# NUCLEUS 312

# Nucleus
It is the core of all atoms around which electrons revolve. It contains the particles of proton &
neutron collectively called ‘nucleons’.
1. Protons — Nucleus has protons was discovered in 1917, by Rutherford, when he found that
lightest nucleus, which is a hydrogen nucleus, later named proton in 1920, can be produced
from nucleus of nitrogen by atomic collision.
Z = Atomic Number = No. of Protons in nucleus
2. Neutrons — Neutrons was discovered in 1932, when James Chadwick showed nucleus has
one more particle called ‘Neutron’ which is electrically neutral. A free neutron outside
nucleus is unstable & decays into a proton, electron & anti-neutrino, by Beta-decay.
N = Number of Neutrons in nucleus
3. Sum of total number of protons & total number of neutrons in nucleus is called ‘Mass No.’ A,
A=N+Z
4. Penetration power of neutron is higher than that of proton, because of electric charge
neutrality of neutrons.
5. Radius of nucleus is given by , R = Ro(A)"3 Ro 1 2 fre = .

6. Density of Nucleus 3 m
(N
mmn
=
=
=

[Ro(A) "3]3

A
=
S= 3 mp
= 3 =

4a Ro3

T= 2
=> .
4x10 kg/m3
We can say Nuclear density is independent of Mass Number ‘A’ and it is constant for
nucleus of all elements. Also nuclear density is extremely large in magnitude.

# Different types of Nucleus

1. Isotopes — Same atomic number Z (so same element) & different mass number A. They
have same chemical property but different physical property.
2. Isobars — Same mass number A, & different atomic number. They have different chemical &
different physical property as well.
3. Isotones — Nuclei that have same number of Neutrons.
2
# Einstein’s Mass-Energy Equivalence — E = mc

(mass of
carbon (-12atom)
Atomic mass unit lamu
1th
a
= =

= lamn = 1 .
66x182 Lg
lamu = mc2 1 60 x 102 x (3x108) -
Energy
=
· in .

lamu = 931 5 MeV

=>
Energy in .

· Mass of protons Mp =
,
1 . 6726 X10- kg =
1 .
0073 u

Mass neutron Mr = 1 6749 X15* kg =

1 0086 u
·
of ,
. .
# Nuclear Force
It arises due to interaction between proton with protons, proton with neutrons, and neutron with
neutrons. This force is essentially a very strong attractive force and overcomes the electrostatic
repulsion between the protons inside the nucleus.
Properties of Nuclear forces:
(a) These are strong attractive forces & are short ranged and effective upto 10 fm.
(b) They contain a component of repulsive force which is effective up to a distance of the order
of 0.5 fm or less. This repulsive component prevents the collapse of the nucleus.
(c) This force is 100 times stronger than Coulomb’s force.
(d) These forces are charge independent & magnitude of the nuclear force by a proton on a
proton, by a proton on a neutron and by a neutron on a neutron are all equal. Fp -p =
Fp-
n
Fn=
-
m

# N/Z Ration — Nuclear Stability

There are almost 3300 discovered aN
nuclei till date, out of which around &
--
&
280 elements are found primordially White circle — Unstable Nucleus
with stable nuclei or nuclei with -
Black Circle — Stable Nucleus
sufficiently large half lives to consider
-- -
them stable.
From figure we observe that — & I
1. Light nuclei are most stable if they
contain equal number of protons
& neutrons. N=Z or, N/Z=1
2. Heavy nucleus are more stable for
N/Z >1 .
This can be understood as
increasing the number of protons
leads to increase in electrostatic
repulsion in protons that may
overcome nuclear force to break THI
the stability of nucleus. So more
neutrons are needed to keep
nucleus stable, because neutrons
experience only attractive nuclear
force, & additional number of
neutrons dilutes nuclear charge.
3. The heaviest element which is having = 2 835
209
stable nucleus is 83 Bi (Bismuth). >
For Bismuth N/Z =1.6 , & this is
limiting value of N/Z ratio. Hence for nuclear stability , 1 < ( N/Z ) < 1.6
It is to be noted that above ratio is vague, & some element having N/Z in above range are
also radioactive in one or more of its isotopic forms.
But elements heavier than Bismuth (A =209) & Z=83), (Z > 83 ), do not have stable nucleus at
all in any of its isotopic forms & are essentially radioactive.
Notable exception include (U-238) & (Th-232) having stable nucleus.
This can be explained as, that, further increase in size for heavier elements leads to further
separation between nucleons. Increasing separation decreases Strong Nuclear force
extremely sharply, giving Coulomb’s force opportunity to destabilise the nucleus.
4. Unstable nuclei will undergo various radioactive decay processes to stabilise themselves.
5. Elements above Uranium (Z=92) are called transuranic elements, as U (Z=92) is the highest
atomic number element with one of the stable nucleus. Above Uranium, all elements are
produced in laboratory & not found naturally, due to their short lives. 313
 314
# Mass-Defect of Nucleus & Binding Energy
When a stable nucleus of mass M is split into its constituent nucleons, it was found sum of
mass of separate isolated nucleons is greater than sum of mass of nucleus.
So while forming a nucleus, from its constituent nucleons, mass decreases and it is called
‘mass defect’ of nucleus.
Mass Defect ,
Am =
[mpt--my-
This mass defect is converted into energy which will bind the nucleons into a stable nucleus.
Binding Energy (E ) is the energy needed to separate a nucleus into its constituent
J

