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MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1) ________ is defined as the urge to move toward one's goals.

A) Deprivation B) Motivation C) Perception D) Emotion
Answer: B

2) Which of the following is an example of a motivated behaviour?

A) A baby smiling B) The wind blowing hard
C) A tree growing D) A musician learning a new piece
Answer: D

3) Which of the following is true of motivation?

A) It only comes from internal factors. B) It is responsible for every action.
C) It only comes from external factors. D) It is caused by some need.
Answer: D

4) ________ are states of cellular or bodily deficiency that compel drives.

A) Emotions B) Needs C) Incentives D) Moods
Answer: B

5) Which of the following is an example of a drive?

A) Kindness B) Water C) Music D) Education
Answer: B

6) ________ are the perceived states of tension that occur when our bodies are deficient in some need.
A) Drives B) Incentives C) Emotions D) Traits
Answer: A

7) Which of the following is the best example of motivation stemming from an incentive?
A) A teacher preparing for the next day's class
B) A girl learning the piano because she loves music
C) A family going out to eat because they are hungry
D) A boy mowing the lawn to make money during the holidays
Answer: D

8) Which of the following is true for incentives?

A) They are emotional in nature. B) They are unimportant for motivation.
C) They are an external motivating factor. D) They are monetary in nature.
Answer: C

9) Drives come from the ________ environment, while incentives come from the ________
environment.
A) external; internal B) institutional; personal
C) social; biological D) biological; external
Answer: D

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10) When discussing the origins of altruistic behaviour evident in many individuals across many
circumstances, Dr. Kim asserts that even though it doesn't necessarily benefit the individual, there
must have been some kind of adaptive significance produced by this kind of behaviour or it would
not be present today. Based on this information, Dr. Kim would most likely identify with which of
the following approaches to motivation?
A) optimal arousal theory B) evolutionary psychology
C) incentive theory D) hierarchical theory
Answer: B

11) Towhich model of motivation would the theory of 'survival of the fittest' most likely belong?
A) The optimal arousal model B) The evolutionary model
C) The drive reduction model D) The hierarchical model
Answer: B

12) Motivated behaviours result from:

A) needs, drives and incentives. B) hunger, thirst, and sex.
C) survival, hunger, and thirst. D) needs, drives, and money.
Answer: A

13) According to the evolutionary model of motivation, an organism's ultimate purpose is to ________.
A) migrate to a favourable climate B) reproduce itself
C) create mutations in its species D) find a role in its social group
Answer: B

14) According to the evolutionary model of motivation, the major motives all involve:
A) socialand theological needs
B) achieving self-actualization and self-esteem
C) the need for belonging and intimacy
D) survival and reproduction needs
Answer: D

15) Maintaining homeostasis is a major motivating factor in the ________ model of motivation.
A) drive-reduction B) optimal arousal
C) evolutionary D) hierarchy of needs
Answer: A

16) According to the drive reduction model of motivation, various drives are produced:
A) when our growth needs are not being met.
B) when we value a goal and expect that certain behaviours will lead to its accomplishment.
C) by specific instincts that are common to both humans and animals.
D) when there is a physiological disruption of homeostasis.
Answer: D

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17) Kathy wakes up from bed at night feeling hungry and decides to go down to the kitchen and see
what is inside the fridge. Kathy's body wants to achieve ________.
A) social assimilation B) homeostasis
C) motivation D) self-actualization
Answer: B

18) Drive reduction model assumes that there is a significant causal relation between which of the
following constructs?
A) drives and instincts B) instincts and homeostasis
C) drives and homeostasis D) drives and needs
Answer: C

19) Ifwe get too hot, we sweat to cool off. If we get too cold, we shiver to warm up. This is part of our
body's effort to maintain ________.
A) motivation B) homeostasis
C) self-actualization D) social assimilation
Answer: B

20) When the brain is deprived of sensory stimulation, the brain region that processes that kind of
sensory information:
A) actually shrinks.
B) cannot fire when it is stimulated subsequently.
C) actually enlarges.
D) is randomly activated.
Answer: A

21) Which of the following is true according to the optimal arousal model of motivation?
A) Arousal level is directly proportional to performance.
B) Low arousal improves performance.
C) Arousal level is inversely proportional to performance.
D) High arousal leads to poor performance.
Answer: D

22) Martin has been locked up in a dark room for four continuous days as part of a research to record the
effects of sensory deprivation. What results are likely to be observed?
A) Martin will be able to concentrate better once he comes out.
B) Martin is likely to experience hallucinations.
C) Martin will emerge refreshed and energetic.
D) There will be no visible changes in Martin's behaviour.
Answer: B

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23) Research on the relationship between physiological arousal and performance has determined that:
A) as arousal increases, performance increases to a point, but after that, further arousal serves to
decrease performance.
B) there is no relationship between arousal and performance.
C) as arousal increases, performance decreases to a point, but after that, further arousal serves to
increase performance.
D) as arousal increases, performance always tends to increase.
Answer: A

24) Alex is on his school's soccer team. According to the theories of Yerkes and Dodson, in which of
the following games would Alex perform best?
A) A practice game at the beginning of the season, with no fans present.
B) A championship game against his team's rival, with the arena filled with screaming fans.
C) A midseason game against an equally skilled team, with several fans present.
D) Alex will perform equally well in all the games.
Answer: C

25) Theessence of Maslow's hierarchy of needs is that:

A) the highest needs (e.g., growth and fulfillment) must be filled before more basic physiological
necessities can be considered.
B) low arousal and high arousal both lead to poor performance while moderate arousal leads to
optimal performance.
C) needs range from the most basic physiological necessities to the highest, most psychological
need for growth and fulfillment.
D) only the primary drive needs are important (e.g., food, water, and sex).
Answer: C

26) Which of the following is the correct sequence of needs in ascending order according to Maslow's
hierarchy of needs?
A) Esteem, love and belongingness, safety, self-actualization
B) Physiological, safety, love and belongingness, esteem
C) Safety, physiological, love and belongingness, esteem
D) Safety, esteem, physiological, love and belongingness
Answer: B

27) Matthas just moved to a new city to look for work. According to Maslow's theory, which of the
following needs will Matt seek to fulfill first?
A) Security B) Physiological
C) Love and belongingness D) Self-actualization
Answer: B

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28) Rowan is spiritual, in touch with her emotions, and kind to others. According to Maslow's theory,
Rowan has most likely reached the level of ________.
A) self-actualization B) reaction formation
C) expressive suppression D) egocentrism
Answer: A

29) According to Maslow's theory, Celine must meet her ________ needs before she fulfills security
needs.
A) love and belongingness B) physiological
C) self-actualization D) self-esteem
Answer: B

30) An important role in the signaling and initiating of hunger is the temporary rise and fall of
________.
A) leptin B) estrogen
C) glucose D) cholecystokinin (CCK)
Answer: C

31) Ifresearchers electrically stimulated the ventromedial hypothalamus (of rats, what would you
predict they would find?
A) The rats would experience the normal signals of satiety and therefore maintain their normal
body weight.
B) The rats would become gluttons increasing dramatically their body weights.
C) The rats would begin eating normally after a period of gluttony.
D) The rats would refuse to eat to the point of starvation.
Answer: D

32) Hunger researchers assumed that a certain region of the brain is responsible for initiating hunger and
eating because when it was electrically stimulated, animals would begin to eat. This brain region
was called the:
A) lateral hypothalamus (LH). B) ascending reticular formation (ARF).
C) paraventricular nucleus (PVN). D) ventromedial hypothalamus
Answer: A

33) ________ is a simple sugar that the brain uses for energy.
A) Ghrelin B) Neuropeptide Y C) Peptide YY D) Glucose
Answer: D

34) Which of the following is true of glucose?

A) Hunger causes a rise in glucose levels in the body.
B) It is a simple sugar that provides energy for cells.
C) The brain can use it only in combination with fat and protein.
D) It is a secondary source of energy for the body after fat.
Answer: B

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35) The________ regulates most of the basic physiological needs.
A) amygdala B) hypothalamus
C) medulla oblongata D) hippocampus
Answer: B

36) When the body'sblood sugar level drops, the ________ triggers the drive to obtain food.
A) hippocampus B) medulla oblongata
C) hypothalamus D) frontal lobe
Answer: C

37) Jasonfeels his stomach growling for food while he is attempting a math test in class. Which of the
following chemicals has likely sent a message to his brain that Jason's body is hungry?
A) Neuropeptide B) Melanin C) Orexin D) Ghrelin
Answer: D

38) Dr.
Ryan's view is that being hungry depends on how much food we have eaten recently and how
much energy is available to our bodies. His view correlates with the
A) Yerkes-Dodson law B) hierarchy of needs
C) evolutionary model D) drive reduction perspective
Answer: D

39) Stomach "growling" results from:

A) gastric secretions that are activated by the brain when we think of, see, or smell food.
B) stomach contractions.
C) insulin secretions that are activated by the hypothalamus when we smell food.
D) neuropeptide Y (NPY) secretions that stimulate appetite.
Answer: A

40) Whichof the following hormones suppresses appetite?

