Lecture5 OpAmpCircuits Noise Linearity

SYSTEM TEST ENGINEERING
Mixed-Signal Electronics
(Op)Amplifiers: Basic Characteristics & Circuits (cont‘d)
Noise
Master Degree Program: System Test Engineering

Lecture 4
Martin DECHANT
02.12.2023
Agenda
• Q&A on Problems, last lecture & test (15’, before official start)
• Recap: PSRR (5'), (KCL)
• OpAmp CIRCUITS (30')
• NOISE
• Break
• LINEARITY
02.12.2023 2
Recap of previous subjects

Power Supply Rejection

Ideally changes in the power supply should not impact the output of an amplifier. However, in reality they do.
In reality, a serious amount of debugging time, meetings, focus teams, redesign… happens due to power supply cross-talking to the signal via
insufficient PSRR
Power supply rejection is given by the ratio of a change in supply voltage to a change of the
differential input signal causing the same change at the output signal. PSR = ΔVDD/ΔvDin = G x ΔVDD/ΔvDout
PSRR = 20 log |ΔVDD/ΔVDin|
Translation: …. power supply rejection ratio
• You apply 100mV on the supply causing a 10mV output signal
• You apply 1mV on the input causing also a 10mV output (gain 10) 𝐴 (𝑉 =0)
𝑃𝑆𝑅𝑅 += 𝐴 (𝑉 =0) [Allen] 𝑣
𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑛
• PSR = 100m/1m = 10*100m/10m = 100 (=40dB) same thing, just 1/x

You find people talking about positive and negative dB,
although mostly they mean the same: “suppression”
Signal (hopefully!)
Gain
Often people talk about PSRR but

Supply Supply gain ≠ const; what they actually mean the
Gain Fn(signal gain) power supply gain
(eg 1V on supply makes 3mV on
output → -50dB)
PSRR PSRR const
02.12.2023 4
L4_OpAMp_PSRR.asc with a real opAmp AD711
Kirchhoff’s current law

.. Is usually not Kirchhoff’s voltage law ;)
• Which are the nodes? Give them names (A, B, C, D)
• In each node, σ 𝑖 = 0, eg for node A: 𝐼𝑎𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎𝑐 + 𝐼𝑎𝑑 = 0
𝑉
• What is I? 𝐼 = and V is the voltage between the node that you look
𝑅 𝑉 −𝑉
at, and the node where R is connecting to, eg 𝐼𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏
𝑅𝑎𝑏
• Do that for all nodes and all branch elements → you get an equation
system with VOLTAGES.
• Somewhere you have voltage sources and/or current sources: good! ☺
they fix either voltages or introduce currents that you don’t have to
solve. (without sources, you don’t have to solve anything. All is zero ;) )
5
Kirchhoff’s current law II

An example:
6
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS:
CHARACTERISTICS AND CIRCUITS
02.12.2023 7
From System Performance to Digital Data –

A Typical Readout Chain
A/D
Converter
Filter
Digital
Sensor Amplifier out
Clock
SUT
02.12.2023 8
The operational amplifier
• is a high gain voltage amplifier

• is called operational amplifiers because it was first used to
perform mathematical operations like additions and integration
in analog computers
• is typically used in feedback configuration
• due to its characteristics, the overall characteristic of an opamp
circuit in feedback configuration is basically determined by the
external circuitry
• … up to a certain point! That was the subject of last lecture:
when does it FAIL to do this
02.12.2023 9
The Operational amplifier

Ideal Characteristics
• Gain:
• differential: ∞
• common mode: 0
• Common Mode Rejection: ∞
• Input offset voltage: 0
• Input impedance: ∞
• input current ==0
• Output impedance: 0
• Input and output voltage range: ∞
• Bandwidth: ∞
• Gain Bandwidth product: ∞
• Phase Margin: 180° (zero phase shift)
• Slew rate: ∞ (infinite output current)
• Noise: 0
• PSRR: ∞
02.12.2023 10
Feedback in general
Si Se
+ A >> So
- Sfb
𝐴
𝑆𝑜 = ∙ 𝑆𝑖
1+𝐴∙𝐹
1
~ ∙ 𝑆𝑖
𝐹
𝐴
𝐴𝑐 =
02.12.2023 1+𝐴∙𝐹 11
The Operational amplifier