nucleons, & this energy is equal to energy equivalent of mass defect.

ED = Anch

=>
Ex =

[2m ,
+ (A 2) my
-
-

MJ ch
L
(masses in kg)

=> En =
[2mp + (A 2) my -
-

MJ (931 .
5 MeV)
(masses in amu
Note — Binding Energy is a positive term.

# Binding Energy per Nucleon ( E.bn ) —

Binding energy per nucleon is equal to Binding energy divided by number of nucleons A.

Ebn =

E
En
=>
= AxEnn
Main features of the plot:
(i) The binding energy per nucleon, Ebn ,
is practically constant (nearly equal
to 8 MeV), & independent of the
atomic number for nuclei of middle
mass number ( 30 < A < 170).
The curve has a maximum of about 8.75 MeV for (A) = 56
(ii) Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A<30) and heavy nuclei (A>170).

We can draw some conclusions from these two observations:

(i) The nuclear force is sufficiently strong to produce a binding energy of a few MeV per nucleon.
(ii) The constancy of the binding energy in the range, 30 < A < 170, is a consequence of the fact
that the nuclear force is short-ranged.
Consider a particular nucleon inside a sufficiently large nucleus. It will be affected by nuclear
force between its neighbour atoms only, & other nucleons which are not its neighbour (farther
away) will not be able to interact with it due to short-ranged order if nuclear force.
This property of Nuclear force is also called ‘Saturation Property’.
 If a nucleon can have a maximum of p neighbours within the range of nuclear force, its
binding energy would be proportional to p.
h is
· En [p => Enn =
Ap some

constantL of energy
,
.
If we increase A by adding nucleons they will not change the binding energy of a nucleon
inside. Since most of the nucleons in a large nucleus reside inside it and not on the surface,
the change in binding energy per nucleon would be small.
iii) A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per nucleon compared to that
of a nucleus with A = 120. Thus if a nucleus A = 240 breaks into two A = 120 nuclei, nucleons
get more tightly bound. This implies energy would be released in the process. So energy is
produced in fission of such heavy nuclei.
iv) Consider two very light nuclei (A 10) joining to form a heavier nucleus. The binding energy
per nucleon of the fused heavier nuclei is more than the binding energy per nucleon of the
lighter nuclei. This means that the final system is more tightly bound than the initial system.
Hence, energy is produced in fusion of two such light nuclei.

# Nuclear Reactions or Collisions

Let us consider a reaction of nuclei — X + a ———> Y + b

In shorthand notation it is also denoted as, X(a,b)Y

These reactions follow some conservation laws —

1. Conservation of Charge.
2. Conservation of Number of nucleons or Mass number ( A ).
3. Conservation of Energy, Momentum & Angular Momentum.

# Q—value of nuclear reaction —

It is defined as the amount of energy released in a nuclear reaction and is equal to energy in the
mass defect of the reaction.

