Elements of Poetry

stanza A division in poetry of four or more lines which have a linking structural device such as a
fixed length, metre or rhyming scheme.
Heroic couplet A pair of rhyming iambic pentameters. They were called heroic because they
appeared traditionally in long, epic poems that featured a hero. The couplets are self-contained as
a grammatical unit. Here is an example from John Dryden’s translation of Virgil’s ‘Aeneid’
“Soon had their hosts in bloody battle join’d; But westward to the sea the sun declin’d.
Iambic pentameter A variety of metre which uses a line of verse with five metrical feet, in
which each foot has one short unstressed syllable followed by a long, stressed syllable.
A foot is a unit of verse that combines one stressed and at least one unstressed syllable, which is
then repeated in order to establish a metre (or rhythm). The most common metrical feet in
English poetry are the iamb (weak syllable followed by strong syllable e.g. guitar), the trochee
(strong syllable followed by weak syllable, e.g. hammer), the anapest (two weak syllables
followed by one strong e.g. understand) and dactyl (one strong syllable followed by two weak,
e.g. merrily)
Metre A syllabic pattern in verse, in which stressed and unstressed syllables are deliberately
weighted for effect. This provides the rhythm of the poetry.
Rhyme Scheme A rhyme scheme is a method that poets use to give structure to their verse. The
last word of each line will rhyme either with the next line or one further down. So ABAB means
that the first and the third lines rhyme, as well as the second and fourth, while ABBA would
mean that the first and fourth lines rhyme, as do the second and third.
Elements of Drama or Tragedy
catharsis From the Greek katharsis meaning ‘cleansing’ or ‘purification’, this means the
purification or cleansing of emotions through any art form – music, drama, literature or visual
art, particularly fear and pity, resulting in a feeling of renewal, rejuvenation and restoration.
Morality Play An allegorical piece of drama conveying a lesson about virtuous behaviour and
good character. Popular in Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, these plays often
personified metaphysical or moral qualities, having developed from the more religious tradition
of mystery plays.
The most famous example of a morality play is Everyman. Recorded in the 16th century,
Everyman follows the hero, who represents all of mankind, in his attempts to gain entry into
heaven.
Miracle plays were a popular form of medieval English drama. These plays depicted religious
stories and events, particularly biblical narratives and the lives of saints. They were performed
during the Middle Ages to educate and entertain the largely illiterate population.
Miracle Plays, also called Saint’s Plays, were plays dedicated to the lives of various saints, rather
than Biblical events. Just like Mystery Plays the Miracle play originated to enhance the liturgical
services, and were later separated from the church.
Only two English miracle plays have survived to the present day: Mary Magdalene and The
Conversion of Saint Paul. Another example is an Eastern European miracle play called St John
the Hairy.
Morality plays taught lessons of morality through the use of allegorical characters. Mystery plays
told stories from the Bible and gave way to large mystery cycles in which many stories were told
sequentially on the same day.Miracle plays told the stories of the Saint’s lives, sometimes true
and sometimes fictional.
Mystery plays were concerned with spirituality and depicted many liturgical scenes. Mystery
plays are also known as ‘cycle plays’ due to their structure. They were made up of small,
individual plays that functioned as a collection of performances chronicling the spiritual history
of Mankind, as told in the Bible.
Some common Mystery Plays:
~ Birth of Jesus
~ The Wise Men
~ Flight into Egypt
~ The Second Shepherd’s Play
An ‘interlude’in literature is a short entertainment usually comic or musical between major acts.
In English literature interludes were performed in the transitional period between the ‘Morality’
plays and what we now know as theatre. The most notable Interlude is John Heywood’s ‘The
Four P’s’.
◦ · The Four P’s:
◦ * It is written in doggerel verse.
◦ * It describes a lying-match between a Pedlar, a Palmer and a Potycary.
John Heywood, one of the most famous interlude writers, brought the genre to perfection in his
The Play of the Wether (1533) and The Playe Called the Foure P.P. (c. 1544). The earl of Essex
is known to have had a company of interlude players in 1468; the first royal company was
apparently established in 1493.
What is the difference between interlude and prologue?
Prologue: Following the prelude, this is the introductory section of a story or play, giving
background or setting the scene. Interlude: This occurs in the middle, serving as a break or a
pause within the main action.
objective correlative
T.S. Eliot used this phrase to describe “a set of objects, a situation, a chain of
events which shall be the formula of that particular emotion” that the poet feels
and hopes to evoke in the reader (“Hamlet,” 1919). There must be a positive
connection between the emotion the poet is trying to express and the object,
image, or situation in the poem that helps to convey that emotion to the reader.
Eliot thus determined that Shakespeare’s play Hamlet was an “artistic failure”
because Hamlet’s intense emotions overwhelmed the author’s attempts to
express them through an objective correlative. In other words, Eliot felt that
Shakespeare was unable to provoke the audience to feel as Prince Hamlet did
through images, actions, and characters, and instead only
inadequately described his emotional state through the play’s dialogue. Eliot’s
theory of the objective correlative is closely related to the Imagist movement.
Eliot uses Lady Macbeth's state of mind as an example of the successful objective
correlative: "The artistic 'inevitability' lies in this complete adequacy of the external to
the emotion….", as a contrast to Hamlet. According to Eliot, the feelings of Hamlet are
not sufficiently supported by the story and the other characters surrounding him. The
objective correlative's purpose is to express the character's emotions by showing rather
than describing feelings as discussed earlier by Plato.