A) Neuropeptide Y B) Leptin C) Melanin D) Ghrelin
Answer: B

41) We can learn to associate the hearing and sight of food with its taste and, thus, these stimuli can
serve to trigger a hunger response. This is best explained through the constructs of ________ theory.
A) operant conditioning B) classical conditioning
C) modeling D) avoidance conditioning
Answer: B

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42) Juliefrequently eats a great deal of food when she gets emotionally upset. The last time she started
to feel depressed, she ate two large bags of potato chips, a half gallon of ice cream, and several
slices of pizza, all in one sitting. After she eats this way, she usually takes several laxatives to help
her purge all this food. Despite this eating behaviour, Julie's weight is about average for someone of
her height and age. Julie would most likely be diagnosed:
A) with bulimia. B) with digestive deficiency.
C) with anorexia nervosa. D) with both anorexia and bulimia.
Answer: A

43) People who have an intense fear of being fat and severely restrict their food intake, often to the point
of starvation, have the eating disorder called ________.
A) bulimia B) anorexia nervosa
C) digestive deficiency D) obesity phobia
Answer: B

44) Which of the following necessitates a reduction in the food intake of people living in industrialized
nations today?
A) Changing standards of beauty B) Increasing food scarcity
C) The prevalence of sedentary lifestyles D) Improved medical technology
Answer: C

45) A person's body mass index is determined by:

A) dividing weight by height to yield a weight-to-height ratio.
B) conducting a volumetric and body composition analysis.
C) measuring a person's waist-to-hip ratio.
D) identifying waist circumference to yield a waist-to-height ratio.
Answer: A

46) The ideal body mass index is ________.

A) below 15 B) 25-30 C) 30 and above D) 20-25
Answer: D

47) Who among the following would be considered obese?

A) Nathan's BMI is 15. B) Paul has a BMI of 26.
C) James has a BMI of 24. D) Timothy's BMI is 32.
Answer: D

48) Who among the following would be considered overweight, but not obese?
A) Hannah's BMI is 32. B) Julia has a BMI of 27.
C) Ann has a BMI of 25. D) Chloe's BMI is 15.
Answer: B

7
49) One study found that adults who had been adopted as children were much closer in weight to their
biological parents than to their adoptive parents. This indicates that:
A) weight gain is subject to environmental rather than biological influence.
B) the social environment has no influence on weight loss or gain.
C) cultural mores are the sole determining factors in adult weight.
D) biological factors play an important role in determining adult weight.
Answer: D

50) The number of fat cells is set by childhood and adolescence,

A) and the number decreases if someone loses weight.
B) and it increases if a person gains weight.
C) and it decreases as we age.
D) and does not change much after that.
Answer: D

51) The number of fat cells that a person has is determined by ________.
A) biological characteristics B) the social environment
C) psychological factors D) the person's food habits
Answer: A

52) Why do dieters find it difficult to keep off weight they've lost by dieting?
A) The nutritional deprivation during a diet stimulates the production of fat cells to store energy.
B) Fat cells do not respond in any way to changes in food habits or food quantity.
C) The fat cells lost as a result of a diet are replaced by new cells once the diet ends.
D) Diets do not decrease the number of fats cells, but rather how much fat each cell stores.
Answer: D

53) Which of the following is true for diets?

A) Diets have no effect on the fat cells in a body.
B) Diets are the most efficient way to lose weight.
C) People frequently regain the weight they have lost on a diet.
D) Diets reduce the number of fats cells a person has.
Answer: C

54) InMasters and Johnson's sexual response cycle, the onset of vaginal lubrication in the female and
erection in the male occurs in the:
A) plateau phase. B) resolution phase.
C) excitement phase. D) orgasm phase.
Answer: C

55) The refractory period, during which males are temporarily unable to have an orgasm, occurs during
the ________ phase of the sexual response cycle.
A) plateau B) vasocongestion C) orgasm D) resolution
Answer: D

8
56) During the plateau phase of the sexual response cycle:
A) the physiological arousal that was initiated in the previous phase remains high.
B) males and females experience pleasurable involuntary contractions.
C) males are temporarily unable to have an orgasm.
D) there is an initial rapid increase in physiological arousal.
Answer: A

57) In general, both males and females experience the sexual response cycle in similar ways EXCEPT:
A) males experience a refractory period.
B) females experience a refractory period.
C) females do not experience the resolution phase.
D) males do not experience the resolution phase.
Answer: A

58) Which of the following, according to Masters and Johnson, is the correct sequence of human sexual
responses in the order of occurrence?
A) Orgasm, excitement, plateau, resolution B) Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution
C) Plateau, resolution, excitement, orgasm D) Resolution, excitement, plateau, orgasm
Answer: B

59) Which of the following sexual phases do women often bypass altogether?
A) Plateau B) Orgasm C) Resolution D) Excitement
Answer: B

60) Which of the following is true for the differences in sexual behaviour exhibited by men and women?
A) Men do not experience the plateau and resolution stages.
B) Sexual responses decrease during the time of ovulation.
C) Women can have multiple orgasms while men do not.
D) Sexual responses for women are the same as those for men.
Answer: C

61) Which of the following regions of the brain plays a crucial role in sexual arousal?
A) The hippocampus B) The hypothalamus
C) The frontal lobe D) The medulla oblongata
Answer: B

62) Astudy by neuroscientist Gert Holstege and his colleagues shows that the ________ of women's
brains is(are) deactivated while they experience orgasm.
A) medulla oblongata B) frontal lobes
C) amygdala and hippocampus D) hypothalamus
Answer: C

9
63) Men show brain deactivation during orgasm ________
A) in the hippocampus.
B) of regions involved with fear and anxiety. Specifically, the amygdala and hippocampus, as well
as parts of the cortex involved in consciousness.
C) in the ventromedial hypothalamus.
D) to the left amygdala (a smaller emotional region of the brain).
Answer: D

64) Which of the following hormones plays the major role in stimulating sexual response?
A) Testosterone B) Melanin C) Ghrelin D) Adrenaline
Answer: A

65) Whichof the following is true of the male sexual responses?

A) Unlike women, men show no brain deactivation during orgasm.
B) Males can achieve multiple orgasms more often than females can.
C) Men achieve orgasms less frequently than do women.
D) An increase in levels of testosterone is related to increases in sexual activity.
Answer: D

66) From their study of sexual behaviour and culture, Clellan Ford and Frank Beach categorized
societies into ________.
A) restrictive, semirestrictive, and permissive societies
B) matriarchal, patriarchal, and egalitarian societies
C) egalitarian, class-based, and ranked societies
D) heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual societies
Answer: A

67) Broude and Greene (1980) studied men and women in many non-Western cultures and found that
extramarital sex was:
A) an acceptable alternative to marriage in most non-Western societies.
B) practiced by men and women in the majority of these societies.
C) unheard of as the societies had stronger family ties than the West.
D) expected of both men and women before and during marriage.
Answer: B

68) Parentalinvestment theory states that ________.

A) parental prohibition against sexual activity actually increases the likelihood of early sexual
behaviour
B) the more involved parents are in their children's lives, the less likely is risky sexual behaviour
C) men are eager to engage in casual sex to impress rivals with their sexual prowess
D) women are reluctant to engage in casual sex for fear of pregnancy
Answer: D

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69) A person's emotional and erotic preference for partners of a particular sex is referred to as:
A) gender identity B) sexual orientation
C) gender D) sexual response cycle
Answer: B

70) Research reveals that individuals exposed to high levels of testosterone in the womb are likely to be:
A) homosexual or bisexual. B) highly motivated at work.
C) more attracted to women. D) less aggressive in nature.
Answer: C

71) Brad and Amanda are siblings. Based on our knowledge sexual orientation, ________ is more likely
to develop a distinct sexual orientation, while ________ is more likely to identify as bisexual.
A) There is a gradual decrease from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual in both
sexes.
B) Brad; Amanda
C) Not enough information is known to make a decision.
D) Amanda; Brad
Answer: B

72) Dr.MacQuarrie states that although genetics play a role in sexual orientation, child play, early peer
relations, differences in how parents treat boys and girls, and gender identity are important factors in
the development of sexual orientation. This is consistent with the idea that:
A) neither environmental factors nor genetics have an influence on the sexual orientation of
individuals.
B) biology is key in the development of sexual orientation, and is not affected by environmental
factors.
C) environmental factors are what determine sexual orientation, biological development does not
play a role in sexual orientation of individuals.
D) biology could start the development of sexual orientation, which in turn would be strengthened
or discouraged by environmental factors.
Answer: D

73) The 'need for affiliation' corresponds to the ________ level of needs in Abraham Maslow's
hierarchy of needs.
A) self-actualization B) belongingness
C) safety D) physiological
Answer: B