Q = Amxc2 Am =
[mx + ma-my
-

Mb]
# Exoergic Reaction — In these reactions, Q-value is positive & rest mass is converted to
Kinetic mass energy or/and radiation energy.
Ex : KE
of X-particle ,
in
-decay : EX >
#Y + 22
[Pf Px Px 0
=
Py Pa
Py + Ph
=>
[Pi =
=

(Rest]
=> 0 =
py + b =
py = -

Py
a =
KEytkEy-kEx = E
=> Q =

)=
=>
Q =

(E)(1 +
4) = (E), x
A -

= (E) =

()Q & Q= Amch

315
# Endoergic Reaction — In these reactions, Q-value is negative and we have to supply energy
to cause the reaction.
Threshold Energy — It is the minimum amount of energy that a bombarding particle must have in
order to initiate an endoergic reaction. KE,threshold should be greater than Q-value as it has to
account for KE for final products too.

KEt
(l +
=

# Magic Number of Nucleus —> The inert elements are relatively unreactive because their outer
shells of electrons are full. Large energies are involved in gaining or losing electrons. An analogous
behaviour takes place in the nucleus. Experimental evidence does indicate the existence of 'closed nuclear
shell' when the number of protons or neutrons is 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 or 126, although the concepts of
individual nucleon 'orbits' and filled shells inside the nucleus is hard to believe.
The above mentioned number of protons or neutron are called magic numbers. The elements with magic
number of protons have unusually high number of stable isotope. For example, aluminium with 13 protons
has just one stable isotope Al, but, tin with Z = 50 (a magic number) has 10 stable isotopes ranging
from N= 62 to N = 74, whereas neighboring indium with Z = 49 and antimony with Z = 51 have only two.
Thus, the magic numbers are associated with extra binding energies, implying higher stability.
Thus, in the given example it takes about 6 Me more energy to remove a paired neutron from a pair, that
completes a closed nuclear shell (a magic number) than from a pair that does not complete a shell.

# Nuclear Fission & Nuclear Reactor

It is a process in which a heavy nucleus like, U-235 is made to split into two medium sized
nuclei, generally more stable than parent nucleus. This is achieved by bombarding the uranium
nucleus with a slow moving neutron.
Ex +
jn + 23U +* - X + Y + neutrons
↓
Very
unstable productI decays
in 10-1s .

1. There are almost 90 different daughter nuclei X & Y which gets formed during fission of
U-235.
2. U-235 is a highly fissionable material, but U-238 is not. U-235 is mixed in small amount
with U-238.
Fast moving neutrons cannot trigger the fission of U-235 and have high chance of
i) getting absorbed by U-238 & get converted to Pu-239, which is another nuclear fuel,
just like U-235, OR,
ii) most like they escape out of the sample without interacting.
So, we use slow moving neutron so that they get opportunity to get absorbed by U-235.
Neutrons are slowed down by using ‘Moderators’. Heavy water, Graphite are some
good moderators.
3. In some decay, 2 neutrons are produced, while in some 3 neutrons are produced. On an
average 2.5 neutrons are emitted in fission of U-235. We need only 1 neutron for causing
fission of one U-235 nucleus. If number of neutrons grow 2.5 times in every reaction, then
it will start a chain reaction, in which neutron number will quickly grow to cause fission of
all U-235 nuclei present in sample. This uncontrolled fission of a sample is used in a
‘Nuclear fission bomb’.
However in a nuclear reactor, we need controlled fission, for the purpose of which we use
‘Control rods’ in the fuel sample, which are made of material which is good absorber of
neutrons. Cd (cadmium), is a good absorber of neutron used to control the net rate of
production of neutrons and even shut down the reactor in need of emergency.
316
4. Energy in the range of 200 MeV is generated
in fusion of each U-235 nucleus.
5. The average energy of neutrons produced is
2 MeV.
6. Multiplication factor, (Reproduction constant)
K, is used for safe operation of a nuclear
reactor. It is the average number of neutrons
available from each fission in a nuclear reactor.
K = 2.5, for uncontrolled fission of U-235
K = 1 , is maintained for steady operation of
a nuclear reactor & is said to be critical K.
7. Core of a reactor is the site of nuclear fission.
8. Core is surrounded by a reflector
to prevent leakage of neutrons.
9. Coolant gains the heat from the
core, and this heat is used to
generate electricity.
10. Radioactive waste generated must
be short lived and of low Activity.
11. U-238 which is naturally abundant
is generally mixed with fissionable
U-235. However U-238 also
undergo reaction due to neutrons and gets converted to
Neptunium (Np) & eventually Np also decays by Beta-minus
decay to Plutonium Pu-239.
Pu-239 is also in a way is converted to nuclear fission fuel,
which we will not discuss in this course.

