Department of Geological Sciences

Jahangirnagar University

GAS IN COAL
(Lecture – 14)
 Gas in Coal

• Bituminous coals contain a number of gases, including methane (CH4),

carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen (N2), and ethane.
• The amount of gas retained and held by a coal depends on various
factors, such as pressure, temperature, pyrite content, and the structure
of the coal.
• CH4 is a flammable gas and is explosive between a lower limit of c. 5%
and an upper limit of 15% when mixed with fresh air. This highly
combustible gas is known as ‘firedamp’.
• Carbon dioxide is more common in brown coal than in bituminous coal
workings. Bituminous coals that have a high pyrite content contain
higher amounts of CO2 to the fact that coals rich in pyrite absorb more
oxygen (O2) when moist.
• CO2 also known as ‘blackdamp’, is a colourless gas and is heavier than air.
It therefore tends to accumulate in the lower parts of mine Workings.
 Gas in Coal

• Carbon monoxide originates from the incomplete oxidation of coal,

especially after CH4 explosions and underground fires. The gas is
combustible and poisonous.
• Only a small proportion of the N2 found in coal gases has its origin in the
N2 present in the coal material; the bulk of the N2 originates from the
surrounding air.
• Free H2 occurs in small amounts associated with CH4, but it is not usually
found in any great amounts.
• Ethane is more prominent in gases derived from oxidised coals; cannel
coal contains ethane in its pore structure.
• Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas and, as such, is
distinguished from the other gases present in coal; it does have
significance in posing a health hazard to humans
 Coal-bed Methane

• The CH4 content of the coal can be regarded as a significant source of energy.
• CH4 is usually referred to as coal-bed CH4 (CBM) in most literature; however, in
Australia, CBM is known as coal seam gas.
• CBM is similar to conventional natural gas in composition, but it has a different
accumulation mechanism, enrichment process, gas reservoir features, and fluid
occurrence state.

Mastalerz et al., 2014

 Coal-bed Methane

Coal-bed Methane Generation

• CBM is generated in two ways:
biogenetic and thermal
• First, during the early stages of
coalification at temperatures below
50°C; this is biogenic CH4 and is
formed by decomposition of the
organic material, and where
biological activity induces reducing
conditions, which remove O2 and
sulfate.
• Where subsidence and burial are
rapid, biogenic CBM may be trapped
in shallow gas reservoirs (Rightmire
1984).

Source: From Rightmire 1984

(based on Hunt 1979).
 Coal-bed Methane

Coal-bed Methane Generation

• Second, CBM is generated by means of catagenesis,
the process by which organic material is altered as a
result of the effect of increasing temperature.
• CBM generated at temperatures in excess of 50C
will be due to this process and is referred to as
thermogenic CH4.
• When the maturity of coal-bearing rocks reaches Ro
= 0.6%, hydrocarbon of thermal origin starts to form
and continues forming throughout the entire
coalification process (Clayton, 1998).
• During coalification, more than twice as much CO2 as
CH4 is generated up to the high-volatile bituminous–
medium-volatile bituminous coal boundary.
• CBM volumes generated increase rapidly above this
point, with the CBM generation peak occurring at
about 150°C, or at the medium-volatile bituminous–
low-volatile bituminous coal boundary.
 Coal-bed Methane

Coal-bed Methane Generation

• Present-day developed CBM lies in shallow coalbeds within a depth of 1500 m,
where coalbeds underwent structural uplifting.
• When coalbeds were uplifted to a temperature range suitable for life, the
organic matter and CO2 in coalbeds transformed into methane under biological
action and formed secondary biogenic gas.
• Even coal-bearing rocks with a higher degree of evolution were mixed with
secondary biogenic gas during uplifting; the degree of mixture differs in
different basins and structural settings.

Formation of coalbed
methane with different
origins during the
processes of coalbed burial
and uplifting.
 Coal-bed Methane

Coal-bed Methane Generation

 Coal-bed Methane

Coal-bed Methane Generation

• Natural gas is formed during coalification of the coal enriched with

humic organic matter such as vitrinite and inertinite (i.e., coal-
formed gas).
• The source rocks consisting of hydrogen-enriched macerals in humic
coal (similar to type II and III kerogens) including coal enriched with
amorphous solids, alginates, and exinites, have the capability to
generate liquid petroleum.
• The capability of the coal macerals to generate oil can be ranked from
powerful to weak, as follows: exinite, vitrinite, and inertinite.
 Coal-bed Methane

Coal-bed Methane Generation

• Exinites can generate a great deal of hydrocarbon, particularly oil, since they
have a high ratio of H/C atoms, a low ratio of aromatics to carbon, a high ratio
of lipid to carbon, and high percentages of methyl, a-methylene, methylene, and
methine.