Eliot argues that Shakespeare's Macbeth shows Shakespeare's effective use of an objective
correlative. In particular, Lady Macbeth feels guilty for having participated in a murder. This
guilt is expressed via her sleepwalking and is seen in her vigorously rubbing her hands in order
to wash off imaginary blood.
What are the 7 characteristics of tragedy according to Aristotle?
Aristotle defines tragedy according to seven characteristics: (1) it is mimetic, (2) it is serious, (3)
it tells a full story of an appropriate length, (4) it contains rhythm and harmony, (5) rhythm and
harmony occur in different combinations in different parts of the tragedy, (6) it is performed
rather than narrated, …
What are the functions of tragedy?
Aristotle, in whose debt the world in such questions must ever stand, thinks that the function of
Tragedy is “to effect through pity and fear the KaOapass (Katharsis) or purgation of these
emotions.” Now this word ocazapost has been a source of vexation to the critics, and, as Aristotle
broke his promise to give it .
Aristotle defines tragedy as –, Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious,
complete,, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of, artistic
ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play;, in the form of action, not
of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the, proper Catharsis / purgation of these emotions.
(p.12),

ASIDE DEFINITION in LITERATURE

An aside is a speech or short comment that a character delivers directly to an audience. A key
characteristic of an aside is that other characters on screen or on stage (in a play) appear not to
hear the speech or comment. For example, when describing his would-be stepfather, Hamlet
notes in an aside: A little more than kin and less than kind. This comment is directed to the
audience as a co-conspirator in Hamlet’s plot.
What is comic relief in a story?
An amusing scene, incident, or speech introduced into serious or tragic elements, as in a play, in
order to provide temporary relief from tension, or to intensify the dramatic action.
What is comic relief? The definition of comic relief in literature is when comedy is used as a
literary device to break the tension in a scene. Comic relief is not just comedy, but the strategic
placement of comedy so it can be used to add contrast to a darker moment in the plot. It is
used to lighten the mood in an otherwise tense, dismal moment. Comic relief can be thought of
as a diversion from the current intensity in the scene.
Comic relief is the inclusion of comedy or humor during a serious moment to uplift the heavy
mood. It can be found in a character's amusing dialogue, or a character themselves can become
the comic relief through their own actions. Funny scenes can be another source of comic relief.
Introducing the comedy provides contrast with the tragedy in the scene. In turn, this will
intensify the audience's attention to the tragedy.
It is important to understand that comic relief is different from comedy. Comic relief is when
comedic elements are applied to a tense moment to provide repose from the stress of the
scene. Comic relief can not exist without the dark moment that it provides relief from. If there is
no pressure in the scene, only comedic elements, then the scene is likely comedy, not comic
relief. William Shakespeare is considered to be the master of comic relief.
Examples. William Shakespeare deviated from the classical tradition and used comic relief in
Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, The Merchant of Venice and Romeo and Juliet. The grave-digger
scene in Hamlet, the gulling of Roderigo in Othello, and the mockery of the fool in King Lear
provide immense comic relief.