Feedback – golden rules repeated
An ideal operational amplifier in negative feedback configurations

drives the output voltage to a level that makes the difference
between the input voltage terminal 0.
Additionally, the input currents of an ideal opamp are zero.
With these two characteristics in mind, one can easily analyze the
most important op-amp circuits by hand
02.12.2023 12
Basic Op-Amp Circuits

The inverting amplifier
… has input resistance Iin
Rin!
It eats current from the Iin In=0
driving source! Vpn=0
(although the OpAmp eats no

input current, the whole
inverting amp will eat current!
This is already shown in the
determining equation) 𝑉
Input nullor: 𝑉𝑝𝑛 = 0: 𝐼𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑛
Input nullor: 𝐼𝑛 = 0: 𝐼𝑅𝑓 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝑛 = 0: 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑛 − 𝑅𝑓 ∙ 𝐼𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑖𝑛
02.12.2023 13

The non-inverting amplifier
… is high-ohmic @ input
02.12.2023 14

A special non-inverting amplifier: the voltage follower
Ip=0
Also known as voltage buffer Vout = Vin
Vpn=0
Why: Gain 1, high input impedance, low output impedance
02.12.2023 15

The inverting summation amplifier
Instead of 1 resistor from 1 input → many resistors working into
“virtual ground” (= in-)
02.12.2023

The differential amplifier (subtractor)
02.12.2023 17

The differential amplifier
If all R are equal:
Vout= (V2+V22) – (V1+V11)
02.12.2023 18
Basic Op-Amp Circuits Input offset is

terrible for
The integrator integrators!
WHY?
Generalized form:
A=-Z2/Z1 ; now eg. Z1=R, Z2=1/jwC
02.12.2023 19

The differentiator
The blue Vout is

actually like the current
into a Cap to GND when
you apply Vin to it…
02.12.2023 just multiplied with -R 20

The logarithmic amplifier
02.12.2023 21
The real Operational Amplifier
• Gain:
• differential: 10 ^5 – 10^7
• common mode: 0.1 - 1
• Common Mode Rejection: 10^4 – 10^7
• Input offset voltage: 10 µV – few mV
• Input impedance: MΩ – TΩ (MOS)
• input current = 1pA – 100 nA
• Output impedance: few Ω
• Input and output voltage range: +- 14V
• Bandwidth: Hz - kHz
• Gain Bandwidth product: 1 MHz – 100 MHz
• Phase Margin: 60° (zero phase shift)
• Slew rate: 100s mV/µs – 1000 V/µs
• Noise: 1 nV / sqrt (Hz) – 25 nV / sqrt (Hz)
• PSSR: 100 dB
[Tietze Schenk 2008]
02.12.2023 22
Impact of imperfections on circuit performance
e.g. Opamp with G0 10^2, 10^4, 10^6

Gain = G0/(1+G0xF) → F = 1/G|G0=>>
G|G0=>> = 10
F = 1/10, A= 100, G = 100/11 = 9,09
F = 1/10, A= 1000, G = 1000/101 = 9,9
F = 1/10, A= 10000, G = 10000/1001 = 9,99
F = 1/10, A= 1000000, G = 1000000/100001 = 9,9999
02.12.2023 23
Further reading:
Some collections of circuits you can build with OpAmps on the web (TI,
National)
• https://www.ti.com/lit/an/snla140d/snla140d.pdf?ts=1636889910336
&ref_url=https%253A%252F%252Fwww.ti.com%252Fproduct%252FTL
V3501
• https://web.ece.ucsb.edu/Faculty/rodwell/Classes/ece2c/resources/an
-31.pdf
Some rectifier circuits based on OpAmps:
• https://www.site.uottawa.ca/~rhabash/ELG4135L8.pdf
Pls find this, and also M Horowitz' notes, on Moodle "misc material"
24
02.12.2023
NOISE
02.12.2023 25

A/D
Converter
Filter
Digital
Clock
SUT
02.12.2023 26
Noise
• is a random interference unrelated to the signal of interest

• there is no electric circuit, no sensor, without it
• determines the lower limit of an electrical signal that can be
detected / amplified w/o significantly reducing signal quality
(lower end of dyn. Range)
• is characterized and specified by
• probability density function (PDF)
• power spectral density (PSD)
02.12.2023 27
Probability Density Function (PDF)