Simulated rates of hydrocarbon generation by thermal evolution of exinite (after

Liu et al., 2000).
 Coal-bed Methane

Coal-bed Methane Generation

• Humic coal enriched with vitrinite-inertinite has a low ratio of H/C atoms, a
high ratio of aromatics to carbon, a low ratio of lipid to carbon, and low
percentages of methyl, a-methylene, methylene, and methane.
• As a result, humic coal has a poor capacity for hydrocarbon (oil) generation and
gas generation is predominant. As the thermal evolution of coal advances, the
ratio of H/C atoms decreases (Huang et al., 1995; and Liu et al., 2000).

Simulated rates of hydrocarbon generation by thermal evolution of vitrinite A and vitrinite B

(after Liu et al., 2000).
 Coal-bed Methane Retention

• Under geological conditions, coalbed methane exists in coal beds in three

states:
1. Adsorbed state: occurs on the surface of coal pores in the form of
adsorption;
2. Free state: state is distributed in coal pores and fissures; and
3. Dissolved state: occurs in coalbed water under dissolution.
• In addition, a few researchers have proposed a liquid-like state (Collins,
1991).

• Methane gas generated during coalification tends to be adsorbed first,

then dissolved, and finally liberated as free gas.

• Generally, the adsorbed state is predominant of the three states,

accounting for 70% to 95%; the free state accounts for about 10% to
20%, and the dissolved state is extremely rare.
Coal-bed Methane Retention
 Coal-bed Methane Retention

• Porosity in coals occurs as fracture porosity and matrix porosity.

• The fracture porosity in coal is primarily due to the formation of fractures called
cleat.
• Cleat is a joint or set of joints perpendicular to the top and bottom of the coal seam.
Usually, there are two cleat sets developed in an orthogonal pattern.
• Cleat is a major control on the directional permeability of coals.
• Cleat fracture porosity in coal is estimated to be between 0.5% and 2.5% (Laubach
et al. 1998).
Coal-bed Methane Retention
Coal-bed Methane Retention
 Coal-bed Methane Production

• In CBM development, water is

removed from the coal bed (by
pumping), which decreases the
reservoir pressure.
• Methane that was held in place
by water pressure tends to
follow the water as it is pumped
to the surface, where it is
captured and transported
through pipelines to storage
facilities or shipped.
• This relatively inexpensive and
straightforward procedure has
made coalbed methane a useful,
easily accessible form of energy.
Coal-bed Methane Production
Coal-bed Methane Production
 Coal-bed Methane Production

• In the initial
production stage of
coalbed methane,
the wells produce
mostly water.

• Eventually, as the
coal beds near the
pumping well are
dewatered, the
volume of pumped
water decreases
and the production
of gas increases.
 Coal-bed Methane Production

• Depending on the geological

conditions, it may take several
years to achieve full-scale gas
production. Generally, the
deeper the coal bed the less
water present, and the sooner
the well will begin to produce
gas.

• CBM wells are drilled with techniques similar to those used for conventional
wells.
• In some regions where the coal beds are shallow, smaller, less expensive rigs,
such as modified water-well drilling rigs, can be used to drill CBM wells.
• As with conventional gas wells, hydraulic fracturing is used as a primary means
of stimulating gas flow in CBM wells.
 Coal-bed Methane Production

The requirements for extraction of coalbed methane are:

• an unworked coal seam more than 40cm thick

• a coal seam between 200m and 1200m depth from the surface

• suitable porosity, sorption, permeability and natural fracture pattern of

the coal
 Coal-bed Methane Production

Produced Water

• Produced water quality varies depending primarily upon the geology

of the coal formation.

• Typically, saline water is produced from deeper coal formations.

• Produced water may contain nitrate, nitrite, chlorides, other salts,

benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, other minerals, metals and high levels
of total dissolved solids.
 Underground Coal Gasification (UCG)

• Underground Coal Gasification (UCG) is a gasification process applied to non-mined

coal seams, using injection and production wells drilled from the surface, which
enables the coal to be converted in situ into product gas.

