Carbon Fibers 1

Carbon Fibers

Georgina Abdallah

University of Balamand in Dubai

Presented to: Samer Fawaz

27/04/2020
 Carbon FIBERS 2

Table of Contents

I. Introduction

II. Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fiber Materials

III. Deformation and Method of Failure Upon Loading

IV. Thermal Insulation

V. Noise Insulation

VI. Vibration Damping and Dynamic Loading

VII. Structure of Carbon Fibers

VIII. Advantages and Disadvantages in Construction

IX. Conclusion

X. References
Carbon FIBERS 3

I. Introduction

For the past several decades, new materials that are helpful in construction have been

discovered such as polymers and carbon fibers. In fact, because engineers are extremely

thorough when it comes to choosing the perfect material for a specific project, all of their

properties should be studied from their structure, to their strength and the list goes on. Today,

carbon fibers are used by many engineers around the world for construction. Carbon fibers are in

fact materials consisting of thin, strong crystalline filaments of carbon, used as strengthening

material, especially in resins and ceramics. Thus, a study on this material should be made in

order to properly understand its properties and uses, as well as benefits and drawbacks. The

report’s main objective is to discuss the different aspects and properties of carbon fibers.
Carbon FIBERS 4

II. Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fiber Materials

Mechanical properties Table 1 indicates the carbon fiber tensile properties along the fiber

axis relative to those of a single crystal graphite along the axis, i.e. parallel to the carbon layers.

Although the carbon layers in a carbon fiber exhibit a clear preferred orientation parallel to the

fiber axis, the layer alignment is far from perfect, and the size of the crystallite is finite. The

tensile modulus and strength of carbon fibers are also far below that of a single crystal graphite.

The HM-type fibers modulus exceeds that of a single crystal graphite, but that of HT-type fibers

is much less than that of a single crystal graphite. The tensile strengths of both HM and HT fibers

are far below that of a single graphite crystal, though HT's strength is higher than HM's. There is

also enough space for enhancing carbon fiber tensile strength. There is, however, no space for

improving the tensile modulus.

The tensile properties of certain high-performance (HP) grade commercial carbon fibers

are illustrated in Table 2. The tensile power, modulus, and strain to failure differ over wide

ranges for the same precursor material (PAN or mesophase pitch).

The tensile module is governed by the desired orientation of the carbon layers along the

fiber axis, thus that as the interlayer decreases. As shown in Table 3 for a series of mesophase-

based carbon fibers provided by du Pont, spacing (doo2) and with that Lc and La.

Comparison of du Pont fibers (Table 3) with Amoco fibers (Table 2), both based on

mesophase pitch, shows the superior strength of du Pont fibers in tensile strength. Unfortunately,

the du Pont fibers aren't available commercially, although the Amoco fibers are.
Carbon FIBERS 5

Figure 1. displays the tensile stress-strain curves of carbon fibers with varying tensile

modulus values. The stress-strain curve for a high-modulus carbon fiber (e.g., HM70) is a

straight line to failure; Specific Tensile Modulus values. The stress-strain curve is a straight line

up to failure for a high-modulus carbon fiber (e.g., HM70); as the module decreases there is a

rising tendency for the slope to increase with increasing strain. This effect arises because, as the

strain increases, the fiber becomes gradually stretched; the carbon layers are more aligned and

thus the modulus increases. It forms the basis of a process known as stress graphisation.

Table 1. Considerations Concerning Young’s Modulus (E) and the Tensile Strength (σ) of Carbon

Fibers.
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Table 2. Tensile Modulus, Strength, and Strain to Failure of Carbon Fibers.

Table 3. Mechanical Properties of Pitch-Based Carbon Fibers and their Structural Parameters as

Determined by X-Ray Diffraction: d002, the interlayer spacing L0, the out-of-plane crystallite size;

and L0, the in-plane crystallite size parallel to the fiber axis.
Carbon FIBERS 7

Faults strongly affect the tensile strength, so it increases with decreasing length of test

(gage) and decreasing diameter of fiber. Figure 2 shows the tensile strength variance with the

fiber diameter for different PAN-based carbon fibers. There are two types of defects, namely

surface defects and internal defects. The surface flaws control the strength of non-heat-treated

carbon fibers above 1000-1 200 ° C; the internal flaws control the strength of carbon fibers above

