copper sulfate (CuSO4) is
a) 20 % b) 75 % c) 55% d) 40 %
Q5. One mole of H2O contains
a) 1 mole of O b) NA = 6.022x1023 molecules of H2O
c) 2 × 6.022x1023 atoms of H d) All of these
Q6. From the balanced equation for the combustion of methane (CH4)
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
The mass of oxygen (O2) needed for the combustion of 16 g of methane is
a) 16 g b) 36 g c) 32 g d) 64 g
Q7. The simplest formula of a compound is CH2O and its molar mass is 180 g/mol. The molecular
formula of the compound is
a) C2H4O b) C2H6O c) C6H12O6 d) C2H4O2
Q8. 1 amu equals
a) 1 g b) 1 mol c) 1/NA g d) 12/NA g
Q13. Which of the followings is a balanced chemical equation?
a) 2C2H6 +7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O b) 5H2 + N2 → 5NH3
c) 2HgO → 2Hg + 1/2O2 d) Ca2+ + 2HCO3- → CaCO3 + 2CO2 + H2O
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 13
13
Homework - CALCULATIONS
Atomic masses: H = 1, C = 12, N = 14, O = 16, Na = 23, Mg = 24, S = 32, Ca = 40, Fe = 56, Zn = 65.
Avogadro’s number: NA = 6.022x1023
Questions
1. Calculate the molar mass of CaSO4·2H2O.
2. Calculate the number of moles of H2SO4 in 49 g of this compound.
3. Calculate the mass of 0.04 mol of CaCO3.
4. Determine the mass percent of nitrogen (N) in zinc nitrate Zn(NO3)2.
5. Determine the mass of one molecule of C2H6 in grams.
6. Determine the mass of one atom of magnesium (Mg) in grams.
7. The empirical formula of a compound is CH2O and its molar mass is 60 g/mol. What is the
molecular formula of this compound?
Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 14
14
Chem 110
Chapter 4
Electron configuration and
Properties of atoms

Course coordinator
2022-2023
The wave-particle duality of light and matter

❑ Planck: Atoms can gain I or lost
É s quantities of energy, E
only certain
m integer,
een = nhn (where n is a positive ee 1, 2, 3, etc and Planck's constant
h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js ) by absorbing or emitting radiation. This means gg
Égfenergy is quantized. own ex even
Me❑ The wave-particle duality of light (proposed by Einstein):

the exam Light consisted of packets of energy called photons (particle-like)
that had wave-like properties as well.
❑ de Broglie hypothesizes particles could have a wave behavior.

tweets The electrons have wave-like properties
temp ‫ ﯾﺘﻜﻮن اﻟﻀﻮء ﻣﻦ ﻋﺒﻮات ﻣﻦ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﻔﻮﺗﻮﻧﺎت‬:(‫ازدواﺟﯿﺔ ﺟﺴﯿﻤﺎت اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﻟﻠﻀﻮء )اﻟﺘﻲ اﻗﺘﺮﺣﮭﺎ أﯾﻨﺸﺘﺎﯾﻦ‬
‫)ﺗﺸﺒﮫ اﻟﺠﺴﯿﻤﺎت( واﻟﺘﻲ ﻟﮭﺎ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺗﺸﺒﮫ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ‬
❑ According to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, we

cannot know both the position and the speed of the electron
g at a given time.
2
Dr ATEF KORCHEF 2022-23
1
Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals
aAtomicitOrbital: A region
as in space in which there is high probability of finding an electron.
si the properties of atomic orbitals and their electrons, i.e., an
si specify
Quantum numbers
É
atomic orbital is specified by three quantum numbers (n, l, ml). The spin of the electron is
specified by the quantum number ms (or s)
IN a Principal Quantum Number, n

Eta is • Indicates main energy levels: n = 1, 2, 3, 4…
• Each main energy level has sub-levels
F FEI
I is a
A main energy level
3
YET S
Orbital Quantum Number, ℓ
(Angular Momentum Quantum Number/ Azimuthal quantum number)
IG S •• ℓℓindicates the shape of orbital sublevels