• “fx(x)”
• How often is the amplitude of a random (noisy) signal between certain limits?
Limits: say between x and x+dx
• fx(x).dx = probability of x < ampl(Nsig) < x + dx
• The PDF can be used to calculate the probability that a random variable x lies
in the range [x1, x2]:
𝑥
• 𝑃 𝑥2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥2 = ‫ 𝑥׬‬2 𝑓𝑋 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
• How frequently does noise in a binary data sequence cause a

misinterpretation of logic information?
• e.g. a ‘0’ is interpreted as a ‘1’ and vice versa
This is the sort of questions that PDF can answer
02.12.2023 28

PDF fx(x) is NOT a probability itself,
but the area under fx(x) curve for any interval dx IS a probability
(area under curve → integral)
How to determine the PDF (it is not one universal function… can be gaussian, flat, bimodal)
• Sample a large number of values
• Put them into small bins
• Bin height is number of occurrence
• Normalize (to total area = 1, or 100%)
02.12.2023 29

Gaussian (normal) distribution
• If many independent random processes with arbitrary PDFs are
added, the PDF of the sum approaches a Gaussian distribution
fX(x)
If a signal has no DC component, its rms

value is identical to its standard deviation.
PDF does not say anything about how fast

the random signal changes. It says
something about AMPLITUDES
+- 6sigma = 99.999998%
(5 x 9 after the comma)
02.12.2023 30

the axes / contents re-explained
‫𝑓𝑑𝑝 ׬‬. 𝑑𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 !
Here: 68.2% probability, that

x is between μ-σ and μ+σ
02.12.2023 31
Adding PDFs
Most noise signals are zero mean, so we only need to look at the
standard deviation
σtotal² = σ1² + σ2²
Adding noise:
vnrmstotal = sqrt (v²nrms1 +v²nrms1)

• It is like adding POWERS, not voltages!
• P ~ V2 ; V ~ √P
02.12.2023 32
Power Spectral Density (PSD)
Spectral density of a random signal shows how much power the signal carries in a unit
bandwidth around frequency f.
Unit is W/Hz, V²/Hz, V/sqrt(Hz) (often also written V/rtHz)
So, it can be also dB/Hz. Often in diagrams!
How to measure: apply an ideal Bandpassfilter w/ 1 Hz BW → measure amplitude
If interested in the total power in a certain frequency range: integrate over that range
(and you get e.g. Vrms)
PDF and PSD are in no relation to each other:

• e.g. thermal and 1/f noise have both Gaussian PDF but different PSD
[Razavi 2014]
02.12.2023 33
Why Power Spectral Density?
Knowing the PSD of noise makes it easy to apply / investigate frequency-

domain operations, like filtering
e.g. LPF a noisy signal:
more on lecture on filters
02.12.2023 34
Noise Sources
Thermal Noise
• is generated by thermal movement of charge carriers in a conductor
• its amplitude distribution is Gaussian with zero mean
• The power spectral density is
• Vnrms²= 4kTR [V²/Hz]

• k = boltzmans constant (1,38E-23)
• R = resistance in Ohm 𝑣𝑛,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 4𝑘𝑇𝐵𝑅 = 𝜎
• B = Bandwidth
• T= temperature in kelvin
• @27C (=300K): 4kT=1.65e-20; √4kT = 1.28e-10
• The spectrum is white (up to ~ 6 THz)
02.12.2023 35
Noise Sources
Flicker Noise (1/f – noise)
is present in all active and many passive devices
exact mechanisms causing it still unclear (impurities in channel,
defects in oxides)
it is usually related to DC current and it is Gaussian distributed
The power spectral density is proportional to 1/f
Typically characterized by the corner frequency fc, at which higher
frequency flat band noise starts dominating over 1/f noise.
MOS transistor:
W… gate width
L… gate length
Cox… oxide capacitance per um2
02.12.2023 K… flicker noise coefficient 36
Noise Sources
Shot Noise
Due to random fluctuation in current, since current is a flow of
discrete charges.
Follows a poisson distribution: noise is sqrt(number of electrons)
Typically small compared to thermal and 1/f noise
Is temperature and frequency independent (therefore it might
become dominant at high frequencies and low temperatures)
white up to 1/tt (~ GHz – THz) tt is time it takes electron to pass
through conductor/junction
power spectral density is proportional to current: inrms²= 2eI
02.12.2023 37
Equivalent Input Noise