1000-1 200 ° C. When a fiber is etched, the sum of surface flaws is that, which increases the

strength of the fiber. The minimum practical measurement length is 0.5mm, even though the

ultimate fragment length of a stressed single fiber composite is 0.3mm and the composite

strength is determined by the ultimate fragment length (also called the critical length). The

tensile is shown in table 4 Carbon fiber strengths (PAN) at various measuring lengths as

determined by standard tensile testing and in situ fiber strength testing. The latter test method

involves embedding a single fiber into a matrix (e.g. epoxy) and pulling the unembedded ends of

the fiber to raise stress levels up to around three times that of the fiber failure pressure. As the

strain is gradually increased, in situ is counted the number of breaks in the fiber. The fiber

ultimately splits into pieces of a length equal to the critical length, which is correlated with the

fiber's tensile properties and the fiber-to-matrix interfacial shear power. Table 4 shows that the

intensity of fibers measured by either method increases with that length of the gage. The latter

form has the advantage of Applicable for very short measuring distances but it has the drawback

of being sensitive to the fiber prestrain arising from the preparation technique of the specimen.

The disparity between the strengths of in situ fiber for epoxy and polycarbonate matrices (Table

4) is due to a variation in the strain of fibers.

The compressive power, as shown in table 5, is much lower than the tensile force. For

graphised fibers the ratio of compressive strength to tensile strength is lower than for carbonized
Carbon FIBERS 8

fibers. Carbon fibers based on pitch have even lower compressive strength than the fibers based

on Plate. Moreover, for pitch-based carbon fibers, the compressive failure strain is much lower

than PAN-based carbon fibers, as shown in Table 6. These variations between fibers based on

pitch and based on PAN are consistent with the Difference in process of compressive failure.

High-modulus pitch-based fibers usually deform by a shear mechanism, with kink bands formed

on a fracture surface at 45 "to the fiber axis. In comparison, PAN-based fibers generally buckle

on the strain and form kink bands at the bottom of the fracture surface, which is common to the

fiber axis [lo].

Thus, as shown in Figure 3, the compressive strength decreases with rising tensile

modulus. The ratio of carbon fibers in the axial Poisson is about 0.26-0.28.

Carbon fiber shear modulus decreases as L increases, and as La increases. It is predicted,

as L increases, and La implies a greater degree of desired orientation of the carbon sheet. A

reduction in the shear module is followed by a reduction in the compressive power, as shown in

Figure 4. Table 6 lists the values of the shear modulus of different industrial carbon fibers.

Table 8 lists the values of the torsional modulus of different industrial carbon fibers.

Mostly the cross sectional microstructure controls the torsional modulus. Mesophase carbon

fibers based on pitches have low torsional modules because they have an appreciable cross-

sectional radial microstructure which facilitates interlayer shear. Consequently, the torsional

modulus of mesophase-based carbon fibers is much smaller than that of carbon fibers based on

isotropic pitches. PAN-based carbon fibers, on the other hand, have high torsional modulus since

they have a significant degree of circumferential microstructure.

Carbon FIBERS 9

Figure 1. Tensile Stress-Strain Curves of Pitch-Based Carbon Fibers (Carbonic HM50

and HM70) and PAN-based Carbon Fibers (Fortafil 3C and 5C). The Test (Gage) Length is 100

mm. The Strain Rate is 1%/min.

Figure 2. Relation Between the Tensile Strength and Fiber Diameter: (a) Hercules AS-4

(Type HT) (b) Torayca T-300 (Type HT), and (c) Torayca M40 (Type HM).
Carbon FIBERS 10

Table 4. Tensile Strengths of AS-4 Fibers at Different Gage Lengths as Determined by

Traditional Tension Testing and by in Situ Fiber Strength Testing in Epoxy and Solvent

Deposited Polycarbonate Matrices. Tensile Strengths Appear in MPa Followed by Standard

Deviations.

Table 5. Tensile and Compressive Strength of Carbon Fibers.

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Figure 3. Relation Between the Compressive Strength and Tensile Modulus of Carbon

Fibers.

Table 6. Properties of Some PAN-Based Carbon Fibers.