11
74) Affiliation with others is:
A) a minor need. Individuals who do not have affiliation function equally well as people who have
close affiliations.
B) Not important. Being rejected by others has not been shown to impact a person's health.
C) determined by success. Only when individuals succeed can they create deep connections with
others.
D) so important that social exclusion physically hurts and activates pain regions in the brain
involved in physical pain.
Answer: D

75) Itwas the championship game and Ryan, the star player, was a nervous wreck. Soccer was his love
but this game held a lot of pressure. A college scout was in the stands as well as his entire family.
Ryan could taste victory and the importance of the game only increased his drive and need for
success. Ryan's motivation is most likely based on his:
A) anxiety associated with loss. B) anxiety associated with winning.
C) motivation for success. D) fear of failure.
Answer: C

76) Peter has just graduated to junior high school. Although a shy adolescent, he has a great desire to
make friends and be part of a group in school; he has decided that he will try to speak more with the
other kids in class. Which of the following is he expressing?
A) The need for achievement B) The need to be motivated
C) The need to excel D) The need for affiliation
Answer: D

77) According to Atkinson, the tendency to achieve includes all the following EXCEPT:
A) the incentive value of success. B) the need for affiliation.
C) the expectation of success. D) the motivation to succeed.
Answer: B

78) ________ is an individual's evaluation of the likelihood of succeeding at a task.

A) Incentive value B) Expectation of success
C) Need for achievement D) Motivation to succeed
Answer: B

12
79) Sara and Frank are competing for the same new job. They both very much want the job and believe
that it would substantially help their careers. Frank isn't sure that he has the job or interview skills
needed to get the job and as a result, he puts a little less effort into his resume and job interview.
Sara, on the other hand, believes that she has good interview skills and thinks that she has the talent
to get the job. As a result, she prepares at bit harder for this position. According to Atkinson's ideas
on achievement motivation the most likely explanation of this difference in motivation is due to:
A) their different expectancies regarding their goal-related behaviours.
B) their different growth needs.
C) their different internal drives.
D) the different values they placed on the job.
Answer: A

80) A motivation theorist who believes in Atkinson's model of achievement motivation would most
likely say that two people can respond differently to the same incentive because:
A) they evaluate the worth of the incentive differently.
B) they have different drives.
C) they have different deficiency needs.
D) they have different unconscious motives.
Answer: A

81) The worth that an individual places on a goal is often called the:
A) growth value. B) deficiency value.
C) incentive value. D) reinforcement value.
Answer: C

82) Since the two concepts are closely associated and can sometimes be confused, some theorists
suggest that it is helpful to consider ________ as a stimulus that causes goal-directed behaviour and
to view ________ as a response to events that are related to important goals.
A) affect; motivation B) emotion; affect
C) emotion; motivation D) motivation; emotion
Answer: D

83) Which of the following is true for emotions and drives?

A) Drives are always more influential than emotions.
B) Drives are linked with very specific biological needs.
C) Emotions cannot be influenced by physiology.
D) Emotions have no effect on biological drives.
Answer: B

84) Which of the following is true of moods?

A) They are not influenced by physiology.
B) They have no effect on emotions.
C) They last longer than emotions.
D) They remain stable from childhood to adulthood.
Answer: C

13
85) ________ are enduring aspects of our personalities that set the threshold for the occurrence of
particular emotional states.
A) Moods B) Needs C) Affective traits D) Intrinsic motives
Answer: C

86) Which of the following individuals is NOT expressing a basic emotion?

A) Billy isashamed that he earned an F on the final exam.
B) Martin is disgusted he earned a D on the final exam.
C) Jessica is surprised she earned a C on the final exam.
D) Sarah is happy she earned an A on the final exam.
Answer: A

87) Whichof the following is a basic emotion?

A) Embarrassment B) Guilt C) Shame D) Disgust
Answer: D

88) Which of the following best describes an emotion family?

A) A broad category, such as fear, consists of specific emotions like anxiety and nervousness.
B) The same emotion, such as joy, can be experienced by several members of a family.
C) From birth, people tend to have persistent traits of emotions-either positive or negative.
D) Negative emotions can pass from one person to the next when living in close quarters.
Answer: A

89) Which of the following is an example of a self-conscious emotion?

A) The disgust on looking at rotting food B) The happiness of winning a prize
C) The surprise at receiving a gift D) The shame of being caught in a lie
Answer: D

90) Evolutionary psychologists speculate that when we are threatened, our attention is narrowed by the
adaptive significance of ________.
A) negative emotions B) motivation
C) positive emotions D) attention
Answer: A

91) According to many evolutionary psychologists:

A) only negative emotions have adaptive significance.
B) positive and negative emotions have very similar adaptive functions.
C) positive and negative emotions have different and distinct adaptive functions.
D) positive and negative emotions have no adaptive significance.
Answer: C

92) Which of the following emotions can only be experienced if a person possesses a sense of self and
the ability to reflect on his own actions?
A) Fear B) Shame C) Disgust D) Anger
Answer: B

14
93) Emotionsthat require considering oneself in relation to the expectations of others are called
________ emotions.
A) primal B) self-regulated C) basic D) self-conscious
Answer: D

94) Which of the following is true when viewing emotions from an evolutionary perspective?
A) Negative emotions help to ensure survival.
B) Positive emotions encourage a narrow focus.
C) Negative emotions have no adaptive value.
D) Positive emotions have no adaptive value.
Answer: A

95) Which of the following is true of positive emotions?

A) People experiencing positive emotions have a narrow focus compared to people in sad or
neutral moods.
B) Positive emotions reduce attention to visual information in the outer edges of a visual display.
C) When people are in positive moods they perform poorly on tasks of selective attention.
D) People experiencing positive emotions perform worse on tasks that require a broader
attentional focus.
Answer: C

96) Sidsaw a gang of teenagers throw rocks at his car. He saw the damage this caused and became very
angry. He chased the teens, and although he could not catch them, he got close enough to recognize
one of them. Although Sid envisioned retaliating for the damage to his car, he knew it would be
better to seek compensation for the damage. He called the police, reported the incident, and swore
he would sue the parents of the boy he knew to make them pay for the damage to the car. Which of
the following was the antecedent event in Sid's emotion-charged situation?
A) Chasing the teens B) Not being able to catch the teens
C) Becoming angry D) Seeing the teens throw the rocks
Answer: D

97) Modern emotion researchers assume that most emotions:

A) are determined primarily by physiological responses.
B) involve a combination of cognitive, physiological, and behavioural response patterns.
C) are reflected in particular behavioural responses.
D) involve a combination of cognitive and physiological response patterns.
Answer: B

98) All
of the following were mentioned as one of the four common features of emotions EXCEPT:
A) emotional responses result from our interpretations of stimuli.
B) emotions are responses to internal or external stimuli.
C) emotions are distinct from the behavioural tendencies they evoke.
D) emotions involve a physiological response from our bodies.
Answer: C

15
 99) Your roommate returns home after being gone all day and rolls his eyes and says nothing in
response to your friendly, "hello." You interpret this lack of response as being rather rude and your
body responds with some of the minor physiological changes associated with anger. With your
arousal increasing, you sarcastically say, "Nice to see you too, jerk!" under your breath as your
roommate closes the door to his room. In this example, the rolling eyes and lack of response from
your roommate would best be considered the:
A) instrumental behavioural response. B) antecedent event.
C) cognitive appraisal. D) expressive behaviour.
Answer: B

100) In addition to being evoked by internal or external stimuli, another common factor that all emotions
generally share is that:
A) they almost never include physiological responses.
B) they almost never are appraised for appropriateness of the emotion.
C) they are distinct from the behavioural tendencies they evoke.
D) they include the physiological responses.
Answer: D

101) Richard and Robert are chatting in the cafeteria. Richard starts naming the muscles as he cuts
though his chicken. Robert who hates to think that what he is eating was an animal is disgusted.
Richard, who is studying to become a vet, interpreted the conversation in a clinical, detached way,
but the thought of his dinner walking around and using muscles, sickened Robert. Each boy had a
different _________________of their lunchtime conversation.
A) motional regulation B) cognitive appraisal
C) reaction formation D) physiological response
Answer: B

102) The fact that emotions typically do not occur by themselves and are usually triggered in response to
various people, behaviours, situations, objects, or events best demonstrates how emotions involve:
A) physiological responses. B) an antecedent event.
C) cognitive appraisals. D) behavioural tendencies.
Answer: B

103) Suppose someone asked you right now to think of a time when you were very afraid. It is very likely
that the simple memory of what happened would evoke some feelings of fear and/or other emotions
that you experienced in response to this particular event. The fact that you can do this in response to
this person's request best demonstrates how:
A) emotions can be triggered by internal or external stimuli.
B) emotional comparisons can make people feel worse.
C) most emotions are triggered by external stimuli.
D) emotions inspire both instrumental and expressive behaviours.
Answer: A

16
104) The fact that two people can have very different emotions in response to the same event is most
easily explained by the notion of:
A) cognitive appraisals. B) expressive behaviour.
C) an antecedent event. D) instrumental behaviour.
Answer: A

105) Which of the following determines whether a situation will lead to an emotion or not?
A) Situation B) Regulation C) Appraisal D) Outcome
Answer: C

106) ________ is the evaluation of a situation with respect to how relevant it is to one's own welfare.
A) Appraisal B) Motivation C) Regulation D) Hubris
Answer: A

107) Which of the following is true of appraisal in the emotion process?