Input referred Noise
Input referred noise is a way to model all noise sources as a single voltage
and current noise source at the input
in2
open
• vn2 emulates the situation when the inputs are shorted

→ excitates the circuit with noise voltage at the input; in2 is shorted by vn2 and the short, no effect
• in2 emulates if the inputs were open
→ excitates the circuit with noise current at the input; vn2 has no effect because of the open
• This way the effect of all input impedances (between short and open)
are covered.
02.12.2023 38
…relating everything back to the input…
There seems to be a tradition to relate everything back to the input…

• Offsets are input related
• Noise often is input related
• Etc etc.
One simple reason: you change the gain of the amplifier → output noise
changes, but input related noise stays constant! That's quite useful!!
Another practical aspect: you can relate that noise (or offset) to the noise
/ the signal that comes into your amplifier, (and then you add it up and
amplify noiseless… in the calculation)
02.12.2023 39
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

Noise Figure
• Signal-to-Noise Ratio
• SNR = PSignal / PNoise
• Noise Factor
• F = SNRin/SNRout
• Noise Figure NF is formally 10.log(F)
many people don’t make the difference and say NF to log and lin
(like us now!)
• A measure for how much the SNR of a signal degenerates when
passing through a system.
• Noiseless system SNRin = SNRout → NF = 1 or 0 dB
(more correctly: F=1, NF=0dB)
• IN reality: F>1;NF > 0dB in reality (any component generates noise)
02.12.2023 40
Vn,in Vn,out
Noise Figure GV
Single Stage VS,in
GV = Voltage gain
2
𝑉𝑆,𝑖𝑛
2 2 2
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝐼𝑁 𝑉𝑛,𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑆,𝑖𝑛 2
∙ 𝑉𝑛,𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐺𝑉2 ∙ 𝑉𝑛,𝑖𝑛
𝐹= = =
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐺𝑉2 ∙ 𝑉𝑆,𝑖𝑛
2
𝐺𝑉2 ∙ 𝑉𝑆,𝑖𝑛
2 2
∙ 𝑉𝑛,𝑖𝑛
2
𝑉𝑛,𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐺𝑉2 ∙ 𝑉𝑛,𝑖𝑛
2
2
𝑉𝑛,𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 2 ∙𝑉 2 +1
𝐺𝑉 𝑛,𝑖𝑛 NF is a function of the impedance of the signal source.
In RF, there is much talk (and work) about the “noise match”:
careful choice of the source impedance to minimize overall
02.12.2023 noise 41
Vn,in Vn1,out Vn2,out

Noise Figure GV1 GV2
Two Stages VS,in
How is the signal amplified in this chain?
𝑉𝑠,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠,𝑖𝑛 ∙ 𝐺𝑣1 ∙ 𝐺𝑣2
How is noise power at the output composed?
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑛2,𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐺𝑉2 ∙ 𝑉𝑛1,𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐺𝑉1 ∙ 𝐺𝑉2 ∙ 𝑉𝑛,𝑖𝑛
SNRout is then... We need to square the signal → power!

2 2 2
𝐺𝑉1 ∙ 𝐺𝑉2 ∙ 𝑉𝑆,𝑖𝑛
2 2 2 2 2 2
02.12.2023 𝑉𝑛2,𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐺𝑉2 ∙ 𝑉𝑛1,𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐺𝑉1 ∙ 𝐺𝑉2 ∙ 𝑉𝑛,𝑖𝑛 42
Vn,in Vn1,out Vn2,out

Noise Figure GV1 GV2
Two Stages VS,in
2
𝑉𝑆,𝑖𝑛
2
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝐼𝑁 𝑉𝑛,𝑖𝑛
𝐹= = 2 2 2
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐺𝑉1 ∙ 𝐺𝑉2 ∙ 𝑉𝑆,𝑖𝑛
2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑉𝑛2,𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐺𝑉2 ∙ 𝑉𝑛1,𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐺𝑉1 ∙ 𝐺𝑉2 ∙ 𝑉𝑛,𝑖𝑛
2
𝑉𝑛1,𝑜𝑢𝑡 2
𝑉𝑛2,𝑜𝑢𝑡
=1+ 2 ∙𝑉 2 + 2 ∙𝐺 2 ∙𝑉 2
𝐺𝑉1 𝑛,𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑛,𝑖𝑛
F1 F2-1
𝐹2 − 1
= 𝐹1 + 2
02.12.2023
𝐺𝑉1 43
Noise Figure of n-stages (cascaded NF)
NF1 NF2 ... NFn

GV1 GV2 GVn
𝐹2 − 1 𝐹𝑛 − 1
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹1 + 2 + ⋯+ 2 2
𝐺𝑉1 𝐺𝑉1 × ⋯ × 𝐺𝑉𝑛−1
Friis Noise Equation, Gp is the available power gain.