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Figure 4. Relation Between the Compressive Strength (σC) and the Shear Modulus (g) of

Carbon Fibers.
Carbon FIBERS 13

III. Deformation and Method of Failure upon Loading

Law of Matrix (ROM) is widely used to assign properties to materials. Using the ROM

method, the thermal expansion coefficient for both matrix and fiber properties was achieved. It

provides a simpler method for predicting material properties based on fractions of matrix and

fiber-volume. Equations. (1),(2),(3), and(4) are used to measure the thematic density, elasticity

module along longitudinal and transverse direction, and resistance, respectively to composite,

fiber and matrix density correspond. Moreover, Vf and Vm corresponds to the fiber and matrix of

the volume fraction, respectively.

(1)

Assuming a unidirectional reinforced composite material, the composite elasticity

modulus in longitudinal direction (EcL) can be calculated from equation (2).

(2)

Similarly, the elastic modulus along transverse direction (EcT) is given by:

(3)
Carbon FIBERS 14

From the law of matrix (ROM), the strength and modulus of a continuous fiber reinforced

composite are given in equations (4), (5), (6), (7), (8) and (9) below.

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

Where η, σ, τ, V and E are the effectiveness parameter, tensile strength, ultimate strain at

break, volume fraction and tensile stiffness, respectively. The superscripts * and ‘ refer to

ultimate and maximum property values, respectively. Also, η varies from 1 for unidirectional

reinforcement to 5/8 in 2D random orientations.

Carbon FIBERS 15

Table 7. Material Properties

In this table we are able to recap what was previously discussed in this section, with a

few extra information.

Carbon FIBERS 16

IV. Thermal Insulation

Thermal properties such as unique heat Cp, thermal diffusivity a, and carbon fiber thermal

conductivity k are essential parameters of the carbon / carbon composite behavior. The actual

heat and thermal diffusivity are measured at very high temperatures (up to 2500 kg) in this test.

As a function of temperature is provided the experimental thermal conductivity determined by

the indirect relationship k = aqCp. Validations are performed on metallic (tungsten) and ceramic

(Al2O3) isotropic fibers. Three carbon fibers (rayon-based, PAN-based, and pitch-based) were

weighed.

The results of thermal conductivity allow us to rank fibers from the most insulated to the

most conductive.

The key result is that as the temperature and heat treatment temperature increase,

insulated carbon fibers have a growing thermal conductivity. Relationships between the thermal

conductivity and the structural properties of these carbon fibers (Lc and d002) are studied. We

define also the effect of heat treatment on carbon fiber thermal conductivity. With that in mind, a

great number of polymer materials have a tensile strength of around 5 GPa which is about 5

times stronger than steel. They possess a thermal conductivity of 1000 W/m.K, which is almost

three times the value of copper.

Carbon FIBERS 17

V. Noise Insulation

As described above, a material's density plays an important part in its acoustic properties.

Light materials can typically absorb the vibration energy better than materials of greater density

can do. Under the tenth equation, the high acoustic coefficient is fairly expected when the density

is low, much like the density of wood. However, due to their high density fibers, the density of

fiber-reinforced composites is considerably higher than that of wood.

The calculated density for polyester composites reinforced with carbon fiber, glass fiber,

and hemp fiber, as well as for the wood specimens tested (i.e., walnut, poplar, and beech wood)

is shown in Figure 5.

The density of fiber composites, as can be seen, is much greater than that of wood

samples, particularly when using glass fiber.

Under the tenth equation, materials with a much higher density than wood are likely to

have weaker acoustic properties unless they have a greater elastic module than wood. Therefore

the longitudinal and flexural free vibration and also forced vibration NDTs were performed to

evaluate the composites and wood specimens elastic modulus.

(6)
Carbon FIBERS 18

Figure 5. The Measured Density for the Carbon Fiber-, Glass Fiber-, and Hemp Fiber-

Reinforced Polyester Composites as Well as the Poplar, Walnut and Beach Wood Specimens.

We can observe in Figure 5 that the carbon fiber reinforced composite distinguishingly

reveals the highest value so that the speed of sound in this composite is found to be surprisingly

more than two times greater than that in the wood specimens.
Carbon FIBERS 19

VI. Vibration Damping and Dynamic Loading

In this section we will be discussing the vibration damping and the dynamic loading of

carbon fibers. In order to do so clearly, we will be studying this material through sandwich

panels of carbon fiber.