• Underground gasification could potentially allow the use of coal that is currently
uneconomical to mine.

• In this process, two wells are

drilled into the coal, one for
injection of the oxidants,
another to bring the
product gas to surface.

• Underground Coal
Gasification involves
igniting a coal seam
underground and pumping
out the partially burned
gases that result.
 Underground Coal Gasification (UCG)

Coal Gasification Reactions

• The primary oxidation reaction. When O2 is passed over/through hot

coal it combines with C to form CO, which is a flammable gas. This is an
exothermic reaction (i.e. it produces heat). If too much O2 is supplied, then
CO2 is produced which is inert.
• The steam-char reaction. When water or steam is passed over/through
heated coal, the O2 in it combines with C to form CO and releases the H2
content. This mixture of CO and H2 produces a high-CV gas.
• The CO2 reduction reaction, when CO2 + C produces CO.
• The water-gas shift reaction, when CO + water produces H2 and CO2.
• The CH4 synthesis reaction. At the high pressures achievable in the
gasification of deep coal, H2 combines with C to form CH4.
• Pyrolysis: when coal+heat produces CH4 + CO + H2 + light hydrocarbons.
 Underground Coal Gasification (UCG)

Desired underground coal gasification site characteristics

• Coal below water table
• Minimum coal seam thickness 3m
• Coal must be ‘gas tight’
• Minimum depth 150–200 m
• Coal must be a confined aquifer
• Coal permeability below 2 md is desirable but not strictly necessary
• The larger the resource the greater the economies of scale. A 100 Mt resource
could supply a 500 MW power plant for 25 years, assuming that 62% of the
coal is gasified and power generation efficiency is 43%.
• Lignite to bituminous coals are amenable to UCG.
• Ash and moisture content <50%
• Coal seam proximity: It is economic to use the same well to access multiple
coal seams
 Underground Coal Gasification (UCG)

Advantages
• Conventional coal mining is eliminated with UCG, reducing operating costs
and surface damage and eliminating mine safety issues.
• Coals that are unmineable (too deep, low quality, too thin) are exploitable
by UCG, thereby increasing domestic resource availability.
• Surface transportation of coal is eliminated, thus reducing cost, coal
stockpiling, and shipping.
• No surface gasification facilities are required, reducing capital costs.
• Ash in coal remains underground, avoiding ash disposal at the surface.
• A reduction in sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and other pollutants.
• UCG produces less GHGs than conventional mining and surface combustion
do. The well infrastructure for UCG can be used subsequently for CO2
sequestration operations.
• Coal seam gas technology can extract 3–5% of the energy (as CH4) in the
coal, whereas UCG extracts more than 80% of the coal’s energy.
 Underground Coal Gasification (UCG)

Drawback
• UCG can have serious environmental implications, particularly aquifer
contamination and ground subsidence.
• Even when UCG may be technically feasible, the selection of a number of
coal deposits may be limited due to geological and hydrogeological factors
that increase environmental risks to unacceptable levels.
• UCG operations cannot be controlled to the same extent as surface gasifiers
can. Water influx, distribution of reactants in the gasification zone, and the
growth of the cavity can only be estimated from measurements of
temperatures and product gas quality and quantity.
• Until a reasonable number of UCG-based power plants are built and
operated, the economics of UCG has major uncertainties.
• UCG is inherently an unsteady-state process, and both the flow rate and
heating value of the product gas will vary over time.
 Climate Change and Global Energy Security

The deterioration of energy security has also become increasingly multidimensional as

its links to other challenges have become clearer.

1. Growing Worldwide Demand for Energy

• The growing worldwide
demands for electricity and
for mobility compound issues
of energy security.
• The world is in transition
from a position of abundant
fossil energy supplies to a
largely resource-constrained
supply future.
• The demand for energy is
expected to increase by 45
percent between now and
2030, and by more than 300
percent by the end of the
century.
 Climate Change and Global Energy Security

2. Growing Imbalance between Supply and Demand

• The growing imbalance of oil production and consumption exacerbates the risk
of fuel shortages and interruptions in supply, which will take a fairly rapid turn
for the worse for many countries.
• The oil dependence in Europe, China, India, and other Asian countries could
grow rapidly, each importing 75 percent or more of its oil by 2030.
 Climate Change and Global Energy Security