Importance of Comic Relief: Comic relief is used to break tension. Authors use
humorous characters, clever dialogue, and funny scenes to create comic relief during a
dramatic scene with mounting pressure.
What is the purpose of comic relief?
Comic relief is used to break the tension in a dramatic scene. Comic relief allows the audience a
chance to experience a different emotion, and calm themselves during a tense moment.
I. What is Comic Relief?
Even in an intense, dramatic movie, you can find moments of humor. Maybe a character is
facing an impossible epic quest, but makes witty comments to lighten the mood. Or maybe
two characters are suffering through a difficult divorce, but one of them cracks a joke to cut the
tension. It’s just like in real life – we often make jokes to ease the burden of difficult
circumstances. In storytelling, this is called comic relief.

It’s important to remember the relief part of comic relief. In a funny movie, for example, there’s
no need for comic relief – there’s just regular comedy. Comic relief is when the comedy takes
place in a story that’s dramatic, tragic, or serious overall, not comedies.

II. Types of Comic Relief

Comic relief comes in two forms, which can often be found side-by-side in the same book or
movie:

 Internal Comic Relief is when the joke is actually part of the story – for example, the
character makes a joke and other characters laugh. We’re laughing with the characters.
External Comic Relief is when the audience laughs, but the characters
themselves don’t. This could happen, for example, when a character slips on a
banana peel: nobody onscreen is laughing, but the audience still finds it funny.
We’re laughing at the characters.

III. Examples of Comic Relief

Example 1
“I don’t think he knows about second breakfast, Pip!”

“What about elevenses? Luncheon? Afternoon tea? Dinner? Supper? He knows about them,
doesn’t he?” (Merry and Pippin, The Fellowship of the Ring)

Merry and Pippin provide constant comic relief in the Lord of the Rings movies. These hobbits
seem to be in good spirits nearly all the time, especially in the Fellowship of the Ring, when
they’re surrounded by friends. As the Fellowship breaks apart, however, Merry and Pippin
become less and less humorous – the strain of the quest begins to wear out their humor.

Fortunately, the dwarf Gimli continues to provide laughs for the audience. Note that Gimli
is external comic relief (he has silly behaviors that make the audience laugh, but nobody else
seems to notice them, and Gimli himself is usually not trying to be funny), whereas Merry and
Pippin are both external and internal (they deliberately make jokes to each other and are always
smiling).

Example 2
There are examples of comic relief in real life, too. For example, all the American founding
fathers took on an extraordinary risk when they decided to break away from the British
government. Had the revolution failed, they would have all been executed as traitors. Knowing
this, they all tried to stick together and watch each others’ backs. Benjamin Franklin, a
notoriously clever man, once joked that “we must, indeed, all hang together, or most assuredly
we shall all hang separately.”

IV. The Importance of Comic Relief

In literature, as in life, everyone needs a good laugh now and again. While great writing often
deals with negative emotions, you don’t want your story to get too grim, depressing, scary, or
tense. To prevent this from happening, writers sprinkle in a little humor here and there. This
dates back at least to Shakespeare, who often put humorous characters in even his darkest plays –
plays like Macbeth and Hamlet.

Comic relief is everywhere these days, but it’s pretty hard to find in ancient literature. Greek
literature, for example, was either comedy or tragedy and these were terrifyingly sad from
beginning to end. So what happened? No one knows for sure, but the answer is probably that
modern writers are more interested in realism than their Greek predecessors. In real life, of
course, our emotions are all mixed together, not cleanly separated – we experience joy and
laughter alongside sadness. Modern literature imitates this complex emotional reality.