A) It is always a conscious, deliberate thought process.
B) It is occurs with the full consciousness of the person.
C) It is influenced by a person's frame of reference.
D) It is only a consequence of an emotional response.
Answer: C

108) Nancy's mother decides to cancel Thanksgiving dinner because she has an opportunity to go on a
trip. Nancy was really looking forward to spending the day with all of her family. Her partner Mary
really did not care if they went or not. Who would be most likely to have an emotional response to
the situation?
A) Mary B) Mary's mother C) Nancy D) Nancy's mother
Answer: C

109) Senara becomes angry when someone bumps into her in the grocery store. She then notices that the
person was trying to get out of the way of some cans falling off a shelf. Senara's anger turns to
concern for the individual. Senara's change in emotion is an example of:
A) appraisal. B) expressive-suppression.
C) an antecedent event. D) reappraisal.
Answer: D

110) Jason saw a couple of teenagers damage his porch with spray paint and graffiti. He decided to call
the police and resolve this situation through the legal process. Jason chose ________ to solve his
problem.
A) expressive-suppression B) displacement
C) reaction formation D) reappraisal
Answer: A

17
111) The deliberate attempt to inhibit the outward display of an emotion is known as ________.
A) reaction formation B) reappraisal
C) expressive-suppression D) displacement
Answer: C

112) Bob is very good at reading the behavioural cues that people generate and responds effectively to
these cues. Bob has many close friends and is generally well liked by those who know him. In
addition, Bob is also good at motivating himself and taking care of his personal needs. These
qualities suggest that Bob would most likely score highly on a measure of:
A) emotional intelligence. B) mathematical intelligence.
C) visual-spatial intelligence. D) linguistic intelligence.
Answer: A

113) The ability to accurately read and effectively respond to the reactions of other people or yourself is
considered to be an essential part of ________ intelligence.
A) interpersonal B) social C) empathic D) emotional
Answer: D

114) Research examining intervention programs designed to teach children socio-emotional(SE) skills
have found that:
A) they improve children's emotional well-being and social skills.
B) they improve children's emotional well-being, social skills, and academic performance.
C) these programs do not have long term effects on children.
D) they improve children's emotional well-being.
Answer: B

115) Which of the following is true of the ANS (autonomic nervous system)?
A) The ANS is concerned solely with positive emotions.
B) The pattern for ANS activity is the same for all emotions.
C) It is controlled by the circulatory system.
D) It activates the respiratory system.
Answer: D

116) Emotions concerned with survival or protection trigger activation of the:

A) central nervous system.
B) parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.
C) sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.
D) somatic nervous system.
Answer: C

18
117) Mark's father had triple bypass surgery a week ago and has been told by his doctors to reduce the
stress in his life in general and at least for the next several weeks try to maintain calmness about
him. After opening a letter from school containing Mark's poor semester grades, his father does his
biofeedback exercises in an effort to return his blood pressure to normal and his muscles back to
relaxation. For this to work, a particular nervous system is working overtime. This is the ________
nervous system.
A) sympathetic B) parasympathetic C) homeostatic D) central
Answer: B

118) Positive emotions engage:

A) somatic nervous system.
B) parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.
C) sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.
D) central nervous system.
Answer: B

119) Jason is trekking along a hillside when he comes across a bear. He is very frightened and tries to
find the best way to escape. Which of the following has been immediately activated in Jason's body?
A) The parasympathetic nervous system B) The immune system
C) The sympathetic nervous system D) The cardiovascular system
Answer: C

120) Which of the following is activated when we are watching something funny on television which
puts us in a good mood?
A) The enteric nervous system B) The parasympathetic nervous system
C) The sympathetic nervous system D) The central nervous system
Answer: B

121) Which of the following emotions is known to slow down heartbeat?

A) Anxiety B) Anger C) Fear D) Disgust
Answer: D

122) What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?

A) It regulates our heart. B) It regulates the gastrointestinal system.
C) It controls our reasoning. D) It contains the spinal cord.
Answer: A

123) Researcher Ekman developed this method as a way to study fundamental patterns of human
emotional expression.
A) somatic theory of emotion B) facial action coding system
C) expectancy x value theory D) cognitive appraisal
Answer: B

19
124) The parasympathetic branch of the ANS is activated when ________.
A) we experience amusement or happiness
B) we are sad or lonely
C) we are angry
D) we are in a situation that threatens our survival
Answer: A

125) The most recognizable facial expression is:

A) surprise. B) fear. C) happiness. D) anger.
Answer: C

126) A Duchenne smile is one that ________.

A) expresses true joy B) masks negative emotions
C) does not use the lips D) is used to be polite
Answer: A

127) The subjective experience of emotion can be understood by ________.

A) an independent rater's coding of facial expressions
B) brain imaging techniques
C) someone's description of how they feel
D) hormonal measurement assays
Answer: C

128) According to Ekman's neurocultural theory of emotion, which of the following may be different
across cultures?
A) The universality of emotions
B) Facial expressions that accompany emotions
C) The regulation of emotions
D) The physiological underpinnings of emotions
Answer: C

129) Researchers have determined that the cognitive appraisals of different emotions, such as anger, fear,
and joy, appear to be remarkably similar for people in different cultures, suggesting that some types
of interpretations may be ________.
A) related to brain structures B) culturally determined
C) environmentally determined D) universal
Answer: D

130) Monica has had a very emotionally draining day, but she really isn't sure what she is feeling. After
taking a quiet moment to herself, she starts to cry, and after observing this behaviour, she decides
that she must be sad. This example of emotional recognition is most consistent with the:
A) James-Lange theory of emotion. B) self-observation theory of emotion.
C) Cannon-Bard theory of emotion. D) behavioural theory of emotion.
Answer: A

20
131) Pearl is in love with Edward. When her little sister asks her how she knows it is true love she is
feeling, Pearl replies that the reaction of her body tells her it is love. Pearl's explanation supports the
________ theory of emotion.
A) cognitive-affective B) James-Lange
C) two-factor D) Cannon-Bard
Answer: B

132) The part of the brain most extensively connected with fear is the ________.
A) hippocampus B) corpus callosum C) thalamus D) amygdala
Answer: D

133) Researchers conducted a study where people who unknowingly received an injection of a stimulant
tended to rate a movie as being funnier than participants who received either a placebo or a
tranquilizer. This study provides evidence that:
A) arousal can affect cognitive appraisals. B) cognitive appraisals can affect arousal.
C) primary appraisals determine emotions. D) supported the facial feature hypothesis.
Answer: A

134) The polygraph test operates by measuring which component of emotion?

A) eliciting stimulus B) behavioural
C) physiological D) cognitive
Answer: C

135) When experts are given lie detector results from people who are known to be either innocent or
guilty:
A) they tend to accurately identify the guilty, but they do significantly less well in correctly
identifying the innocent.
B) they tend to accurately identify the innocent, but they do significantly less well in correctly
identifying the guilty.
C) they tend to be very accurate at correctly identifying both the innocent and the guilty.
D) they are usually unable to reliably identify either the innocent or the guilty.
Answer: A

136) Newer methods of lie detector test rely on ________, although this has produced mixed results.
A) a polygraph assessing physiological responses
B) a PET scan
C) a CAT scan
D) an EEG of brain activity
Answer: D

137) Which of the following areas of the brain plays a role in the appraisal and reappraisal of emotion?
A) Prefrontal cortex B) Corpus callosum C) Amygdala D) Hypothalamus
Answer: A

21
138) Rachael is known to be a happy and cheerful girl. However, ever since she met with a ski accident
some months ago she has constantly been in depression. It is likely that the accident has caused
some damage to her ________.
A) hypothalamus B) amygdala C) prefrontal cortex D) corpus callosum
Answer: C

139) The anterior cingulate cortex region of the brain is active when we are trying to ________ a
situation.
A) understand B) plan C) imagine D) evaluate
Answer: C

140) When you see another person you care about get hurt physically, it creates the same activity in the
________ that you experience with feelings of your own physical pain.
A) thalamus B) Corpus callosum
C) insula D) orbitofrontal cortex
Answer: C

141) The ________ is the brain structure most involved in perceiving internal, physical sensations or
interoception.
A) insula B) fornix
C) orbitofrontal cortex D) thalamus
Answer: A

142) In Canada, someone who sticks her thumb up is likely trying to hitchhike or is telling someone that
everything is ok. However, in Greece, this same gesture is considered obscene. This difference best
demonstrates how culturally based norms called ________ can influence emotional expressions.
A) primary appraisals B) eliciting stimuli
C) display rules D) instrumental behaviours
Answer: C

143) Which of the following provides the best explanation as to why cultural display rules impact
emotional expression?
A) They change the use of upward and downward comparisons.
B) They alter primary appraisals that occur before particular emotions are expressed.
C) They dictate when and how particular emotions are expressed.
D) They alter the physiological arousal that occurs with particular emotions.
Answer: C

144) What are display rules?