NF contribution of later stages decreases with gain of all preceding stage.
NFs of early stages are more important than the one of the later ones.
This is the reason why we often have LNAs (Low Noise Amplifiers) as a first stage in a radio
receiver
02.12.2023 44
The problems will…
… help you to get used to the noise formulas,

You will train also NF of amplifier chains,
You will find out why you should put low-noise amplifiers first in the
chain (even though they might have quite low gain…)
02.12.2023 45
Example Opamp Circuit Tietze Schenk 542
02.12.2023 46
Anecdotic
by venerable Tom
Lee [Lee 2004]
02.12.2023 47
References
[Razavi 2014] Razavi, Behzad. RF Microelectronics, Pearson 2014,

ISBN: 978-9332518636
[Lee 2004] Lee, Thomas H. , The design of CMOS radio-frequency
circuits, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press 2004
02.12.2023 48
Linearity
02.12.2023

A/D
Converter
Filter
Digital
Clock
SUT
02.12.2023 50
Linearity
In general: a system is linear if its output can be expressed as a linear

combination of responses to individual inputs
x1(t) → y1(t)
x2(t) → y2(t)
ax1(t) + bx2(t) → ay1(t) + by2(t)
Any system that does not fulfill this condition is non-linear.

Non-linear systems can generate frequency components that don’t exist
in the input signal.
[Razavi 2014]
02.12.2023 51
Non-Linearity
A (memoryless) nonlinear system can be approximated by a

polynomial
y(t) = α0 + α1x(t) + α2x²(t) + α3x³(t) + …..

2 3
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) + 𝛼2 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) + 𝛼3 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) + ⋯
For small signals, analog circuits can be very well approximated with
linear models (see e.g. „small signal gain of amplifier“), but for
larger signals the behavior typically becomes non-linear.
[Razavi 2014]
02.12.2023 52
Non-Linearity
Remember: „every smooth function can be expressed in form of a

power series“
e.g.: tanh
tanh = x – x³/3 + 2x5/15 - 17x7/315 .... (for x<pi/2)

For simplicity we limit our analysis to 3rd order systems only
y(t) ≈ α1x(t) + α2x²(t) + α3x³(t)
differential amplifiers: α2 = 0
02.12.2023 53
Excursion: powers of trigonometric functions
(A sin(ωt))² = A²/2 (1 - cos(2ωt))
(A sin(ωt))³ = A³/4 (3 sin(ωt) - sin(3ωt))
(A cos(ωt))² = A²/2 (1 + cos(2ωt))
(A cos(ωt))³ = A³/4 (3 cos(ωt) + cos(3ωt))

Often used terms:
- Fundamental / 1H: the original freq “f”
- 2H / 2nd harmonic: 2*f, the 2nd “overtone”
02.12.2023 54
- 3H / 3rd harmonic: 3*f etc etc
Differential amplifiers don’t positive input

1.5
generate even harmonics! Why? 1
0.5
• A differential amplifier should ignore common mode 0

inputs (that’s its purpose) 0 100 200 300 400
-0.5
• The “fundamental” blue curves of a positive and negative
input are of course opposite polarity. -1
• sin(x)2 generates double the frequency, the 2nd harmonic. -1.5

Look at the orange curves sin(phi) sin(phi)
(sin(phi))^2
sin(phi)
(sin(phi))^2(sin(phi))^3
• Sin(x)3 generates triple frequency components AND

fundamental (grey curve) negative input
• The sin2 curves (2nd harmonic) are IN PHASE – they are 1.5
COMMON MODE. 1
• Hence, 2nd harmonic (and 4th and 6th … all even) are 0.5
ignored in differential inputs. (DC too, btw)
0
• Same is largely valid for the output. It can take huge input signals at a 0 100 200 300 400
differential input, before an output generates a 2H (visible single ended), -0.5
and even that should be removed by the next differential input.
The 3H will develop already at much lower input amplitudes. -1
• Hence, for simplification we can see 3h terms (x3) -1.5