In figure 6, we have the first six modal types of hybrid sandwich panels inferred from the

results of experiments. The findings calculated suggested a resilient agreement with the

numerical predictions. Mode 1 was a transverse bending mode, Mode 2 was a twisting mode, and

the effects of their contrasting superposition were other modes. The first six order natural

frequencies and modal damping loss factors of these hybrid sandwich panels were investigated,

integrating modal testing and modeling prediction based on a modal strain energy approach.

Figure 5 and 6 showed results of first six order natural frequencies and damping loss factors for

hybrid sandwich panels embedded with different viscoelastic layer thicknesses.

The eventual discrepancy in simulation estimation of the damping loss factors was due to

the boundary condition, joint damping, and frictional damping compared with the experiment

results. It was found that the sandwich panel damping loss factor without a viscoelastic layer was

much higher than traditional materials and structures in the range of 0.7 percent to 2 per cent.

Additionally, the damping loss factor values were also higher than the transverse bending mode,

which corresponds to the twist mode. The explanation for this was that twist mode could induce

greater shear deformation to dissipate more energy.

Carbon FIBERS 20

Figure 6. The First Six Modal Shapes Deduced From Experiment and Finite Element

Analysis

Figure 7. Comparisons of the Natural Frequencies and Damping Loss Factors by the

Experimental and Modelling Results for the Sandwich Panel

Carbon FIBERS 21

VII. Structure of Carbon Fibers

Carbon Fiber (CF) is a substance composed of fibers from 50 to 10 micrometers in

diameter, primarily made up of carbon atoms. Such carbon atoms are bound to a crystal structure

between them, more or less aligned in the path of the fibres. This alignment gives the fiber its

high strength resistance for its volume (it makes it proportional to its size and weight as a strong

material). The carbon fiber properties, such as high flexibility, high strength, low weight, high

temperature resistance and low thermal expansion coefficient.

Carbon fiber is classified as a fiber that contains at least 92 wt percent carbon, while the

fiber that contains at least 99 wt percent carbon is commonly referred to as graphite fiber. In

general, carbon fibers have excellent tensile properties, low densities and high thermal and

chemical stability in the absence of oxidizing agents, good thermal and electrical conductivity

and excellent resistance to creeping. They were widely used in the form of woven textiles,

prepress, continuous fibers / rovings, and chopped fibers in composites. Filament winding, tape

winding, pultrusion, compression molding, vacuum bagging, liquid molding, and injection

molding can be used to manufacture the composite parts.

Table 8. Estimated Global Carbon Fiber Consumption

The atomic structure of a carbon fiber is similar to that of graphite, consisting of carbon

atom layers (graphene sheets) arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern, as shown in Figure 1.
Carbon FIBERS 22

Depending upon the precursors and manufacturing processes, layer planes in carbon fibers may

be either turbostratic, graphitic, or a hybrid structure. In graphitic crystalline regions, the layer

planes are stacked parallel to one another in a regular fashion.

D-spacing between two layers of graphene (d002) in a single graphic crystal is about 0.335

nm. These single crystals were determined with the elastic constants; C11 and C33 are GPa

1,060 and GPa 36.5 respectively, but C44 is as small as 4.5 GPa for shearing. The basic

structural unit of several carbon fibers is therefore made up of a series of turbostratic layers. The

parallel graphene sheets are stacked in a turbostratic structure, folded, twisted, or broken

irregularly or haphazardly, it has been stated that the stacking is abnormal.

Figure 8. Structure of graphitic crystals and crystal directions.

Carbon FIBERS 23

VIII. Advantages and Disadvantages in Construction

Thanks to through studies about carbon fibers, it has become a fact that they possess

important advantages. Carbon fiber is lighter than steel but heavier than aluminum. Carbon fiber

is roughly five times stronger than steel and two times stronger (some forms are also 8 times

stronger), and as a result it is often used as a substitute for metal alloys in areas where metal is

simply not strong enough Carbon fiber has been approved as the most suitable material for the

job. This can be as much as 4 times as heavy as steel in a driveshaft application and it continues

to be 40% lighter than aluminum.

In the aerospace industry, carbon fibers are used to produce lighter and stronger parts of

the plane that can surpass that of their equivalents in metal alloy. Not only are they used in the

aerospace industry, carbon fibers are used as a replacement for metals in many other sectors; for

instance, in warships, bulletproof suits, computers, R / C helicopters.