A) Emotional responses triggered by certain drugs
B) Emotional responses dictated by society
C) Emotional responses dictated by feelings
D) Emotional responses common to all cultures
Answer: B

22
145) Rebecca was extremely jealous of her brother's earning a full college scholarship, yet she knew she
had to act proud of and happy for him. Rebecca is behaving in accordance with ________.
A) the Yerkes-Dodson law B) vicarious reinforcement
C) display rules D) reappraisal
Answer: C

146) Which of the following is true of display rules?

A) They are not operational when a person is alone.
B) They followed more by women than men.
C) They are caused by damage to the amygdala.
D) They exist only in repressive cultures.
Answer: A

147) Charles Darwin proposed that a fearful facial expression ________.

A) differs from person to person B) decreases one's scope of vision
C) renders one incapable of any action D) increases a person's chances of escape
Answer: D

148) Men and women's ratings of their emotional experience are:

A) very similar.
B) different. Men are better than women at recognizing subtle facial expressions.
C) different. Men talk more about emotions than women do.
D) different. Women rate themselves as much more emotional than men.
Answer: A

149) In his two-factor theory of emotion, Stanley Schachter asserts that the cognitive appraisal of
situational cues provides essential information to help us determine exactly what emotion we are
feeling while our ________ tell(s) us how strongly we are feeling something.
A) facial features B) cognitive appraisals
C) situational cues D) level of physiological arousal
Answer: D

150) PATHS (Providing Alternative Thinking Strategies) is a concept designed by:

A) Salovey and Caruso. B) Greenberg and Kusché.
C) Daniel Goleman. D) Peter Salovey.
Answer: B

151) Why has the concept of emotional intelligence been so readily applied to the field of education?
A) It has led to academic improvement in classrooms.
B) It is a popular method of teaching.
C) The concept has been propounded by a teacher.
D) It is successful in improving motor skills in young children.
Answer: A

23
152) Which of the following is a characteristic of children who have attended SEL programs?
A) They suffer from Attention Deficit Disorder.
B) They have higher GPA scores.
C) They have better motor skills.
D) They are fluent in different languages.
Answer: B

153) Which of the following is true of emotional intelligence?

A) It improves cognitive function. B) It cannot be taught.
C) It cannot be measured. D) It has no link with academics.
Answer: A

154) Both Richard and Chris got offered jobs that will increase their responsibilities but would require
them to move to a new city. Richard has decided that he will explore the new city and step up to the
challenge. His friend Chris has decided to stay where he is in a comfortable position that he knows.
Based on the research findings which of the two men will be happier with their decision?
A) Chris will be happier. B) They will be equally happy.
C) Richard will be happier. D) Happiness cannot be measured.
Answer: C

155) According to the longitudinal study by Bruce Headey (2008) which of the following is true of
happiness?
A) Happiness will decrease over time for people who value spending time with friends most.
B) Happiness will decrease over time for people who value spending time with family most.
C) Happiness will decrease over time for people who value material goals most.
D) Happiness will increase over time for people who seek to advance their careers.
Answer: C

156) According to Bruce Headey, once a country's GNP crosses $12,000 per person per year, it is
________ that matter the most for overall happiness in people.
A) monetary gains B) close relationships
C) self-esteem needs D) job opportunities
Answer: B

157) People who find meaning in their lives in general and even in negative and tragic experiences are
likely to:
A) be happier than those who do not see meaning and purpose in life.
B) experience more depression than those who don't find meaning.
C) dwell on negative emotions, rather than avoid them.
D) earn less money than those who find no purpose in life.
Answer: A

24
158) The sense of well-being in life comes from all of the following, EXCEPT:
A) the achievement of basic needs in life. B) meeting self-esteem needs.
C) an absence of negative thoughts. D) presence of positive feelings.
Answer: C

159) Cindy, Mathew and Raymond lost individual members of their families in an accident. Three
months prior to the accident, Cindy had got married and was feeling very satisfied and happy in her
life. Mathew had bought a house but feels he played by the people selling the home and it has been
nothing but one problem after another for him. Raymond had lost his grandmother who he felt was
his only cheerleader in life. He was still reeling from this loss and figuring out how to be his own
supporter. Based on our knowledge of research findings, who amongst the three will be able to cope
best with their trauma?
A) Mathew B) All three have the same ability to cope.
C) Cindy D) Raymond
Answer: C

25
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED27

1) B
2) D
3) D
4) B
5) B
6) A
7) D
8) C
9) D
10) B
11) B
12) A
13) B
14) D
15) A
16) D
17) B
18) C
19) B
20) A
21) D
22) B
23) A
24) C
25) C
26) B
27) B
28) A
29) B
30) C
31) D
32) A
33) D
34) B
35) B
36) C
37) D
38) D
39) A
40) B
41) B
42) A
43) B
44) C
45) A
46) D
47) D
48) B
49) D
50) D
26
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED27

51) A
52) D
53) C
54) C
55) D
56) A
57) A
58) B
59) B
60) C
61) B
62) C
63) D
64) A
65) D
66) A
67) B
68) D
69) B
70) C
71) B
72) D
73) B
74) D
75) C
76) D
77) B
78) B
79) A
80) A
81) C
82) D
83) B
84) C
85) C
86) A
87) D
88) A
89) D
90) A
91) C
92) B
93) D
94) A
95) C
96) D
97) B
98) C
99) B
100) D
27
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED27

101) B
102) B
103) A
104) A
105) C
106) A
107) C
108) C
109) D
110) A
111) C
112) A
113) D
114) B
115) D
116) C
117) B
118) B
119) C
120) B
121) D
122) A
123) B
124) A
125) C
126) A
127) C
128) C
129) D
130) A
131) B
132) D
133) A
134) C
135) A
136) D
137) A
138) C
139) C
140) C
141) A
142) C
143) C
144) B
145) C
146) A
147) D
148) A
149) D
150) B
28
Answer Key
Testname: UNTITLED27

151) A
152) B
153) A
154) C
155) C
156) B
157) A
158) C
159) C

29
Another random document with
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attempt elsewhere in a circuit of a few [268]inches. No exploration of
the gallery—no anxiety for the distressed larva; though the grub,
whose delicate skin has just exchanged the gentle moisture of a
cave for burning sunshine, is writhing on its heap of chewed Diptera,
the mother takes no notice of it. For her it is no more than any one of
the objects strewn on the sand,—a little pebble, a clod, a scrap of
dried mud,—nothing more. It is undeserving of attention. This tender,
faithful mother, who wears herself out in efforts to reach her
nursling’s cradle, cares nothing just now but for her entrance door—
the door she is used to. That which goes to her maternal heart is the
longing to find the well-known passage. Yet the way is open; nothing
holds her back, and under her eyes wriggles the grub, the final
object of her anxiety. With one spring she would be at the side of the
unhappy larva who so needs help. Why does she not rush to her
beloved nursling? She could dig a new habitation and get it swiftly
underground. But no—she persists in seeking a way which no longer
exists, while her son is grilled under her eyes. I was boundlessly
surprised by this obtuse maternity, since maternity is the most
powerful and most fertile in resource of all feelings which move the
animal. Hardly could I have believed my eyes but for endless
experiments on the Cerceris and Philanthidæ, as well as on
Bembecidæ of different species. Stranger still, the mother, after long
hesitation, at length entered the unroofed passage—all that was left
of the corridor. She advanced, drew back, and gave a few careless
sweeps without stopping. Guided by vague recollections, and
perhaps by the smell of [269]venison exhaled from the heap of
Diptera, she came occasionally as far as the end of the gallery, the
very spot where lay the larva. Mother and son had met. At this
moment of reunion after long anxiety, were there earnest solicitude,
sign of tenderness, or of maternal joy? Whoever thinks so has only
to repeat my experiment to convince himself of the contrary. The
Bembex did not recognise her larva at all; it was a worthless thing, in
her way,—nothing but an embarrassment. She walked over it and
trampled it unheeding, as she hurried backwards and forwards. If
she wanted to dig at the bottom of the cell, she rudely kicked it
behind her,—pushed, upset, expelled it, as she might have treated a
large bit of gravel which got in her way while at work. Thus
maltreated, the larva bethought itself of defence. I have seen it seize
her by one tarsus with no more ceremony than she would have
shown in biting the foot of a Dipteron caught by her. The struggle
was sharp, but at last the fierce mandibles let go, and the mother
flew wildly away with her sharpest hum. This unnatural scene of the
son biting the mother, and perhaps even trying to eat her, is unusual,
and brought about by circumstances which the observer is not
always able to conjure up. What one can always witness is the
profound indifference of the Hymenopteron for its offspring, and the
brutal disdain with which that inconvenient heap, the grub, is treated.
Once she has raked out the far end of the passage, which is done in
a moment, the Bembex returns to her favourite point, the threshold,
to resume her useless researches. As for the grub, it continues to
struggle [270]and wriggle wherever the maternal kicks may have
landed it. It will perish unaided by its mother, who could not
recognise it because she was unable to find the passage she was
used to. If we return to-morrow, we shall find it in the gallery, half-
broiled by the sun, and already a prey to the flies—once its own
prey.