2
dominant and ignore x (=2H = Common Mode) terms. -sin(phi) -sin(phi)
(-sin(phi))^2
-sin(phi)
(-sin(phi))^2
(-sin(phi))^3
02.12.2023 55
Addendum: why differential sensing, why

differential amplifiers? (from last lecture)
Imagine a sensor at a remote place, at the other end of a huge factory hall. “ground” is the reference at each side, where the sensor is, and
where the reading instrument is. Say, the sensor outputs a voltage.
Over the long way, the different stray fields (magnetic induction, capacitive coupling) add incredible amounts of noise on top of the actual
(small) signal. The useful signal disappears totally in the noise.
I am unprecise here, because this disturbance isn’t noise in the narrow sense (coming a statistical natural process). It’s disturbances coming
from other sources and processes, which to us as users are as nasty as noise. And if it’s only constant 50Hz from the 220V net, it is nasty
still!
The same happens often in much smaller environments (eg a tester, with 1000s of signals, many of them high frequent digital) or even a
single PCB or within a chip of few mm.
Although science says “you cannot eliminate noise”, (remember, it’s actually not really noise) there is a small trick: if you take another line in
parallel to your signal line and connect it on the sensor end to the “reference” point of your sensor (often ground), then this refernce line
will go in parallel and close vicinity to the signal, and will suffer probably the same influence of environment noise and will carry the same
noise as the signal line. Is this an advantage to have “noise” plus signal on one line, and “noise” only on the other line?
YES if you can subtract voltages (and we can, since lecture 4!). The disturbances on both lines should be the same, so subtracting them
would lead to zero ☺. What should remain is the wanted sensor signal.
This works if and because the disturbances are the same on both lines, we say “strongly correlated”
What I described here is actually “pseudo-differential” signaling: one line carries the signal, the other the reference.
True differential signaling would be where one line carries the positive signal, and the other one the inverted signal.
That’s why differential signaling is very widespread: from stage audio for microphones to 0.5mm on-chip signaling between two blocks.
One more practical hint: twisting the cables hugely further reduces magnetic inductive coupling into your precious signal pair!
look up eg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twisted_pair etc etc.
02.12.2023 56
Addendum: how can a circuit be deaf to

“common mode”? (from last lecture)
Last page we learned that elimination of disturbances would be an advantage: (Vsig+Vdisturb) – Vdisturb = Vsig .
The Vdisturb would be called in this case “common mode”, because the 2 voltages go up and down “together”, “common” at the same
time by the same amount.
We need to look at bipolar or FET input stages to understand how this happens,
how a differential amplifier works. There is PLENTY of material in books and
on the web on this, here just the shortest possible version,
providing you know the bare minimum about transistors.
This is a differential
amplifier (“diffstage”).
That’s usually approx. the
input of an opAmp. Same stage with Vip=Vin= 6V. Common source @ 5.5V
Imagine Vip=Vin= 2V. The current in the tail source will / should be still the
Assume Vth= 0.5V same 10mA
the common source point The 2 transistors still have same Vgs so they will still
will be @ 1.5V share the 10mA like brothers and have each 5mA.
The current through each Like before, the I*R drop on the load resistors will be
transistor will be identical: 5mA*10k = 5V
same Vgs→ same Id = 5mA, And, like before, the output voltage is the same 15V on
half of the 10mA tail both sides!
current source.
The current through the 2 What happened? We increased the input voltage from 2V to
load resistors on top are 6V and the output is still the same?
also the same 5mA, hence This is precisely what we want, because this amplifier should
the I*R drop will be 5V on be deaf to common mode if the tail current source is good.
both sides
02.12.2023 The output voltages Vop
How good it is, is basically described by CMRR, the common 57
Von will be both 15V mode rejection ratio.
Example:
single tone signal through non-linear system
System: y(t) ≈ α1x(t) + α2x²(t) + α3x³(t)
Input signal: x(t) = A cos(ωt)
y(t) = α1 A cos(ωt) + α2 A² cos²(ωt) + α3 A³ cos³(ωt)