= 0, 1, …., (n-1)
we
fide sowaste
Example: When n=4, ℓ = 0, 1, 2 and 3.
c d
i mania ℓ=0 ℓ=1 ℓ=2 ℓ=3
s p d f
4 sublevels for N=4
A sublevel
4
2
Magnetic Quantum Number, mℓ
• Indicates the orientation of the orbital in space.
bing.s.is
jitWC
• Equals to integer values, including zero ranging from - ℓ to +ℓ
i nd
An orbital
• The sublevel s contains one orbital, p contains 3 orbitals, d contains 5 orbitals and f contains
7 orbitals.
• In a main energy level n, there are n2 orbitals, i.e., for n = 4 there are 42 = 16 orbitals.
• For each main energy level n, the number of mℓ values represents the number of orbitals.
5
Electron Spin Quantum Number, (ms or s)

To a s • Indicates the direction in which an electron spins in an orbital
e
(clockwise or counterclockwise).
• Values of ms = -1/2, +1/2
awewse
0 Qs
aw a
joint
6
3
Electron configuration
Wish
Electron Eé
configuration to among the various atomic
is how the electrons are distributed
orbitals in an atom. There are 3 rules to building up electron configurations:
W Well 1. Aufbau (building up) Principle

Electrons enter the orbitals in order ofaw
ascending energy.
✓Increased n+ ℓ, increased energy
stowaway ✓Same value of n+ ℓ, lowest energy for lowest n
comets
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s …
7
2. Hund’s Rule :
When in orbitals of equal energy, electrons will try to remain
jg.IT
unpaired.
The electrons occupy degenerate orbitals singly to the maximum extent possible and with
s their spins parallel. Placing two electrons in one orbital means that, as they are both
negatively charged, there will be some electrostatic repulsion between them. Placing each
www.sina.ws electron in a separate orbital reduces the repulsion and the system is more stable.
YES No
2 electrons
2p
3 electrons
2p
8
4
3. Pauli’s exclusion principle : I I in
No two electrons in the same atom have the same set of the a
four quantum numbers (n , ℓ, mℓ , ms). memems
This means that:
ti mi Orbitals of the same energy must be occupied singly and with the same spin before pairing up
of electrons occurs.
ix us own
Hi D É
Electrons occupying the same orbital must have opposite spins.
An orbital is occupied au maximum by 2 electrons. An orbital containing paired electrons is
presented as :
YES No
4 electrons
2p
5 electrons
2p
6 electrons
2p
9
Practice 1: Determine the electronic configurations of 4Be, 17Cl, 26Fe,

and 35Br, 8O2-, 11Na+, 9F- 2 2
4Be: 1s 2s
17Cl: 1s22s22p63s23p5
26Fe: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
35Br: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 5
2- 2 2 6
8O : 1s 2s 2p
+ 2 2 6
11Na : 1s 2s 2p Isoelectronic configuration
IIiit
- 2 2 6
9F : 1s 2s 2p
Practice 2: How many unpaired electrons are there in 10Ne , 8O, and 15P?
is in
10Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p6
8
zero unpaired electrons 8O: 1s2 2s2 2p4 patient
2 unpaired
electrons
15P: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3pO

3
E
3 unpaired electrons 10
10
5
tree
Exceptions
15 65
in some transition metals: Cr and Cu
1 electron idol'd IN
osw
❑ Chromium 24Cr: ofo.am ei80
Expected electronic configuration:1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4 walk
sufism
✓ Real electronic configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5 ski's mom
1 electron
❑ Copper 29Cu:
Expected electronic configuration:1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9
✓ Real electronic configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10
The reason for these anomalies is the greaterItstablity of d subshells

that are either half-filled (d5) or completely filled (d10)
I
acr Dr ATEF KORCHEF 2022-23
a
11
11
imy 541856151
Valance-Shell and Valence Electrons
EA
❑The most outer sublevels (for the highest n) are called valence-shell
❑Electrons in the most outer sublevels are called valence electrons
gdogjiities
gg
❑Transition metal: metal whose atom has an incomplete d subshell or y
IV Mt which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d subshell. For transition
metals, the valence shell is ns (n-1)d
Examples:
Elements Ek s Mittag
Valence shell Valence electrons
9F: 1s2 2s2 2p5 2s 2p 7
11Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 3s 1
18Ar: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3s 3p 8
35Br: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5 4s 4p 7
www.nwiiaa.gg 4 8,0metals
Transition
1 Valence shell Valence electrons
do 5 GIVE am 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
26Fe: 4s 3d 8
28Ni : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8 4s 3d 10
Dr ATEF KORCHEF 2022-23 devised 12
a A
12
6
44 em w
Iii'd a E 4804 Egg of transition metal ions