What Is Hamartia? Hamartia is a literary device that refers to the tragic flaw of a main
character in a story, which ultimately leads to the character’s downfall. Errors of judgement or
specific character traits like excessive pride, greed, or jealousy can be a character’s fatal flaw or
lead to a reverse of fortune.
What is hamartia and example?
In ancient Greek tragedy, a hamartia is a fatal mistake that a character makes that brings about
their downfall. In Oedipus Rex, for instance, Oedipus’ hamartia is killing his father and marrying
his mother, which he does without meaning to.
What is Hamartia?
This word is first used by Aristotle in his work “Poetics”. Aristotle described Hamartia is an error
of judgment or a mistake that was made by a character in a theatrical tragedy.
By Aristotle’s definition, the Hamartia, or mistake, could have been the result by any character.
Often the character was ignorant of the eventual outcome of the decision.
One of the classical Hamartia examples is where a hero wants to achieve something but, while
doing so, he commits an intentional error and he ends up achieving exactly the opposite with
disastrous results.
Tragic hero, defined in Aristotle’s Poetics as “an intermediate kind of personage, not pre-
eminently virtuous and just” whose misfortune is attributed, not to vice or depravity, but an error
of judgment. The hero is fittingly described as good in spite of an infirmity of character. King
Oedipus from Sophocles' Oedipus Rex may be the most iconic tragic hero. He is the ruler of
Thebes during a time of a god-sent plague.
Poetic justice in literature describes a literary device in which evil characters are punished or
brought to justice for their actions, and good characters are rewarded. Literature that utilizes
poetic justice will often have happy endings with moral lessons for the reader to learn.
The term was coined by the English literary critic Thomas Rymer in the 17th century, when it was
believed that a work of literature should uphold moral principles and instruct the reader in
correct moral behavior.

What is an example of poetic justice in a book?

Sophocles eventually travels to Thebes, where he kills the king of the city and marries his
widow, the queen. Poetic justice comes into play when the reader learns that the queen is
Oedipus's mother and the king his father. In his attempts to flee the prophecy, he fulfills it.

A flashback (sometimes called an analepsis) Is an interjected scene that takes the narrative back
in time from the current point in the story. Flashbacks are often used to recount events that
happened before the story’s primary sequence of events to fill in crucial backstory.
What is flashbacks in literature?
In fiction, a flashback is a scene that takes place before a story begins. Flashbacks interrupt the
chronological order of the main narrative to take a reader back in time to the past events in a
character's life.23
What are the two types of flashbacks in literature?
In literature, internal analepsis is a flashback to an earlier point in the narrative; external
analepsis is a flashback to a time before the narrative started. In film, flashbacks depict the
subjective experience of a character by showing a memory of a previous event and they are often
used to "resolve an enigma".
What are the elements of flashback?

A flashback typically is implemented by:

 The narrator tells another character about past events.

 The narrator has a dream about past events.
 The narrator thinks back to past events, revealing the information only to the reader.
 The narrator reads a letter that prompts back to an earlier time.