= α1 A cos(ωt) + α2 A²/2 (1 + cos(2ωt)) + α3 A³/4 (3 cos(ωt) + cos(3ωt))
= α2 A²/2 + (α1 A + 3/4 α3 A³) cos(ωt) + α2 A²/2 cos(2ωt) + α3 A³/4 cos(3ωt)
02.12.2023
[Razavi 2014] 58
Example:
single tone signal through non-linear system
V Input …. “x(t)”
Output … “y(t)”
DC
t
x(t) = A cos(ωt)
02.12.2023
y(t) = α2 A²/2 + (α1 A + 3/4 α3 A³) cos(ωt) + α2 A²/2 cos(2ωt) + α3 A³/4 cos(3ωt)
Gain Compression
Small signal gain = α1
describes the gain of a system well if:
α1 A >> 3/4 α3 A³ and α1 A >> α2 A²/2
But in reality gain of the fundamental is

(α1A + 3/4 α3 A3)
and therefore changes with amplitude of input signal
most circuits exhibit saturating or compressive behavior, meaning the gain
approaches 0 for high input signal levels. This implies that α3 is negative
“saturating”, “compressing” means:

- although the input signal (fundamental) increases,
- the output increase much less / doesn’t increase
02.12.2023 60
1-dB compression point
A-1dB
Mainly used in RF – circuits (Power Amplifiers)
Defined as input signal level that causes the small signal gain to
drop by 1dB
If plotted on a log log scale as function of input level, the output
falls by 1 dB at the 1-dB compression point. A 1H
out
[dB]
1 dB
20 log |α1 + 3/4 α3 A²-1dB| = 20 log |α 1| - 1 dB
→ A-1dB = sqrt (0.145 |α1/α3|)

A-1dB A 1H
in
[dB]
02.12.2023 61
Maths a bit slower…

20 log |α1 A-1dB + 3/4 α3 A3-1dB| = 20 log |α 1 A-1dB | - 1 dB
20 log |α1 + 3/4 α3 A²-1dB| + 20 log |A-1dB|= 20 log |α 1|+ 20 log |A-1dB| - 1 dB
20 log |α1 + 3/4 α3 A²-1dB| = 20 log |α 1| - 1 dB
20 log | α1 + 3/4 α3 A²-1dB| = 20 log |α 1 / 1.122|
α1 + 3/4 α3 A²-1dB = α 1 * 0.891
0.75 α3 A²-1dB = α 1 ( 0.891 – 1) = 0.108 α 1
A²-1dB = 0.108/0.75 * α 1 / α3 = 0.145 |α1/α3|
→ A-1dB = sqrt (0.145 |α1/α3|)
1/A²-1dB = 1/0.45 | α3/α1| ... we‘ll need that later
02.12.2023 62
Intermediate summary
• The nonlinearity of the amplifier gives us α0 , α1 , α2 , α3 ...

• Applying this nonlinearity to sine/cosine →
• Most prominent / important for us: α1A + 3/4 α3 A3
the amplitude of Fundamental!
• It's not only that you get overtones, also the amplitude of the
Fundamental is changed by distortion
• You cannot "filter" that away with a freq. Filter 
• The 1dB compression point captures this compression of
fundamental! A-1dB = sqrt (0.145 |α1/α3|)
• It is the point where the gain drops by 1dB
02.12.2023 63
Cascading of non-linear stages
x(t) = A cos(ωt)
y(t) ≈ α1x(t) + α3x³(t) assuming α2 = 0 (differential amplifier)
z(t) ≈ β1y(t) + β3y³(t)
(a+b)³ = a³+ 3a²b + 3ab² + b³
z(t) ≈ β1(α1x(t) + α3x³(t)) + β3(α1x(t) + α3x³(t))³
assuming α3 << α1
z(t) ≈ β1(α1x(t) + α3x³(t)) + β3 (α1³x³(t) + 3α1²α3x5(t) + 3α1α3²x7(t) +α3³x9(t))
z(t) ≈ α1 β1 x(t) + (α3 β1 + α1³β3) x³(t)
02.12.2023 64
Cascading of non-linear stages
z(t) ≈ α1 β1 x(t) + (α3 β1 + α1³β3) x³(t)
A-1dB = sqrt (0.145 |α´1/α´3|)