Electron configuration
in Electrons in the ns orbital are removed before any electrons in the
(n-1)d orbitals.
Examples:
TITANIUM Ti: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2

22
said
bitcoins Ti+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 I
3s2 3p6 4s1 3d2 (1 electron is removed from 4s)
Fi x x Ti2+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 (2 electrons are removed from 4s) s t
Ti3+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 (1 electron is removed from 3d) is
do xx
Ti4+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 (2 electrons are removed from 3d)
13
13
Periodic table of elements and properties of atoms

htt i
• The arrangement of elements is in order of increasing atomic number (Z)
• The vertical columns of the table (numbered from 1 to 18 ) are called groups or
families. Element in the same group have similar but not identical characteristics.
way • The horizontal rows of the table (numbered from 1 to 7) are called periods. Each
Ft
Eas period contains elements with electrons in the same outer shell.
L
d
ohWE
n wi
14
14
7
se
Nutty town w4Ty 14611
Effective nuclear charge (Z ) eff
Golda
The effective nuclear charge (Zeff) is the net positive charge experienced (felt) by an
electron in a multi-electron atom
Zeff: The effective nuclear charge,

Zeff = Z - S Z: Atomic number of the atom,
S: Number of inner electrons (in the core)
ELEMENTS OF THE SAME PERIOD ELEMENTS OF THE SAME GROUP
noc'd Sisko Element S Zeff=Z-S Element S Zeff=Z-S

to 0 4 s.ae
Na:1s 2s 2p 3s
2 2 6 1 10 am11-10=1 3Li:1s 2s
2 1 2 3-2=1
we
11
was
in 13Al:1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 1 10 am13-10=3 11Na:1s 2s 2p 3s
2 2 6 1 10 11-10=1
Elements in the
22s22p63s23p3 same period Elements in the same group
19K:1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
P:1s 10 2 2 6 2 6 1 18
15 15-10=5 19-18=1
37Rb:1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6 1
17Cl:1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 5 10 36
17-10=7 37-36=1
Mimamsa ❑ When we move from the left to the right along a period, in the periodic
6,146 EE table, Zeff increases
❑ When we move along a group in the periodic table, Zeff remains constant
Mid d
i Issa Practice: Calculate Zeff for 11Na and for 11Na+
Answer: 11Na: 1s22s22p63s1 Z=11 and S= 10 so Zeff = 11-10 = 1
stilts + 2 2
11Na : 1s 2s 2p
6 Z=11 and S= 2 so Zeff = 11-2 = 9
icecaps
15
15
Atomic size or Radius

The atomic size (or radius) is the half distance of closest approach
im state
between two identical atoms. a
❑ When we move from the left to the right along a period,
Home WE
i
in the periodic table, the atomic size decreases Eei owmo.is
since there is an increase in core charge (Zeff increases), the outer shell electrons are
attracted closer to the nucleus (it’s the same shell but there are more electrons in the shell as
you move across the period).
❑ When we move from the top to the bottom along

I I a group in the periodic table, the atomic size increases
since there is an increase in the number of shells.
1W OI ▪ Cation is smaller than atom from which it is formed.
as Excess of protons in the ion draws the outer electrons closest to nucleus.
HE sty ▪ Anion is larger than atom from which it is formed.

More repulsion between electrons and the ionic radius increases.
Å
Å
Dr ATEF KORCHEF 2022-23 16
16
8
Ionization energy
dd
• The ionization energy is the amount of energy it takes to detach one
electron from a gas neutral atom
a
• If it is easy to detach an electron, it has low ionisation energy. If it is hard to detach an
4106 in electron, it has a high ionisation energy
airbagbees • The larger the atom the easier it is to detach an electron. The smaller the atom
the harder to detach an electron
a memos ❑ When we move from the left to the right along a period, in the periodic table,
the ionization energy increases
4k
since there is an increase in core charge, the attraction is greater between the outer shell
electrons and the nucleus. Therefore, electrons are harder to remove.
f ❑ When we move from the top to the bottom along a group in the periodic table,
the ionization energy decreases
since there is an increase in the number of shells so the size of the atom is increasing, the
s ti attraction is weaker between the outer shell electrons and the nucleus. Therefore, electrons are
metb easier to remove.
17
17
o
O
O
44991
Electronegativity
81 • Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract a pair of electrons

towards itself in a chemical bond.
Same electronegativity A:A
B is more electronegative than A A :B
µ ❑ When we move from the left to the right along a period, in the periodic
Hot we table, the electronegativity increases
THESE
since there is an increase in core charge, there is a greater attraction of the outer shell electrons
to the nucleus.
Bottom top increases
❑ When we move from the top to the bottom along a group in the
periodic table, the electronegativity decreases
since the electrons are further from the nucleus, there is a weaker attraction
Aside
RTE Electronegativity