A colloquialism is a literary device often used by authors as a way to convey

personality and authenticity to characters. It is an informal, commonplace
language specific to a demographic or time period. Some examples of informal
colloquialisms can include words (such as “y'all” or “gonna” or "wanna"), phrases (such as "old
as the hills" and "graveyard dead"), or sometimes even an entire aphorism ("There's more than
one way to skin a cat" and "He needs to step up to the plate.").
In literature, colloquialism is the use of informal and/or conversational language that is
commonplace in a particular region or era.
Melodrama is a literary or dramatic genre in which standard tropes and elements are
exaggerated to elicit emotional responses from audiences or readers. Usually, in melodramas,
characters exhibit overly emotional behaviors, and events are extremely sensationalized, creating
a kind of outlandish and unrealistic tone.
What is melodrama and its characteristics?
Melodrama is a dramatic work in which events, plot, and characters are sensationalized to elicit
strong emotional reactions from the audience. In literature, theatre, and cinema, Melodramas are
focused on exaggerated plots rather than characterization. Melodrama characters are often given
stereotypical roles.
What are the 4 main themes of melodrama?
With themes of love, suffering, betrayal, sacrifice, and redemption, melodrama puts its audiences
through the emotional wringer.
What is an example of melodrama?
Jean Jacques Rousseau’s play Pygmalion is one of the most influential examples of melodrama.
It is an adaptation of the classic Greek myth, which tells of the sculpture Pygmalion who falls in
love with his own statue, which eventually comes to life.
What is a bildungsroman novel?
A Bildungsroman is a specific type of coming-of-age story that features the intellectual, ethical
and spiritual growth of a young protagonist approaching maturity. Bildungsroman novels are
thought to have originated in Germany, but the genre includes the stories of a diverse range of
global eras and characters.
What are the themes of bildungsroman novel?
In these stories, characters often grapple with understanding who they are. They question their
beliefs, passions, and values, and through their experiences, they shape their identity. Conflict
with Society: Often, the protagonist feels out of sync with their society or culture.
What is an example of a bildungsroman?
What are three examples of Bildungsroman in literature? From the mid 1800s to the 21 st century,
various literary works fall into the bildungsroman category. Three such works include Johnny
Treamin by Esther Forbes, The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger, and To Kill a Mokcingbird
by Harper Lee.
What was the first bildungsroman novel? The origin
Many literary scholars point to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister’s
Apprenticeship (1795–96) as the first major published work to lay the groundwork of the
bildungsroman. Christoph Martin Wieland’s Geschichte des Agathon (1766–67) is also cited as a
foundational text.
What are the components of a bildungsroman?
So, those are the main elements of a Bildungsroman – a protagonist’s journey, the role of society,
and conflict and resolution. These elements work together to create a narrative that traces a
character’s growth from youth to adulthood.
In literature, imagery refers to words that trigger the reader to recall images, or mental pictures,
that engage one of the five senses: sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch. Imagery is one of the
strongest literary techniques because it connects to the personal experiences, or memories, of the
reader.
Imagery is a literary device used in poetry, novels, and other writing that uses vivid description
that appeals to a readers’ senses to create an image or idea in their head. Through language,
imagery does not only paint a picture, but aims to portray the sensational and emotional
experience within text.
The types of imagery are visual imagery, auditory imagery, gustatory imagery, tactile imagery,
and olfactory imagery. To write using imagery, you want to paint a picture with your words. To
do this, you can use figurative language, such as similes, metaphors, and personification.
Literal Imagery vs. Figurative Imagery
Literal Imagery
The use of words primarily by their defined meanings. Example: The red bulb was glowing.
Figurative Imagery
The use of words or phrases to describe something by comparing it to something else. Example:
The soft glow came from the tiny setting sun, firmly fixated on the wall
IMAGERY VERSUS SYMBOLISM
Imagery refers to the use of vivid and descriptive language to add depth to the writing. Imagery
creates mental images in the readers' mind.
Symbolism refers to the imbuement of objects with a certain meaning that is different from their
original meaning or function. Symbolism expresses a hidden meaning in words. Imagery
appeals to the five senses. Symbolism appeals to the intellect.
Symbolism in literature is a tool of figurative language where an image, object, idea or symbol is
used to represent something other than its literal meaning. It is a common technique used by
writers in both fiction and non-fiction texts to emphasize a theme or make a point about the
nature of a story. For example, in stories where flowing water can be seen, this often represents
an era of rebirth or recovery
What is the difference between symbol and symbolism?
In literature, a symbol is a thing that stands for or represents something else. A symbol might be
an object, a mark, an image, a character, a name, or a place—pretty much anything can serve as a
symbol. Symbolism is a literary device that uses symbols to imbue meaning in a story.
The term “chorus” refers to a group of performers responsible for summarizing (sometimes
through song and/or dance) the events of a play. Chorus, in drama and music, those who
perform vocally in a group as opposed to those who perform singly. The chorus in Classical
Greek drama was a group of actors who described and commented upon the main action of a
play with song, dance, and recitation. The Chorus can reveal things to the audience that they
would otherwise have no way of knowing. This links the actor more closely to the spectator,
making the audience more invested in the story.
Some examples of the Chorus in plays are: Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, Euripides Hippolytus,
Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus, and Paula Vogel’s How I Learned to
Drive.
Soliloquy is the word we traditionally use to refer to a monologue that is delivered when the
character is alone. In Shakespeare’s plays, for example, there are many speeches that begin with
a character saying something like “Now I am alone.” And you know you are about to experience
a soliloquy.
A soliloquy is when a character in a dramatic work speaks directly to the audience, expressing
their inner thoughts. A soliloquy is a literary device that allows audience members to know what
a character thinks or believes, providing an audience a way to better understand a character. The
most famous example of a soliloquy is Hamlet’s “To be or not to be” speech. In the speech,
Hamlet is considering the dilemma of whether to endure the hardships of life or to end his own
life, and ponders the pros and cons of both options.
Hubris is a word with Greek roots. It means arrogance and excessive pride. This can be
something a character feels internally, but it usually translates to the character’s actions.
Sophocles’ Oedipus exhibits hubris when he refuses to accept his fate. In Greek tragedy, hubris
leads to conflict, if not punishment or death, although when Orestes, with hubris, took it upon
himself to revenge his father – by killing his mother, Athena exonerated him.

Compiled By Um e Laila