≈ sqrt (0.145 | α1 β1 / (α3 β1 + α1³β3) |) { 1/A²-1dB = 1/0.145 | α3/α1| }
1 1 𝛼3 𝛽1 𝛼13 𝛽3 1 𝛼3 1 𝛽3
≈ + ≈ + 𝛼12
𝐴2−1𝑑𝐵 0.145 𝛼1 𝛽1 𝛼1 𝛽1 0.145 𝛼1 0.145 𝛽1
The linear gain of the first stage
1 1 𝛼12 drives the signal at 2nd stage
≈ +
𝐴2−1𝑑𝐵 𝐴2−1𝑑𝐵,𝛼 𝐴2−1𝑑𝐵,𝛽 closer to compression limits
→ Linearity of later stage dominates, since its 1dB compression point is scaled
down by gain of preceeding stage(s) (unlike noise)
02.12.2023
1/A²-1dB ≈ 1/A²-1dB,α + α1² /A²-1dB,β + α1² β1² /A²-1dB,γ+ … 65
Linearity of later stage dominates…

The math explanation is very complete, true confusing…
but let’s LOOK at it
At input level 200mV, the 2nd stage β
already reaches its compression
point. α1= 5 is driving β to its limits.
02.12.2023 66
Simply remember:
𝐹2 − 1
For noise, the first stage dominates. 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹1 + 2
𝐺𝑉1
1 1 𝛼12
For linearity, the last stage dominates. ≈ +
𝐴2−1𝑑𝐵 𝐴2−1𝑑𝐵,𝛼 𝐴2−1𝑑𝐵,𝛽
(you could also say “the earlier stages…” and “the later stages”)
In both formulas, the gain of earlier stages plays an important role!
02.12.2023 67
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
is defined as the ratio of the equivalent root mean square (RMS) voltage of all the harmonic
frequencies over the RMS voltage of the fundamental frequency:
THD = sqrt (α2² A4/2² + α3²A6/4²)/ (α1 A + 3/4 α3 A³)

THD = A/2 sqrt (α2² + α3²A²/4) / (α1 + 3/4 α3 A²)
Relevant for sinusoidal input signals
Used mainly for
audio amplifiers (measure for faithfulness of output signal to input signal)
power Amplifiers (higher efficiency)
communication systems (less interference with other signals)
02.12.2023 68
Back-up
69
Filtering Noise – Equivalent Noise Bandwidth
Filter transfer-functions do not exhibit an abrupt change from passing a

signal to completely blocking it.
Equivalent Noise Bandwidth = BW of a brick wall filter producing the same

noise as the actual filter.
70

the axes / contents re-explained
02.12.2023 72

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SYSTEM TEST ENGINEERING

Master Degree Program: System Test Engineering

Recap of previous subjects

Power Supply Rejection

• PSR = 100m/1m = 10*100m/10m = 100 (=40dB) same thing, just 1/x

Often people talk about PSRR but

Kirchhoff’s current law

Kirchhoff’s current law II

From System Performance to Digital Data –

The operational amplifier

• is a high gain voltage amplifier

The Operational amplifier

The Operational amplifier

An ideal operational amplifier in negative feedback configurations

Additionally, the input currents of an ideal opamp are zero.

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

(although the OpAmp eats no

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

Why: Gain 1, high input impedance, low output impedance

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

Vout= (V2+V22) – (V1+V11)

Basic Op-Amp Circuits Input offset is

A=-Z2/Z1 ; now eg. Z1=R, Z2=1/jwC

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

The blue Vout is

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

The real Operational Amplifier

Impact of imperfections on circuit performance

e.g. Opamp with G0 10^2, 10^4, 10^6

From System Performance to Digital Data –

• is a random interference unrelated to the signal of interest

Probability Density Function (PDF)

• How frequently does noise in a binary data sequence cause a

Probability Density Function (PDF)

Probability Density Function (PDF)

If a signal has no DC component, its rms

PDF does not say anything about how fast

Probability Density Function (PDF)

‫𝑓𝑑𝑝 ׬‬. 𝑑𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 !

Here: 68.2% probability, that

σtotal² = σ1² + σ2²

vnrmstotal = sqrt (v²nrms1 +v²nrms1)

Power Spectral Density (PSD)

How to measure: apply an ideal Bandpassfilter w/ 1 Hz BW → measure amplitude

PDF and PSD are in no relation to each other:

Why Power Spectral Density?

Knowing the PSD of noise makes it easy to apply / investigate frequency-

more on lecture on filters

• Vnrms²= 4kTR [V²/Hz]

• The spectrum is white (up to ~ 6 THz)

Equivalent Input Noise

• vn2 emulates the situation when the inputs are shorted

…relating everything back to the input…

There seems to be a tradition to relate everything back to the input…

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)