18
18
9
sad dduality of light means that
Q1. The wave-particle
a)light consisted of particles called photons that had wave-like properties b) electrons behave as a wave
b) light shinning on certain metal plates caused a flow of electrons. d) all of these
Q2. The quantum number that takes only the values -1/2 and 1/2 is the magnetic quantum number (mℓ).
a) True b) False
Q3. Choose the correct order of the following sublevels from the lowest to the highest energy.
a) 3p < 4p < 3d < 4s b) 3p < 3d < 4s < 4p c) 3d < 3p < 4s < 4p d) 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p
Q4. Which one of the followings about d orbitals is correct
s a) they are found in all principal energy levels. b) there are 5 types of d orbitals
s E
c) they are spherical in shape
Q5. What is the number of sublevels associated with n = 2
d) each d orbital can hold up to 3 electrons
84A
a)1 b) 2 c) 4 d) 9
Q6. What is the number of orbitals associated with n = 2
a)1 b) 2 disturbed c) 4 d) 9
Q7. The electron configuration of copper 29Cu is
a)1s22s22p63s23p64s23d9
seassaon
b) 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5 c) 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10 d) s22s22p63s23p64s13d54p3
Q8. The electron configuration of 17Cl is
a) 1s22s22p63s23p6 b) 1s22s22p63s23p5 c) 1s22s22p63p53s2 d) 1s22p62s23p53s2
Q9. Iron (Fe) is a transition metal. The electron configuration of 26Fe2+ is
a) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6 b) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d4
É
c) 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5 d) 1s22s22p63s23p63d6
Q10. How many unpaired electrons are there in 20Ca2+?
a)0 b) 2 c) 10 15252353 d) 20
Q11. The ions 8O2-, 11Na+ and 9F-
a) are isotopes no b)no no configuration
have isoelectronic c) are compounds d) are called sublevels
Q12. The effective nuclear charge (Zeff) of oxygen (8O) is
15252ps a) 2 b) 4 c) 6 d) 8
Q14. Arrange the elements 3Li, 11Na, 19K and 37Rb, of the same group, from the highest to the lowest electronegativity
82 6 a)3Li >11Na > 19K > 37Rb b) 37Rb >19K >11Na > 3Li c) 3Li >19K >11Na>37Rb d) 37Rb >11Na >19K > 3Li
19
19
Q15. When the principle quantum number n=4, the orbital quantum number ℓ takes the values
a) 0,1,2,3,4 b) -4,-3,-2,-1, 0, 1,2,3,4 c) 0,1,2,3 d) -1/2, 1/2
Q16. The name of the sub-level with n= 3 and l = 2 is
a) 2d b) 3d c) 3p d) 2s
Q17. When the orbital quantum number ℓ = 1, the magnetic quantum number m ℓ takes the values
a) 0,1 b) -1, 0, 1 c) 0 d) -1/2, ½
Q18. In the periodic table, when we move from the top to the bottom in a group, the atomic size
a) increases b) decreases c) remains constant d) both increases and decreases
Practice:
SYD 35310 Arrange the following elements 12Mg, 16S, 13Al and 17Cl from the highest to the lowest
1. atomic radius
S Eve 35311g eu 2. ionization energy 9EPgPfismg
mg
3. Electronegativity
ISS An
Ne 353ps
4. Effective nuclear charge (Zeff)
ISS A MS
Answer: 1. decreasing atomic radius: Mg > Al > S >Cl
2. decreasing ionization energy: Cl > S > Al > Mg
3. decreasing electronegativity: Cl > S > Al > Mg
4. decreasing Zeff: Cl > S > Al > Mg
20
20
10
26/08/2022
Chem 110
Chapter 5
Intermolecular forces and