Correspondingly, they are also increasingly being used in wind turbines, aerospace

(commercial and military aircraft, space launch vehicles), and pressure vessel industries to

improve weight and steadiness strength.

Tiny carbon tubes or nanotubes are the most recent development of carbon fibers. They

are exceptionally hollow tubes, some as small as 0.00004 in diameter (0.001 mm), have

extraordinary mechanical and electrical properties that can be useful in producing new high-

strength fibers, submicroscopic test tubes, or perhaps new semi-conductor materials for

integrated circuits. Hence, it is possible to say that the capacity of carbon fibers is almost infinite.

Carbon fibers are highly used in construction for several reasons. This material has high

strength to weight ratio, is very rigid, corrosion resistant and chemically stable and has good
Carbon FIBERS 24

fatigue resistance. However, in any case where carbon fiber fails, it typically struggles to show

that it is not in ideal conditions and could result in sudden catastrophic consequences.

Moreover, damage in tensile fatigue is seen as a decrease in stiffness with more stress

cycles, unless of course if the temperature is high. Likewise, studies show that failure is unlikely

to be an issue when cyclic stresses correlate with fiber orientation.

The orientation of the fibers and the different orientation of the fiber layer have a

significant effect on how a composite can resist tiredness (as it does on stiffness). The type of

forces applied often results in various types of failures. Forces of stress, compression or sheer all

result in extremely different outcomes of failure.

On a side note, it has been acknowledged that carbon fiber exceeds the performance of E

glass in terms of fatigue and static strength, as well as rigidity.

If we compare carbon fibers to other materials, we realize several factors. According to

table 9, it has a relatively good tensile strength. Table 10 confirms that the coefficient of thermal

expansion of this material is significantly low, which makes carbon fiber suitable for applications

where it can be sensitive to small movements, and is especially convenient for precise materials

and technologies.

Several applications in structural engineering use carbon fiber enhanced polymer due to

its possible building advantages and cost-effectiveness. Usual uses include reinforcing buildings

made of concrete, steel, timber, masonry, and cast iron; retrofitting to improve the load capacity

of old structures such as bridges; improving shear strength and flexing structures in reinforced

concrete. Many uses include steel repair, prestressing materials, and reinforcing cast-iron beams.

Table 9. Tensile Strength of Various Types of Materials

Carbon FIBERS 25

Table 10. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Several Materials.

However, while carbon fiber is a very good functional material with a good amount of

advantages, just like any other material, it also has disadvantages. The most remarkable

downside is that carbon fiber is very fragile. This ensures that while it is strong it still breaks

devastatingly when failure occurs, it is a brittle material. The layers in this material are formed

by strong covalent bonds, and the sheet-like aggregations allow the propagation of cracks. Thus,

when the fibers bend they will fail at very low strain. Another drawback is that molds are

absolutely necessary to make a good product, which is not simple and requires specialists.

Another disadvantage is the amount of carbon fiber, which is quite costly. Since the material is
Carbon FIBERS 26

very lightweight and solid, in order to be able to integrate it in any product the price grows as the

amount increases.

Also, it plays a negative role in an environmental perspective. To start off, it affects it

during the manufacturing process, and again once it degrades. It has only one color, which

individuals chose not to cover in order to avoid additional costs. Carbon fiber isn't easily

biodegradable yet, just like steel and other materials. This could potentially harm the human

body as it can trigger some form of lung cancer.

Carbon FIBERS 27

IX. Conclusion

Carbon fibers are becoming more popular in the construction industry. As a result, its

mechanical properties have been studied, evaluated and examined, leading to further new

developments. Their mechanical properties such as tensile and compressive strength are

extremely important for future developments that can improve their overall performance.

Furthermore, with this knowledge in mind, we can understand the material’s deformation process

as it grants access to several different equations. They further possess important properties such

as noise and thermal insulation that come in handy when it comes to construction. The report

also tackled carbon fibers’ structure as well as their vibration damping and dynamic loading as it

is very necessary to fathom these concepts. Having the proper knowledge on all of carbon fibers’

properties is enough to determine the advantages and disadvantages that it has, notably in

construction. However, just because carbon fibers have properties that are important in

construction, this does not necessarily mean that they are a flawless material. In fact, although

they have several disadvantages, their drawbacks are quite important is they narrow down their

use in the field.

Carbon FIBERS 28

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