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BIO - 101 Module 5
BIO - 101 Module 5
MODULE 5:
HEREDITY
AND
EVOLUTION
INTRODUCTION
Heredity and evolution are two fundamental concepts in biology that are closely related.
Heredity refers to the passing of traits from parents to offspring, while evolution refers to the
gradual change in the genetic makeup of a population over time. In this lecture note, we will
discuss the key concepts of heredity and evolution, including the theories of Darwinism and
UNIT 1:
DARWINISM
AND
LAMARCKISM
DARWINISM
Charles Darwin in his book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859. According to Darwinism,
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
evolution occurs through the process of natural selection, which favors individuals with
advantageous traits that help them survive and reproduce. These traits are passed down to
offspring through genetic inheritance. Darwin's theory was supported by evidence from the
study of variations within species, comparative anatomy, embryology, and geological records.
Descent with Modification: Darwin proposed that all species share a common
ancestry and that over time, species change through a process of descent with
modification.
Natural Selection: Natural selection is the driving force of evolution. It favors the
prevalent in a population.
and natural selection acts on heritable variations that improve an organism's fitness.
LAMARCKISM
Lamarckism, named after Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, is an earlier theory of evolution that suggests
organisms can acquire traits during their lifetime to better adapt to their environment. These
acquired traits can then be passed on to offspring. Lamarck believed that the environment
directly influences the body, causing changes that can be inherited. Lamarckism was based on
the principle that physical changes in organisms could be transferred to their offspring over
time.
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
environment lead to changes in an organism's behavior, and these changes are reflected
in its structure and function. Traits acquired through use or disuse of body parts are
Lamarckism faced criticism due to a lack of empirical evidence and the absence of a clear
mechanism for the transmission of acquired traits. The theory was largely superseded by
Darwinism has been supported by modern genetic research, which has shown that traits are
passed down through DNA. Lamarckism, on the other hand, has been largely discredited due
to a lack of scientific evidence supporting the inheritance of acquired traits. Most biologists
today accept Darwin’s theory of natural selection as the primary mechanism of evolution.
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
traits. generations.
adaptations.
of acquired traits.
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
UNIT 2:
MENDELIAN
LAWS
MENDELIAN LAWS
Gregor Mendel, known as the father of modern genetics, formulated three fundamental laws
that laid the foundation for the science of heredity. These laws are crucial in understanding
Mendelian Laws provide a robust framework for understanding the inheritance of traits in
organisms. The principles of segregation and independent assortment have stood the test of
time, forming the cornerstone of classical genetics. As we delve deeper into molecular genetics,
we build upon Mendel's work to uncover the intricacies of how genes are transmitted and
expressed at the molecular level. These laws continue to guide research in genetics and
LAW OF SEGREGATION
During gamete formation, the two alleles for a trait segregate independently of each other. Each
parent contributes one allele, and offspring receive one allele from each parent. This law
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
Genes for different traits segregate independently during the formation of gametes. This law
explains how traits are inherited independently of each other. It helps understand the
LAW OF DOMINANCE
In a heterozygous pair of alleles, one allele is dominant over the other. The dominant allele is
expressed in the phenotype, while the recessive allele remains hidden. This law clarifies how
Mendel's laws provide a solid framework for understanding genetic inheritance and have paved
Genes are units of heredity located on chromosomes, and they exist in alternative forms called
alleles.
Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual, representing the combination of alleles for a
Phenotype: The observable traits of an individual, resulting from the interaction of its genotype
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
Homozygous: An individual with two identical alleles for a particular trait (e.g., TT or tt).
Heterozygous: An individual with two different alleles for a particular trait (e.g., Tt).
Dominant Allele: An allele that, when present, determines the phenotype, masking the effect
Recessive Allele: An allele that is only expressed in the absence of a dominant allele.
References
https://study.com/learn/lesson/lamarckism-darwinism-theories-differences-traits.html
https://www.coursesidekick.com/electrical-engineering/1728827
https://www.britannica.com/science/Lamarckism
https://www.vedantu.com/biology/difference-between-darwinism-and-lamarckism
https://biologydirect.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1745-6150-4-42
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-darwinism-and-lamarckism/
https://www.coursesidekick.com/electrical-engineering/1728827
Mendel's Laws of Inheritance - National Center for Biotechnology Information
Gregor Mendel and the Principles of Inheritance - Nature Education
Mendelian Genetics - Khan Academy
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
MODULE 6:
ECOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY
Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between living organisms and their
ecology, community ecology, and ecosystem ecology. The term "ecology" was first coined by
the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866, and it has since evolved to become a critical area
OBJECTIVES OF ECOLOGY
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
are groups of individuals of the same species living in the same area. Key concepts
Community Ecology: This sub-discipline deals with the interactions between different
species within a specific area. Key concepts include species interactions, competition,
organisms and their environment, including the flow of energy and nutrients through
an ecosystem. Key concepts include trophic levels, food webs, and nutrient cycling.
ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
Principle of Adaptation: Organisms have evolved specific traits that enable them to
survive and reproduce in their environment. These traits can be physical (e.g.,
metabolic processes).
food, water, and space. Competition can lead to the evolution of specialized adaptations
(the predator) consumes another species (the prey). Predation can influence population
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
species benefit from the interaction. Examples include pollination, where plants provide
nectar for pollinators in exchange for pollen transfer, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
which convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use.
over time, as different species colonize and replace each other. This process can be
resource availability.
ELEMENTS OF ECOLOGY
to support life. It includes physical components like air, water, and soil, as well as
living organisms. Ecosystems can be classified based on their energy flow, nutrient
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
Energy Flow: Energy flows through an ecosystem in a one-way stream, from primary
producers to various consumers. This flow is represented in food chains and food webs,
where energy is transferred through a series of steps involving organisms and their
populations over time. This includes factors such as birth rates, death rates, and
resources.
includes the number of species, their genetic makeup, and the ways in which they
interact with each other and their environment. Biodiversity is important for
like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are cycled through ecosystems. These cycles
involve the movement of elements between living organisms, the environment, and the
atmosphere. They are essential for maintaining the health of ecosystems and supporting
life.
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
UNIT 3:
TYPES
OF
HABITATS
TYPES OF HABITATS
Habitats are defined as the natural environments where organisms live, interact, and reproduce. These
environments are characterized by specific physical and biological conditions that support the survival
and growth of the organisms present. There are several types of habitats, each with unique
characteristics and organisms adapted to their specific conditions. In this lecture note, we will discuss
the two main types of habitats: terrestrial and aquatic habitats, and provide some examples and
1. Terrestrial Habitats
Terrestrial habitats are those found on land. They are characterized by the presence of soil and the
absence of a permanent water source. These habitats can be further divided into various categories based
on their vegetation, climate, and other factors. Some examples of terrestrial habitats include:
A. Forests: These are habitats dominated by trees and shrubs, with a dense canopy that provides
shade and shelter for the organisms living there. Forests can be found in various climates, from
B. Grasslands: These are habitats characterized by grasses and other herbaceous plants, with minimal
tree cover. Grasslands can be found in various climates, from arid to temperate regions.
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
C. Deserts: These are habitats characterized by low precipitation, high temperatures, and minimal
vegetation. Deserts can be found in various regions, from the Gobi Desert in Asia to the Sahara Desert
in Africa.
D. Mountain habitats: These are habitats found at high altitudes, characterized by cold temperatures,
strong winds, and limited water availability. Examples of mountain habitats include alpine meadows,
2. Aquatic Habitats
Aquatic habitats are those found in water, either freshwater or saltwater. These habitats are
characterized by the presence of water and the absence of soil. Some examples of aquatic habitats
include:
A. Freshwater habitats: These are habitats found in freshwater bodies, such as lakes, rivers, and
streams. Freshwater habitats can be further divided into various categories based on their water
B. Saltwater habitats: These are habitats found in saltwater bodies, such as oceans, seas, and estuaries.
Saltwater habitats can be further divided into various categories based on their water salinity, depth,
C. Wetlands: These are habitats characterized by the presence of water, either permanently or
seasonally, and the absence of a permanent water source. Wetlands can be found in various regions,
References
Carter Center. (2017). Introduction to Ecology. Retrieved from
https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/health/ephti/library/lecture_notes/env_health_sci
ence_students/ln_ecology_final.pdf
British Ecological Society. (n.d.). Key Concepts in Ecology. Retrieved from
https://www.britishecologicalsociety.org/learning-and-resources/career-development/key-
concepts-in-ecology/
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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY
MIT OpenCourseWare. (n.d.). Lecture Notes | Ecology I: The Earth System. Retrieved from
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/1-018j-ecology-i-the-earth-system-fall-2009/pages/lecture-notes/
Your Article Library. (n.d.). Ecology: Lecture Notes of Ecology and Ecosystem. Retrieved from
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/notes/ecology-lecture-notes-of-ecology-and-ecosystem/11169
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-cbse-science-class-6/section/6.3/primary/lesson/terrestrial-
habitat/
https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/lessons/exploring-habitats
https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstreams/b7e7d625-4203-4f4c-8111-33866eea6c84/download
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat
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