# Nuclear Fusion
When two very light nuclei fuse to form a larger nucleus, energy is released & the process is
called Nuclear Fusion.
The binding energy per nucleon for very light nuclei is much smaller than that for comparatively
heavier nuclei. This suggests a release of energy if two light nuclei combine to form a heavier
nucleus. Some examples are below —
↑

1. In all these reactions, we find that two positively charged particles combine to form a larger
nucleus. It must be realised that such a process is hindered by the Coulomb repulsion that
acts to prevent the two positively charged particles from getting close enough to be within
the range of their attractive nuclear forces and thus ‘fusing’.
The height of this Coulomb barrier depends on the charges and the radii of the two
interacting nuclei. For example, it can be easily shown that for two protons, the barrier
height is ~ 400 keV. The barrier height for more highly charged nuclei is higher.
The temperature at which protons in a proton gas would have enough energy to overcome
the coulomb’s barrier is given by

(3/2)k T = KE = 400 keV ==> T = 3 × 10^9 K.

2. Extremely high temperature is needed until the particles have enough energy – due to their
thermal motions alone – to penetrate the coulomb barrier. This process of fusion induced by
temperature is called Thermonuclear Fusion.
317
3. The temperature of the core of the sun is only about (1.5 X 10^7) K. Therefore, even in the
sun if the fusion is to take place, it must involve protons whose energies are far above the
average thermal energy. So only thermal energy is not enough. In fact at the core of sun we
have extremely high pressure. Thus, for thermonuclear fusion to take place, extreme
conditions of temperature and pressure are required, which are available only in the interiors
of stars including sun.
4. The fusion reaction in the sun is a multi-step process in
which hydrogen is burned into helium, hydrogen being the
‘fuel’ and helium the ‘ashes’. The proton-proton (p, p) cycle
by which this occurs is represented by the following sets of
reactions:
5. As a star evolves further and becomes still hotter, other elements can be formed by other
fusion reactions. However, elements more massive than those near the peak of the binding
energy curve cannot be produced by further fusion.
Stars that have earned the title of "supergiant" are so massive and so hot that they begin
fusing silicon to a solid core of iron. Once the star starts fusing iron, that’s it-- it’s doomed.

#Transmutation —
It is the process of changing of one element into another by radioactive decay, nuclear
bombardment, or similar processes.

We have already seen Nuclear Reactions. Now we are going to address the phenomenon of
Radioactivity.

318
 319
# RADIOACTIVITY
# Radioactivty — Discovered in 1896 by A. H. Becquerel
In 1896, Becquerel discovered accidentally that uranium salt crystals, emit an invisible radiation
which affected a photographic plate even though it was properly covered.
In 1898, Marie and Pierre Curie and other workers showed that many other substances also
emit similar radiations.
Radioactivity refers to phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiation from a substance, in
which its unstable nuclei decay, into smaller stable nuclei.

# Radioactivity is not dependent on —

1. The radiations are being emitted from the nuclei hence it is a nuclear phenomenon, not an
atomic phenomenon, and thus is independent of electronic configuration of elements.
2. It is not influenced by external macroscopic parameters like, Pressure, Temperature,
Chemical reaction or Phase (state) of matter.

Some examples of radioactive substances are : U, Ra, Th, Po, Pu and Np.
O
· Some important points about decay —

1. Despite of the strength of the forces that hold the nucleons (protons and neutrons) together
to form an atomic nucleus, many nuclides are unstable and spontaneously change into other
nuclides by radioactive decay.
2. The energy liberated during radioactive decay comes from within a individual nuclei without
external excitation, unlike the case of atomic radiation.
3. It is a statistical process that obeys the laws of chance.
4. The decay of a nucleus takes place to achieve the stable end products.

# There are five kinds of radioactive decays —

When the radioactivity was discovered, only three kinds of radioactive decays alpha, beta and
gamma were known. Which were eventually identified as He nucleus, electron and high energy
photon respectively.
Later two more kinds of decays namely positron emission and electron capture were added.
·

1. Alpha Decay —
Alpha decay is a process in which a heavy unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle, & becomes
stable by decreasing its mass number.