Properties of matter
between molecules
NotAtoms
HII
Molecular Forces
in 4th so :
Intramolecular forces Forces are withinsay as and nonpolar
a molecule (polar a p covalent
to
bond, ionic bond and metallic bond).
Hide as
It
Intermolecular forces occur between molecules and include:
✓van der Waals interactions:
4 245 É'm
o Keesom forces (between polar molecules)
o Debye forces (between a nonpolar molecule and a polar molecule)
3555 god'sT.geo London dispersion forces (between nonpolar molecules)
a E ✓a Hydrogen bond (Hydrogen on one molecule attached to (N, O, or F) atoms and
Andrew either (N, O, or F) on another molecule.
I p
i
tin
Intramolecular forces (bonds) are stronger than intermolecular forces.
Dr Korchef Atef 2022-23
1
26/08/2022
Polar and nonpolar molecules

Reminder: Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency (ability) of an atom to
ios.ae 6ig attract a bonding pair of electrons towards itself.
Nonpolar molecules occur when there is an equal sharing of electrons

between their atoms.
A H
Examples of nonpolar molecules:
Cl : Cl
mneme▪
Homogeneous
▪ O2, H2, Cl2 , I2, Br2
CO2 There is an equal sharing of electrons.
▪ Hydrocarbons: CH4 , C2H6 , C3H8 ,…. Cl2 is a nonpolar molecule.
Polar molecules occur when atoms do not share electrons equally.

AH Iba
why W 02h A dipole forms, with part of the molecule carrying a slight positive charge and the other part carrying a slight
negative charge. This happens when there is a difference between the electronegativities of the atoms or
because of the molecular geometry.
ath
H :Cl
Examples of polar molecules:
▪ HBr, HCl, HI, H2O, HF, NH3
▪ SO2 , O3 Cl is more electronegative than H. The two atoms
did not share electrons equally. HCl is a polar
molecule. HCl molecule forms a permanent
Dr Korchef Atef 2022-23 dipole.
Keesom Forces (dipole-dipole interactions)

❑ Act between polar molecules (act between permanent dipoles).
a Wiess ❑ Oppositely charged ends attract and like ends repel.
Eat ❑ Moderate strength
WE
Interaction between
permanent dipoles.
a
Examples: HCl, HBr, HI
Keesom forces become stronger when

8,6 04 1 ❑ the difference of electronegativity between the atoms forming
the molecule increases.
Bowe the temperature decreases. EE gS
❑
Wie ❑ the distance between molecules decreases.
2
26/08/2022
oh IE SEJt
a wise s
we
x Debye Forces
Ho ❑ Occur between a nonpolar molecule and a polar molecule.
e in the polar molecule induces an electric
g❑ The permanent dipole
dipole in the nonpolar molecule when it comes extremely close.
weak
Examples: Debye forces between O2 and H2O
Debye forces
When O2
comes
extremely close
to H2O
IIE London Dispersion Forces

❑ Instantaneous dipole, that occurs accidentally in an atom or a molecule due
to electrons movement, induces a similar dipole (induced dipole) in a
neighboring atom or molecule.
❑ London forces occur in nonpolar molecules.
❑ Weak forces
in
Examples:
Homonuclear diatomic molecules: H2, Cl2, I2, O2, F2, Br2, …
Hydrocarbons: CH4, C3H8, C6H14 , ….
Carbon dioxide CO2
Noble gases : He, Ne, Ar, ….
it 4 I w sp London dispersion forces become stronger when
Gt aw O 23,0 ❑ The size of atoms or molecules increases.
❑ the distance between molecules decreases.
s ciswe ❑ the chain of carbon atoms in hydrocarbons becomes longer.
Ema
3
26/08/2022
PRACTICE
Q1: Which of the followings shows the highest London dispersion forces?
a) C3H8 b) C4H10 c) C5H12 d) C6H14
ok I Was 4 Answer : C6H14 shows the highest London dispersion forces
98 C3H8 < C4H10< C5H12 < C6H14
Else b Increasing London forces
ME Q2: According to the following order from the lowest to the highest atomic size:
F < Cl < Br < I
explain why F2 and Cl2 are gases, Br2 is a liquid and I2 is a solid at room temperature.
Answer :
F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2 are nonpolar molecules, and they show London dispersion forces. As
the size increased, London forces increased:
I see
aims
Increased London dispersion forces
Hydrogen Bonding
❑ Hydrogen on one molecule attached to a highly electronegative atom
(N, O, or F) and either (N, O, or F) on another molecule.
❑ Strong force.
❑ Occurs between Polar molecules.
Examples: H2O, HF, NH3, CH3COOH
4
26/08/2022
Properties of liquids
Vapor pressure
❑The pressure exerted by the vapor on the surface of the liquid
at equilibrium is called the vapor pressure.
‫ﯾﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﺬي ﯾﻤﺎرﺳﮫ اﻟﺒﺨﺎر ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻄﺢ اﻟﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﻋﻨﺪ‬
.‫اﻟﺘﻮازن ﺿﻐﻂ اﻟﺒﺨﺎر‬ s
In a closed system, when the rate at which
the liquid is entering the gas phase equals
the rate at which the vapor is returning to
the liquid phase, the system is at
equilibrium. After this time, the liquid level
will remain constant. The pressure exerted
by the vapor on the surface of the liquid
at equilibrium is called the vapor
pressure.
gi test
The vapor pressure of a liquid increases when
❑ the intermolecluar forces decreases.
as i ❑ the temperature increases.
Boiling Point
The temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the
98 external pressure (atmospheric pressure) is called the boiling
y.MG point. This is the point where bubbles of vapor form within the liquid.
external vapor
❑ The boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm pressure is the normal