3. The Link to Global Climate Change

• The destabilization of the world’s climate (or, to be more precise, of certain
climatic zones), driven by relentless emissions of greenhouse gases, has the
potential to exacerbate food and water shortages, advance the spread of
infectious disease, induce mass migration, damage trillions of dollars of
property, and precipitate extreme weather events — all of which could lead to
increased conflict worldwide
Climate Change and Global Energy Security
 Climate Change and Global Energy Security

A Tale of Five Challenges

• Electricity
• Transportation
• Forestry and
Agriculture
• Waste and Water
• Climate Change
 Climate Change

The Science behind Climate Change

• At the end of 2009, Earth’s atmosphere had a carbon

dioxide concentration of 388 parts per million (ppm),
150 higher than it has been in at least 800,000 years.
• The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide is
increasing at 2.5 ppm per year; if untempered,
concentrations could surpass 750 ppm — an
extremely dangerous situation — by the end of the
century.
• The expected warming from a doubling of carbon
dioxide is between 3.6 and 8.1F (2.0 and 4.5C).
• Recent modeling research indicates that
industrialized countries will have to reduce their
carbon emissions by 50 – 80 percent by 2050 to
prevent temperatures from rising more than 2 – 3C.
 Climate Change

The Science behind Climate Change

• These gases allow sunlight
to pass through the
atmosphere, but when the
sunlight is re-radiated back
toward space as infrared
radiation they absorb the
infrared radiation and trap
the heat in the atmosphere
and at the surface.
• GHGs allow Earth to be
habitable — without them,
the average temperature of
the planet would be – 18C (
– 64F) instead of 15C
(59F).
• Human actions are
increasing the atmospheric
concentrations of GHGs,
resulting in an “ enhanced
greenhouse effect ” that is
warming the climate.
 Climate Change

The Science behind Climate Change

• Many chemical compounds found in the atmosphere act as greenhouse gases.

• The most abundant GHGs are naturally occurring. They include water vapor,
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3).
• In addition, there are numerous highly potent, anthropogenic GHGs that are
entirely human made. Three classes of these — chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs
commonly called freons), hydrochlorofluoro carbons (HCFCs), and bromofl
uorocarbons (BFC, commonly called halons) — also deplete the stratospheric
ozone layer.
• Other anthropogenic fluorine containing halogenated substances do not deplete
stratospheric ozone but are potent GHGs.
• The most important of these, collectively called the “F-gases,” include
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride
(SF6).
• When these gases are ranked by their contributions to the greenhouse effect, the
most important ones (excluding ozone depleting substances) are water vapor,
CO2, CH4, and O3, followed by N2O and the three F-gases.
 Climate Change

The Consequences of Climate Change

The consequences of climate change are severe and increasingly certain. According
to the IPCC, its impacts will include the following:
• global warming (already 0.6C higher than before the Industrial Revolution)
• rising sea levels (a minimum of 0.3 – 0.6 meter, or 1 – 2 feet, by 2100)
• intensification of tropical cyclones
• decreases in meridional overturning of the Atlantic Ocean
• declining ocean pH (by 0.14 – 0.35 — already down 0.1)
• decreasing snow cover, permafrost, and sea ice
• more frequent and more intense extreme weather events
• increasing rainfall in high latitudes and decreasing rainfall in the subtropics
• changing micro-climates that will affect food production.
 Climate Change

Technologies for Mitigating Climate Change

 References

• Thomas, L., 2020. Coal Geology (3rd edition). Wiley Blackwell, 513p.

• Zou, C., Zhu, R., Tao, S., Hou, L., Yuan, X., Song, Y., Niu, J., Dong, D., Liu, S.,
Jiang, L., Wang, S., Zhang, G., 2013, Unconventional Petroleum Geology.
Elsevier, 373 p.

• Brown, M.A. and Sovacool, B.K., 2011. Climate Change and Global Energy
Security: Technology and Policy Options. The MIT Press, 416p.

• https://frackfreecv.wordpress.com/coalbed-methane/

• http://serc.carleton.edu/research_education/cretaceous/coalbed.html

• http://www.energyjustice.net/naturalgas/cbm

• http://www.ucgassociation.org/index.php

• http://www.groundtruthtrekking.org/Issues/AlaskaCoal/UndergroundCo
alGasification.html