Such is the connection in acts of instinct; one leading to the next in

an order that the most serious circumstances have no power to alter.
After all, what was the Bembex seeking? Her larva, evidently. But to
reach this larva she had to enter the burrow, and to enter the burrow
she had to find the door, and the mother persists in seeking this door
while the gallery lay open with provender and larva all before her.
The ruined abode, the endangered family, were for the moment
unimportant; all she could think of was the familiar passage reached
through loose sand. Let all go—habitation and inhabitant—if this
passage be not found! Her actions are like a series of echoes,
awaking one another in a fixed order, the following one only
sounding when the preceding has sounded. Not because there was
any obstacle; the burrow was all open, but for want of the usual
entrance the first action could not take place. That decides
everything; the first echo is mute, and so all the rest are silent. What
a gulf between intelligence and instinct! Through the ruins of the
shattered dwelling a mother guided by intelligence rushes straight to
her son; guided by instinct she stops obstinately where once was the
door. [271]
[Contents]
XX
 MASON BEES

Réaumur has dedicated one of his studies to the Chalicodoma of walls, which
he calls the Mason Bee. I propose to resume this study, to complete it, and
especially to consider it from a point of view entirely neglected by that illustrious
observer. And first of all I am tempted to state how I made acquaintance with this
Hymenopteron. It was when I first began to teach—towards a.d. 1843. On
leaving the Normal School of Vaucluse a few months previously, with my
certificate, and the naïve enthusiasm of eighteen, I was sent to Carpentras to
manage the primary school belonging to the college. A singular school it was,
upon my word, notwithstanding its fine title of “Upper”!—a kind of vast cellar
breathing out the damp engendered by a fountain backing on it in the street.
Light came in through a door opening outward when the weather allowed of it,
and a narrow prison-window, with iron-bars, and little diamond panes set in lead.
For seats there was a plank fastened to the walls all round the room; in the
middle was a chair guiltless of straw, a blackboard, and a bit of chalk. [272]

Morning and evening, at the sound of a bell, there tumbled in some fifty young
rascals, who, having failed to master De viris and the Epitome, were devoting
themselves, as one said then, to “some good years of French.” The failures at
“Rosa, a Rose,” came to me to learn a little spelling. Children were mingled with
tall lads at various stages of education, and all distressingly agreed in playing
tricks on the master—no older, even younger, than some of themselves.

I taught the little ones to read syllables, the middle ones to hold a pen in the right
way while writing a few words of dictation on their knees; for the eldest I unveiled
the secrets of fractions, and even the mysteries of the hypotenuse. And the only
means I had to keep this restless crowd in order, give each mind appropriate
food, arouse attention, expel dulness from the gloomy room whose very walls
dripped melancholy, were my tongue and a bit of chalk.

For that matter there was equal disdain in the other classes for all which was not
Latin or Greek. One instance will suffice to show the style in which physical
science was treated, now so large a part of education. The principal of this
college was an excellent man—the worthy Abbé X, who, not anxious himself to
grow green peas and bacon, turned over such matters to some relation of his,
and undertook to teach physical science.
 [To face p. 272.
MASON BEES—CHALICODOMA MURARIA ON OLD NEST

Let us attend one of his lessons, which happens to be on the barometer. By

good luck the college owned one. It was an old article, very dusty, hung high out
of reach of profane hands, and bearing on [273]its face in large letters the words,
Storm, Rain, Fine. “The barometer,” began the good abbé, addressing himself to
his disciples—he used a fatherly second person singular to each,—“the
barometer gives notice of good or bad weather. Thou seest the words written
here—Storm, Rain—thou seest, Bastien?” “I see,” replies Bastien, the most
mischievous of the troop. He has run through his book, and knows more about
the barometer than does his professor. “It is composed,” the abbé goes on, “of a
curved glass tube full of mercury which rises and falls according to the weather.
The small branch of this tube is open; the other—the other—we shall see as to
the other. Bastien—Get on this chair, and just feel with the tip of thy finger if the
long branch is open or closed. I do not quite remember.” Bastien goes to the
chair, stands as high as he can on tip-toe, and feels the top of the long column
with a finger tip. Then, with a slight smile under the down of his dawning
moustache, he replies, “Yes, exactly; yes, the long branch is open at the top. I
can feel the hollow.” And to corroborate his mendacious statement he went on
moving his forefinger on the top of the tube, while his co-disciples, accomplices
in mischief, stifled their laughter as best they could. The abbé said calmly, “That
will do. Come down, Bastien. Gentlemen, write in your notes that the long
branch of the barometer is open. You might forget it. I had forgotten it myself.”

Thus were physics taught. Things mended, however; a master came, and came
to stay,—one who knew that the long branch of a barometer is [274]closed. I
obtained tables on which my pupils could write instead of scrawling on their
knees, and as my class grew daily larger, it ended by being divided. As soon as I
had an assistant to look after the younger ones, things changed for the better.

Among the subjects taught, one pleased master and pupils equally. This was
out-of-door geometry, practical surveying. The college had none of the
necessary outfit, but with my large emoluments—700 francs, if you please!—I
could not hesitate as to making the outlay. A measuring chain and stakes, a
level, square, and compass were bought at my expense. A tiny graphometer,
hardly bigger than one’s palm, and worth about 4s. 2d., was furnished by the
college. We had no tripod, and I had one made. In short, my outfit was complete.
When May came, once a week the gloomy class-room was exchanged for the
fields, and we all felt it as a holiday. There were disputes as to the honour of
carrying the stakes, divided into packets of three, and more than one shoulder
as we went through the town felt glorified in the sight of all by the learned
burden. I myself—why conceal it?—was not without a certain satisfaction at
carrying tenderly the most precious part of the apparatus, the famous four-and-
twopenny graphometer. The scene of operations was an uncultivated pebbly
plain—a harmas, as we call it in these parts. No curtain of live hedge, no
bushes, hindered me from keeping an eye upon my followers; here—an all
important condition—I need not fear temptation from green apricots for my
scholars. There was free scope for all imaginable [275]polygons; trapezes and
triangles might be joined at will. Wide distances suggested plenty of elbow room,
and there was even an ancient building, once a dovecote, which lent its vertical
lines to the service of the graphometer.

Now from the very first a suspicious something caught my attention. If a scholar
were sent to plant a distant stake I saw him frequently pause, stoop, rise, seek
about, and stoop again, forgetful of straight line and of signals. Another, whose
work it was to pick up pegs, forgot the iron spike and took a pebble instead; and
a third, deaf to the measurements of the angle, crumbled up a clod. The greater
number were caught licking a bit of straw, and polygons stood still, and
diagonals came to grief. What could be the mystery? I inquired, and all was
explained. Searcher and observer born, the scholar was well aware of what the
master was ignorant of—namely, that a great black bee makes earthen nests on
the pebbles of the harmas, and that in these nests there is honey. My surveyors
were opening and emptying the cells with a straw. I was instructed in the proper
method. The honey, though somewhat strong-flavoured, is very acceptable; I in
turn acquired a taste for it, and joined the nest-hunters. Later, the polygon was
resumed. Thus it was that for the first time I saw Réaumur’s Mason Bee,
knowing neither its history nor its historian.

This splendid Hymenopteron, with its dark violet wings and costume of black
velvet, its rustic constructions on the sun-warmed pebbles among the thyme, its
honey, which brought diversion from the severities [276]of compass and square,
made a strong impression on my mind, and I wished to know more about it than
my pupils had taught me—namely, how to rob the cells of their honey with a
straw. Just then my bookseller had for sale a magnificent work on insects, The
Natural History of Articulated Animals, by de Castelnau, E. Blanchard, and
Lucas. It was enriched with many engravings which caught the eye. But alas, it
had a price—such a price! What did that matter? My 700 francs ought surely to
suffice for everything—food for the mind as well as for the body. That which I
bestowed on the one I retrenched from the other—a balance of accounts to
which whoever takes science for a livelihood must needs resign himself. The
purchase was made. That day I bled my university stipend abundantly; I paid
away a whole month of it. It took a miracle of parsimony to fill up the enormous
deficit.