boiling point.
beepeye oh ❑The boiling point increases with increasing external pressure.
❑The molecules that have strong intermolecular forces have
5.46 EE high boiling point.
10
5
26/08/2022
PRACTICE
Which of the compounds hexane (C6H14) and propane (C3H8) has the
highest boiling point ? Which of these two compounds has the lowest
vapor pressure ? Explain your answer.
debt in
Answer: Hexane C6H14 has a longer chain than propane C3H8. Therefore,
C6H14 W
is held by higher attractive molecular forces via London forces
than C3H8.
Hexane C6H14 has lower vapor O t than propane

pressure oh C3H8.
ow a
Hexane C6H14 has higher boiling point than propane C3H8.
The substance having the highest boiling point has the lowest vapor pressure and
to 8D
conversely, the substance having the lowest boiling point has the highest vapor
pressure.
i est ok
b 8 1 Cdt W1255 It
ow
WW s
t
11
Viscosity of a liquid
Al
❑ Viscosity is theJW
I saw
resistance to flow of a liquid.
When the viscosity of a liquid increases, the liquid flows more slowly.
The viscosity of honey is higher than the viscosity of

water. Honey flows more slowly than water.
a A when
Viscosity of a liquid increases
I increases
✓the intermolecular forces Em o
an ox
✓the temperature decreases
12
6
26/08/2022
Phase Changes
• Phase changes are transformations from one phase to another. The
energy required to go from one state to another state is called enthalpy
change (H).
•
IDK
melting, vaporization and sublimation are endothermic processes
(need energy, H>0).
• A
freezing, condensation Wool's
and deposition are exothermic processes
(release energy, H<0).
a3I a.ioy. • The temperature remains constant during phase changes (energy is
used to overcome attractive forces between molecules).
IpaI is.I ice

AB mating
Be
c D liquid
re vaporization
e
13
Phase Diagram
x.us iexaed ❑ A phase diagram is a graphic way to summarize the conditions under which
equilibriums exist between the different states of matter.
ntoEos ix i
into 4,06
É
❑ The critical point C, is defined by the critical temperature (T C) and the
awe critical pressure (PC). BeyondÉthat point, the liquid and gas phases becomeanoop
ides indistinguishable, and the state is a supercritical fluid. six
• Critical temperature is the highest temperatureon at which a liquid can exist.
• Critical pressure is the pressure required to create a liquid at this critical
temperature.
to condention
HANI
❑ Triple point T: Liquid, solid and
gas phases coexist in equilibrium.
❑ The line T to C: equilibrium