1. Nucleus before decay is called ‘parent nucleus’ & the ones obtained after decay is called
‘daughter nuclei’.
2. This decay happens for all elements with mass number greater than equal to A>210.
3. Example — The energy released in this alpha decay takes the form of
kinetic energies of the thorium and helium nuclei, although
the kinetic energy of thorium is smaller than helium due to
its heavier mass and smaller velocity.
Most of the KE lies with alpha particle, due to it being light, it can be proved by momentum
conservation & KE equation.
2. Beta (minus) decay ( Electron Emission ) —
In this decay a neutron inside nucleus, or even an isolated free neutron, decays into a proton,
creating an electron and an anti-neutrino v·

1. This decays happens if nucleus has more number of neutrons than needed for stability. The
daughter nucleus formed will have higher BE/nucleon.
2. Stream of electrons coming from bulk of such materials is called Beta-ray. 320
3. Anti-neutrino is a charge-less particle, but it has very small mass, and are almost million
times lighter than electrons, & hence are considered massless also.
They have weak interactions with other particles & thus are very hard to detect.
Weak nuclear force & gravity (due to their mass) acts on a neutrino.
These also have property of spin of +(1/2) or —(1/2).
They penetrate large amounts of matter, even earth without any interactions.
4. Beta decay representation —
( Beta Decay of Nucleus X )

( Beta decay of isolated Neutron )

5. Examples —
( Beta Decay of Heavy Nucleus )

I ( Beta Decay of Light Nucleus )

The above example shows that Beta decay happens

for light as well as heavy elements.

6. The energy generated is shared between electron,

anti-neutrino and recoiling daughter nucleus (recoiling
nucleus energy is negligible ).
Thus energy of electrons may vary from zero to KEmax .

3. Beta Plus Decay (Positron Emission) —

Everything here is same as Beta minus decay, except in place of electron a positron is emitted, &
in place of anti-neutrino, a neutrino is emitted.
In this process a proton inside an unstable nucleus converts itself into a neutron, positron &
neutrino. This conversion is possible only for proton inside nucleus & is not possible for an
isolated proton, as that reaction will imply increase in mass which is not possible for an isolated
proton.

⑤
( This reaction possible only inside
nucleus & not possible for isolated
- - * &
proton )

Example —

The positron is stable in vacuum (average lifetime 10^21 years), whereas in condensed matter
it typically remains only a short time (10^(-10) sec) before annihilating with an electron.
Being anti-electrons, positrons are identical to electrons in all respects except charge.
Note — Electron, Positron & Proton have very very long half lives. So they are stable in
isolated state. But neutron outside nucleus is unstable with half life of 10.2 min only.
 320-

about B-Plus & Electron Capture

Few extra point

Yes, neutrinos emitted in electron capture are monoenergetic.

In electron capture (EC) decay, the energy release is entirely given to the emitted
neutrino. This means that the emitted neutrinos are monoenergetic.
Electron capture is monoenergetic because it emits two fragments: a daughter
species and a neutrino. This causes emissions of a distinct value (or very narrow
range) of energy between the two fragments.
Neutrinos are fermions that interact only via the weak interaction and gravity.
They are electrically neutral and have a very small rest mass. Neutrinos typically
pass through normal matter unimpeded and undetected.

value
·

K-Capture
-
happens for any positive of
D YEC)
·
But in Bt decay Q is lesser
,
as we

to
have account
for mass
of one
position
and one electron

Melection = 0
0 0005486 amy

Election =
0 .
0005486X931 .
5 Mel

= O . 51/ MeL

that
Q should be greater
2 (Electron (
10022 Mev
Qp SK =
+ = 2x0 .

& Ec
> OMeV

in Pplue is less than EC

So energy produced
as 10022 MeV energy is spent to produce Btand election
4. Gamma Decay —
A nucleus in an excited state can decay to a lower-level state by the emission of a “gamma-ray”
photon, and this is known as gamma decay. This is analogous to de-excitation of an atomic
electron.

In Gamma decay, neither the atomic number nor the mass number changes, so the type of
nucleus does not change, & the element remain same.