The book was devoured—I can use no other word. There I learned the name of
my black bee, and there I read for the first time details of the habits of insects,
and found, with what seemed to my eyes an aureole round them, the venerated
names of Réaumur, Huber, Léon Dufour; and while I turned the pages for the
hundredth time, a voice whispered vaguely, “Thou too shalt be a historian of
animals!” Naïve illusions! where are you? But let us banish these recollections,
both sweet and sad, and come to the doings of our black bee.

Chalicodoma, house of pebbles, rough-cast mortar, a name which would be

perfect did it not look odd to any one not well up in Greek. It is a [277]name
applied to those Hymenoptera that build cells with materials such as we use for
our dwellings. It is masonry, but made by a rustic workman, better used to dried
clay than to hewn stone. A stranger to scientific classification (and this causes
great obscurity in some of his memoirs), Réaumur called the worker after the
work, and named our builders in dried clay Mason Bees, which paints them
exactly. We have two kinds, C. muraria, whose history is admirably given by
Réaumur, and C. sicula, which is not special to the land of Etna, as the name
suggests, but is found in Greece, Algeria, and the Mediterranean region of
France, especially in the department of Vaucluse, where in May it is one of the
most common Hymenoptera. The two sexes of C. muraria are so unlike in
colouring that a novice observing both coming out of the same nest would take
them for strangers to one another. The female is of a splendid velvet black, with
dark violet wings; in the male the black velvet is replaced by a bright iron-red
fleece. The second species—a much smaller one—has not this difference of
colour, both sexes wearing the same costume—a general mixture of brown, red,
and ashy tints. Both begin to build in the beginning of May. The wing-tips,
washed with violet on a bronze ground, faintly recall the rich purple of the first
species.

As Réaumur tells us, C. muraria in the northern provinces chooses as the place
to fix her nest a wall well exposed to the sun and not plastered, as the plaster
might come off and endanger her cells. She only entrusts her constructions to a
solid foundation, such as a bare stone. I see that she is equally [278]prudent in
the south, but, for some reason unknown to me, she generally chooses some
other base than the stone of a wall. A rolled pebble, often hardly larger than
one’s fist,—one of those with which the waters of the glacial period covered the
terraces of the Rhône valley,—is her favourite support. The great ease with
which such a one is found may influence her; all our slightly raised plateaux, all
our arid thyme-clad ground, are but heaped pebbles cemented with red earth. In
the valleys the bee can also use the stones gathered in torrent beds; near
Orange, for instance, her favourite spots are the alluviums of the Aygues, with
their stretches of rolled boulders no longer visited by water. Or if a pebble be
wanting, she will establish her nest on a boundary stone or an enclosing wall.

Chalicodoma sicula has a yet greater variety of choice. Her favourite position is
under a tile projecting from the edge of a roof. There is scarcely a little dwelling
in the fields that does not thus shelter her nests. There, every spring, she
establishes populous colonies, whose masonry, transmitted from one generation
to another, and yearly enlarged, finally covers a very considerable surface. I
have seen such a one under the tiles of a shed, which spread over five or six
square yards. When the colony were hard at work, their number and humming
fairly made one dizzy. The underpart of a balcony pleases them equally, or the
frame of an unused window,—above all, if closed by a sun-shutter, which offers
a free passage. But these are great meeting-places, where labour, each for
herself, hundreds and thousands of workers. If alone, which not seldom occurs,
Chalicodoma [279]sicula establishes herself in the first little spot she can find, so
long as it has a solid basis and heat. As for the nature of this basis it matters
little. I have seen nests built on bare stones and brick, on a shutter, and even on
the glass panes in a shed. One thing only does not suit the bee—namely, the
stucco of our houses. Prudent, like her retainer C. muraria, she would fear ruin
to her cells did she entrust them to a support which might fall.

Finally, for reasons which I cannot yet satisfactorily explain, C. sicula often
entirely changes her manner of building, turning her heavy mortar dwelling,
which seems to require a rock to support it, into an aerial one, hung to a bough.
A bush in a hedge,—no matter what—hawthorn, pomegranate, or Paliurus,—
offers a support, usually about the height of a man, Ilex and elm give a greater
height. The bee chooses in some thicket a bough about as thick as a straw, and
constructs her edifice on this narrow base with the same mortar which would be
used under a balcony or the projecting edge of a roof. When finished, the nest is
a ball of earth, traversed literally by the bough. If made by a single insect it is the
size of an apricot, and of a fist if several have worked at it; but this seldom
occurs.

Both species use the same materials, a calcareous clay, mixed with a little sand
and kneaded with the mason’s own saliva. Damp spots which would facilitate
labour and spare saliva to mix mortar are disdained by the Chalicodoma, which
refuses fresh earth for building, just as our builders refuse old plaster and lime.
Such materials when soaked with humidity would not hold properly. What is
needed is a dry [280]powder, which readily absorbs the disgorged saliva, and
forms with the albuminous principles of this liquid a kind of Roman cement,
hardening quickly,—something like what we obtain with quicklime and white of
egg.
 [To face p. 280.
MASON BEES—CHALICODOMA SICULA AND NEST

A beaten road, formed of calcareous boulders crushed by passing wheels into a

smooth surface like paving stones, is the quarry whence Chalicodoma sicula
prefers to get mortar; whether she builds on a branch, in a hedge, or under the
jutting roof of some rural habitation, it is always from a neighbouring path, or a
road, or the highway, that she seeks materials—indifferent to the constant
passing of beasts and travellers. You should see the active bee at work when
the road is dazzling white in the hot sunshine. Between the neighbouring farm
where she is building and the road where the mortar is prepared, there is the
deep hum of the bees perpetually crossing each other as they come and go.
The air seems traversed by constant trails of smoke, so rapid and direct is their
flight. Those who go carry away a pellet of mortar as big as small shot; those
who come settle on the hardest and driest spots. Their whole body vibrates as
they scratch with the tips of their mandibles, and rake with their forefeet to
extract atoms of earth and grains of sand, which, being rolled between their
teeth, become moist with saliva and unite. They work with such ardour that they
will let themselves be crushed under the foot of a passer-by rather than move.
Chalicodoma muraria, however, which seeks solitude, far from human
habitation, is rarely seen on beaten paths; perhaps they are too distant from the
places where she builds. If [281]she can find dry earth, rich in small gravel, near
the boulder chosen as the basis of her nest, she is contented. She may either
make quite a new nest in a spot hitherto unoccupied, or over the cells of an old
one, after repairing them. Let us consider the first case.

After choosing a boulder, she comes with a pellet of mortar in her mandibles,
and arranges it in a ring on the surface of the pebble. The forefeet, and above all
the mandibles, which are her most important tools, work the material, which is
kept plastic by the gradually disgorged saliva. To consolidate the unbaked clay,
angular pieces of gravel, as large as a small bean, are worked in singly on the
outside of the still soft mass. This is the foundation of the edifice. Other layers
are added until the cell has the required height of three or four centimetres. The
masonry is formed by stones laid on one another and cemented with lime, and
can stand comparison with our own. True, to economise labour and mortar, the
bee uses coarse materials,—large bits of gravel, which in her case answer to
hewn blocks. They are chosen singly—very hard ones, almost always with
angles which, fitted together, give mutual support, and add solidity to the whole.
Layers of mortar, sparingly used, hold them together. The outside of the cell thus
assumes the look of a piece of rustic architecture, in which stones project with
their natural inequalities; but over the inside, which requires a smoother surface
in order not to wound the tender skin of the larva, is spread a wash of pure
mortar—artlessly, however, as if by broad sweeps of a trowel; and when it has
eaten up its honey paste, the grub [282]takes care to make a cocoon and hang
the rude wall of its abode with silk. The Anthophora and Halictus, whose larvæ
spin no cocoon, varnish the inside of their earthen cells delicately, giving them
the polish of worked ivory.

The construction, the axis of which is always nearly vertical, with an orifice
opening upward, so that the fluid honey may not run out, differs a little in form,
according to its basis. On a horizontal surface it rises like a little oval tower; on a
vertical or slanting one it resembles half a thimble cut down its length. In this
case the support—the pebble itself—completes the surrounding wall. The cell
completed, the bee sets to work at once to store it. The neighbouring flowers,
especially those of Genista scorpius, which in May turn the alluviums of the
torrents golden, furnish sugared liquid and pollen. She comes with her crop
swelled with honey, and all yellow underneath with pollen dust, and plunges
head first into the cell, where for some moments one may see her work her body
in a way which tells that she is disgorging honey. Her crop emptied, she comes
out, but only to go in again at once—this time backwards. With her two hind feet
she now frees herself from her load, of pollen by brushing herself underneath.
Again she goes out, and returns head first. She must stir the materials with her
mandibles for a spoon, and mix all thoroughly together. This labour of mixing is
not repeated after every journey, but only from time to time, when a considerable
quantity has been collected. When the cell is half full, it is stored; an egg must
be laid on the honey paste, and the door [283]has to be closed. This is all done
without delay. The orifice is closed by a cover of undiluted mortar, worked from
the circumference to the centre. Two days at most seem required for the whole
work, unless bad weather or a cloudy day should interrupt it. Then, backing on
the first cell, a second is built and stored in the same way, and a third and fourth,
etc., follow, each one with honey and an egg, and closed before another is
begun. Work once begun is continued until it is completed, the bee never
building a new cell until the four acts required to perfect the preceding one are
performed—namely, construction, provisioning, an egg, and sealing the cell.