between the liquid and the gas
phases.
14
7
26/08/2022
Q1. Keesom forces are present between
a) nonpolar molecules. b) CO2 molecules. c) polar molecules. d) hydrocarbons molecules.
Q2. London dispersion forces
a) occur between polar molecules b) occur between both polar and nonpolar molecules
c) are due to electrons movement d) are stronger than hydrogen bonds
Q3. Hydrogen bond
a) is an ionic bond. b) is a polar covalent bond.
c) occurs between polar molecules. d) occurs between O3 molecules
Q4. The intermolecular forces in HBr molecules are
a) Keesom forces b) polar covalent bonds c) London forces d) hydrogen bonds.
Q5. Which of the following compounds shows hydrogen bonds
a) HCl b) NH3 c) C2H6 d) C5H12
Q6. Which of the following compounds shows Keesom forces
a) HCl b) CH4 c) O2 d) C5H12
Q7. Which of the following shows London dispersion forces
a) HCl b) O3 c) NH3 d) C6H14
Q8. The vapor pressure is
a) the pressure exerted by the vapor on the liquid surface at equilibrium.
b) the pressure exerted by the air molecules on the liquid surface.
c) the atmospheric pressure (1 atm).
d) none of these.
Q9. Which of the following is an endothermic a process?
a) Sublimation. b) Freezing. c) Condensation d) Deposition.
Q10. In a phase diagram, the triple point represents the equilibrium between
a) Liquid and solid. b) liquid and gas. c) liquid, solid and gas. d) solid and gas.
15

Genral Chemistry مترجمه

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Genral Chemistry مترجمه

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

8/26/2022

Matter and Measurements

Prepared by Dr Atef Korchef

Dr Atef Korchef 2022-2023 3

Mixtures cam be Separated to their components by different Physical methods

Heterogeneous Mixtures : mixture is made of different substances

➢ Intensive properties are properties that do not depend on the amount

2ham Dr Atef Korchef 2022-2023

• Reaction of base and acid (neutralization reaction):

Dr Atef Korchef 2022-2023 8

Ya bonds during a physical change.

can • Dissolving sugar and salts in water

Practice: Convert the following to the desired unit:

1m3 = 1000 L 1dm3 = 1L 1cm3 = 1mL

• Density: Density is an intensive property (does not depend on the

d = m/v = 3400 g/ 250 cm3 = 13.6 g/cm3

Rules to determine the significant figures

❑ Any non-zero digit is significant

Seo Simplified Rounding rules

❑ Multiplication and division

Dr Atef Korchef 2022-2023

PRACTICE: Calculate the following to the correct number of significant

Accuracy and precision

AQ4. The correct answer to express the arithmetic operation (2.00×0.009)/(9.410-8.0) is

a) a physical change b) a chemical change c) a neutralizationz.ooxo.co

Q12. Determine the number of significant figures in each measurement.

1234586 cm 7 significant figures

Q13. Convert the following to the desired unit:

V =2×2×2 = 8 cm3; d= m/ V = 4/8 = 0.5 g/cm3

Atoms, molecules, Ions and

Prepared by Dr Atef Korchef

The atomic structure

Most of the atom is empty

Dr ATEF KORCHEF - 2022-23 2

For neutral atom: Number of protons = Number of electrons

Dr ATEF KORCHEF - 2022-23 3

on neutral Atom lost electrons

Ions: Anions and Cations

Na Na+ + 1e- Cl + 1e- Cl-

Dr ATEF KORCHEF - 2022-23 5

A molecule is a neutral group of two or more atoms bonded together

➢ Homonuclear molecules formed by one type of atoms

➢ Heteronuclear molecules formed by more than one type of

Dr ATEF KORCHEF - 2022-23

❑ Structural Formula is the formula that indicates the attachment of atoms

Dr ATEF KORCHEF - 2022-23

again Q3. Cations form when

a) 226 n and 88e- b) 138 n and 88 e- c) 138 n and 86 e- d) 226 n and 86 e-

Prepared by Dr Atef Korchef

1amu = (1/NA) g = 1.660x10-24 g

Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 2

➢ One molecule of H2SO4 contains 2 atoms of H, 1atom of S and 4 atoms 21 1 40

➢ One molecule of C6H12O6 contains 6 atoms of C, 12 atoms of H and 6

Atomicmass any H 1 amu 1 g/mol 18am

Molecular mass amu Na 23 amu 23 g/mol

1023 EXAMPLES: (Atomic masses: H=1, C= 12, 0=16 and Ca=40)

Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 5

Empirical and Molecular Formulas Calculation

Practice: Which of the following is a balanced chemical equation?

Dr. A. Korchef 2022-2023 10

Practice: From the following balanced chemical equation:

Answer: N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g)

b) The mass in grams of N2 required to form 1 kg (= 1000 g) NH3:

m(N2) = (1000/34) ×28 = 823.5 g