5. Electron Capture —
When the nucleus has too many protons relative to the number of neutrons, the nucleus captures
one of the atomic electrons (most likely an electron from the K-shell).
A proton in the nucleus combines with this electron and converts itself into a neutron and a
neutrino.

When an atomic electron is captured, a vacancy is created in the atomic shell and X-rays are
emitted following the capture.
An example of electron capture is

# Comparison of C
, BRU
rays
1 .

Velocity +
V VpVp
.
2 Penetrability through matter 3 .

Deflection by Magnetic Field

321
 of radioactive 322
# Law olecay >
-

No Number nuclei in sample at time t = 0

of
= a .

nuclei sample at time t

N Number
of in
= a

In further time dt dN number of

nuclei decay
.
,

number nuclei
It was
found that rate of change of of
present
,

number nuclei
with time (I) ,
is proportional to of
in the sample
= -XN
.

N <N
dt

where X is a constant of
· const "
proportionality called 'Decay
.

constant
g Xis a
positive
minus 7) sign is multiplied here
9
-

nuclei is decreasing,
because no .

of
so
O must be negative
N t
x
( - xot
n =
=> =

O
Xt
No
N
-

=
= N . e

Activity (A) Activity of any radioactive sample rate

1. >
-
< is
,

at which , nuclei of its constituent atoms disintegrate

x
-
xt
A = - = - = x =
xNpe

- XXo
X
At t = 0
,
A = Ao => Ao = X Noe

=> Ao = X No

A
* +
: A = = x = Xoe- =

-
Xt
A = Aoe
=>
 ·
SI unit of A-
[A] =
ops =
disintegration per second .

and it is named "Becquerel" (Bq)

1 obs
1 Bq =

small unit and for

Becquere is a ,

that we have some bigger secondary

units too .

· Curie ((i) +
1 (i = 3 7X .
1010 ops

This value is 1g of 238

Activity of Ra .

·
Rutherford (Rd) >
-

1Rd = 100 dps

of sample
Specific Activity Refers to Activity of Ig
· .

-
2 Decay Constant (x) + A = XN

= x=
=
Thus
decay constant can be defined
as Activity per
atom
of the sample
.

which atoms
3) Half life (t(2) > It is the time -
in no ·

of
reduces to half .
N=
1 = Noe-Xty

=>
In (2) = -
xty

=> tre =

1
lives,
Note >
-
Number
of nuclei left in sample after n-half
t n(t ,2)
.

=
i e
, .,

Note (N..... N

=> N =
(E)"No
323
 Alternate form of terms 324
· N & A equ .
is
of ti .

the
= X =

In (2
tyz

en = -x = xt
ty
=
>

Exnz
=

Altiz
=> N = No (2)
A/t1/2
Similarly
-

A Ao (2)
,
=

Mean life (t) the time

defined
of
4- :It is as
average
for which all nuclei has lived .

⑳
O

To =
No St aN
=
S tdN
No

GaN -

- No
No - xt
Xt at
XNoe
I
-

I -
xN = -
xNoe => dN = -

**
=> tdN = - XNoe Adt
*
**
T S -
XNoe- Adt *
*
folt
=

- No
=
S xte-
g
*

[t(e JiJe +xt)d ]

+
=> 5 at
-

*
=
x +
-
-

[exf(t]
*

=
T =
x

[te ext
-
xA
= +
 =

-- ]- -]
*

-
-

lim

= +
= -

t +x

-
- -

in X

= -

Text =
+

= T
=
# CARBON-DATING

# >
Decay for different
Radioactive
types of Disintegration
-

=> Only disintegration >

A >B
-

*+
N = Noe-

325
 326
production
Disintegration continuous
2 with >
-

Formation
>
. A B
G Decay
formation of A
&= Rate of .

·= -x
= a

= No

Successive
Disintegration
XI xr
A > B >C
-
3

For A
-

N. = Noe-Xit

-
For B

xit x2t
NoX
- -

=>
Nz =
,
x[e -

C
(x2 -
X ,)

In this case No = N + Nz + Ns at time t

,
, any

4 > Simultaneous
Disintegration >
-

=
X, > B , -X , N-XN

*
N
2
=>
N = - (x + x2) N

= XIN
=X
 327
Here X + 42
Def
=
we can
say ,
,

=
5- > Radioactive equilibrium >
-

6-
>
Disintegration of Isotopes >
-