As Chalicodoma muraria always works alone on her chosen boulder, and shows
great jealousy if her neighbours alight there, the number of cells clustered on
one pebble is not great—usually six to ten. Are some eight larvæ her whole
progeny, or will she establish a more numerous family on other boulders? The
surface of the stone would allow of more cells if she had eggs for them, and the
bee might build there very comfortably without hunting for another, or leaving the
one to which she is attached by habit and long acquaintance. I think, therefore,
that most probably all her scanty family are settled on the same stone—at all
events when she builds a new abode.

The six or ten cells composing the group are certainly a solid dwelling, with their
rustic covering of gravel, but the thickness of their walls and lids—two
millimetres at most—hardly seems sufficient against rough weather. Set on its
stone in the open [284]air, quite unsheltered, the nest will undergo the heat of
summer suns which will turn every cell into an oven; then will come the autumn
rains which will slowly eat away the masonry, and then winter frosts which will
crumble what the rain may have respected. However hard the cement may be,
can it resist all these attacks, and if it can, will not the larvæ, sheltered by so thin
a wall, suffer from over-heat in summer and too keen cold in winter?

Without having gone through all these arguments, the bee acts wisely. When all
the cells are completed she builds a thick cover over the whole group, which,
being of a material impermeable to water and almost a non-conductor, is at once
a defence against heat and cold and damp. This material is the usual mortar,
made of earth and saliva, only with no small stones in it. The bee lays it on,—
one pellet after another, one trowelful and then a second,—till there is a layer a
centimetre thick over all the cells, which disappear entirely under it. The nest is
now a rude dome, about as big as half an orange; one would take it for a clod of
mud, half crushed by being flung against a stone where it had dried. Nothing
outside betrays its contents—no suggestion of cells—none of labour. To the
ordinary eye it is only a chance splash of mud.

This general cover dries as rapidly as do our hydraulic cements, and the nest is
almost as hard as a stone. A knife with a strong blade is needed to cut it. In its
final shape the nest recalls in no degree the original work; one would suppose
the elegant turrets adorned with pebble work, and the final dome, looking like a
bit of mud, to be the work of [285]two different species. But scratch away the
cover of cement and we recognise the cells and their layers of tiny pebbles.
Instead of building on a boulder yet unoccupied, Chalicodoma muraria likes to
utilise old nests which have lasted through the year without notable injury. The
mortared dome has remained much as it was at the beginning, so solid was the
masonry; only it is pierced by a number of round holes corresponding to the
chambers inhabited by the larvæ of the past generation. Such dwellings, only
needing a little repair to put them in good condition, economise much time and
toil; so Mason Bees seek them, and only undertake new constructions when old
nests fail them.

From the same dome come forth brothers and sisters—reddish males and black
females—all descendants of the same bee. The males lead a careless life,
avoiding all labour, and only returning to their clay dwellings for a brief courtship
of their ladies; and they care nothing for the deserted dwelling. What they want
is nectar from flower-cups, not mortar between their mandibles. But there are the
young mothers, who have sole charge of the future of the family—to which of
them will fall the inheritance of the old nest? As sisters they have an equal right
to it—so would human justice decide, now that it has made the enormous
progress of freeing itself from the old savage right of primogeniture; but Mason
Bees have not got beyond the primitive basis of property—the right of the first
comer.

So when the time to lay has come, a bee takes the first free nest which suits her
and establishes herself [286]there, and woe to any sister or neighbour who
thenceforward disputes possession of it. A hot reception and fierce pursuit would
soon put the new-comer to flight; only one cell is wanted at the moment out of all
which gape like little wells around the dome, but the bee calculates that by and
by the rest will be useful, and she keeps a jealous watch on them all and drives
away every visitor. I cannot remember having seen two Mason Bees working on
the same pebble.

The work is now very simple. The bee examines the inside of the old cell to see
where repairs are needed, tears down the rags of cocoon hanging on the walls,
carries out the bits of earth fallen from the vault pierced by the inhabitant in
order to get out, mortars any places out of repair, mends the orifice a little, and
that is all. Then comes storage, laying an egg, and stopping up the cell. When
these are successively completed, the general cover, the mortar dome, is
repaired if necessary, and all is finished.

Chalicodoma sicula prefers a sociable life to a solitary one, and hundreds—nay,

several thousands—will establish themselves on the under surface of the tiles
on a hovel, or the edge of a roof. It is not a real society with common interests,
dear to all, but merely a gathering where each works for herself and is not
concerned for the rest—a throng recalling the swarm of a hive only by their
number and industry. They use the same mortar as Chalicodoma muraria,
equally resistant and waterproof, but finer and without pebbles. First the old
nests are utilised. Every free cell is repaired, stored, and shut up. But the old
ones are far from sufficing to the population, which increases rapidly year by
year, and on the [287]surface of the nest, where the cells are hidden below the
old general mortar covering, new ones are built as required. They are placed
more or less horizontally, one beside another, with no kind of order. Every
constructor builds as the fancy takes her, where and as she wills; only she must
not interfere with her neighbour’s work, or rough treatment will soon call her to
order. The cells accumulate in chance fashion in this workyard, where there is
no general plan whatever. Their form is that of a thimble divided down the axis,
and their enclosure is completed either by adjacent cells, or the surface of the
old nest. Outside they are rough, and look like layers of knotted cords
corresponding to the layers of mortar. Inside the walls are level but not smooth;
a cocoon will replace the absent polish.

As soon as a cell is built it is stored and walled up, as we have seen with
Chalicodoma muraria. This work goes on through the whole of May. At length all
the eggs are laid, and the bees, without any distinction as to what does or does
not belong to them, all set to work on a common shelter of the colony—a thick
bed of mortar, filling up spaces and covering all the cells. In the end the nests
look like a large mass of dry mud—very irregular, arched, thickest in the middle,
the primitive kernel of the establishment, thinnest at the edges, where there are
fewest cells, and very variable in extent, according to the number of workers,
and consequently to the time when the nest was begun. Some are not much
larger than one’s hand, while others will occupy the greater part of the edge of a
roof, and be measured by square yards. [288]

If Chalicodoma sicula works alone, as she often does, on the shutter of an

unused window or on a stone or a branch, she behaves in just the same way.
For instance, if the nest is on a bough, she begins by solidly fixing the basis of
her cell on the slender twig. Then the building rises into a little vertical tower.
This cell being stored and ceiled, another follows, supported both by the bough
and the first cell, until six to ten cells are grouped one beside the other, and
finally a general cover of mortar encloses them all together with the bough,
which gives them a firm foundation. [289]
[Contents]
XXI
 EXPERIMENTS

Built on small pebbles which one can carry whither one will, remove,
or interchange, without disturbing either the work of the constructor
or the quiet of the inhabitants of the cells, the nests of Chalicodoma
muraria lend themselves readily to experiment—the only method
capable of throwing a little light on the nature of instinct. Profitably to
study the physical faculties of the animal it is not enough to know
how to turn to account such circumstances as a happy chance may
offer to the observer: one must be capable of originating others, and
vary them as much as possible and submit them to mutual control; in
short, to give science a solid basis of fact one must experiment.
Then some day will vanish before the evidence of exact documents
the fantastic legends which cumber our books, such as the
Scarabæus inviting his comrades to help in dragging his ball out of a
rut, or a Sphex cutting up a fly to carry it in spite of the wind, and
much more which is misused by those who desire to see in the
animal world that which is not there. Thus, too, will materials be
prepared which, used sooner or later by a learned [290]hand, will cast
premature and baseless theories back into oblivion.

Réaumur generally confines himself to stating facts as they offered

themselves to him in the normal course of things, and does not
attempt to penetrate further into the powers of the insect by means
of conditions brought about artificially. In his day there was
everything to do, and the harvest was so great that the illustrious
reaper hurried on to what was most urgent,—the gathering of it in,
leading his successors to examine grain and ear in detail.
Nevertheless, he mentions an experiment made on Chalicodoma
muraria by his friend Du Hamel. The nest was placed in a glass
funnel, the mouth of which was closed by a piece of gauze. Three