not permitted.

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© 2016 EDIZIONI MINERVA MEDICA The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 2017 July-August;57(7-8):976-84
Online version at http://www.minervamedica.it DOI: 10.23736/S0022-4707.16.06411-2

REVIEW
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOMECHANICS

Effect of pre-task music on sports or exercise performance

Bruno P. SMIRMAUL *

Department of Physical Education, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro, Brazil
*Corresponding author: Bruno P. Smirmaul, Department of Physical Education, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Avenida 24-A 1515, Bela Vista, 13506-
900, Rio Claro (SP), Brazil. E-mail: brunosmirmaul@gmail.com

A B S T RAC T
INTRODUCTION: Pre-task music is a very common strategy among sports competitors. However, as opposed to in-task music, the scientific
evidence to support its ergogenic effects on either sports or exercise performance is limited. This brief review critically addresses the existing
literature investigating the effects of pre-task music on sports and exercise performance, focusing on the methods and results of experimental
studies, and offers basic and practical recommendations.
EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: In July 2015, a comprehensive literature search was performed in Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar
using the following key words in combination: “pre-task music,” “pre-test music,” “pre-exercise music,” “exercise performance,” “sports per-
formance.” The literature search was further expanded by both hand searching review articles on the topic and by searching the reference lists
from the articles retrieved for any relevant references. Overall, a total of 15 studies in 14 articles were included.
EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS: Pre-task music research has been unsystematic, methodologically limited and infrequent. Using this review as a
starting point to overcome previous methodological limitations when designing future experiments may contribute to the development of pre-
task music research, which is still in its infancy.
CONCLUSIONS: Currently, there is no sufficient evidence to support the overall ergogenic effects of pre-task music on sports or exercise per-
formance. Nonetheless, pre-task music has showed a likely ergogenic effect on shorter and predominantly anaerobic tasks such as grip strength,
Wingate test, and short-duration sports or sports-like tasks, in contrast to longer and predominantly aerobic tasks.
(Cite this article as: Smirmaul BP. Effect of pre-task music on sports or exercise performance. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2017;57:976-84. DOI:
10.23736/S0022-4707.16.06411-2)
Key words: Music - Athletic performance - Central nervous system stimulants.

Introduction exercise and sports context include improved mood,

M usic has played a noticeable role in exercise and
sports activities since the ancient Greek culture,
in which both training procedures and events at the ear-
ly Olympic Games were often practiced accompanied
by music.1 Today, music has become ubiquitous within
the exercise and sports context. The scientific research
on this area has been prolific in the past 40 years and,
collectively, more than 100 peer-reviewed published
articles have investigated several aspects of the music-
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.
arousal control, dissociation, reduced perception of ef-
fort and enhanced performance.4
Although individuals may benefit from the effects of
in-task music during recreational exercise/sports partic-
ipation and training routines, most, if not all, sports gov-
erning bodies forbid the use of electronic devices (e.g.,
personal music devices) during actual competition.5
Nevertheless, competitors still have the opportunity to
use music through a different and feasible approach in
an attempt to improve performance, that is, in the min-

exercise/sports relationship. Most of them have focused utes before actual competition (e.g., during the warm-
on the effects of in-task asynchronous and synchronous up or preparation/concentration phase). In fact, pre-task
music on psychological states and exercise/sports per- music has been used in a variety of sports and is a very
formance.2-4 Generally, the benefits of music within the common strategy among competitors.5-10

976 The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness July-August 2017
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EFFECT OF PRE-TASK MUSIC ON PERFORMANCE
Despite its popularity, there is limited scientific evi-
dence regarding the ergogenic effects of pre-task mu-
sic on either sports or exercise performance. Specific
sections within publications have highlighted some of
the findings in this topic.4, 8, 11 These sections, however,
have addressed a very small number of studies, only
partially covering the existing literature, thus leaving a
significant part of the evidence unexplored. Addition-
ally, there has been no critical appraisal on the studies
published on this topic. Therefore, the purpose of this
brief review is to critically address the existing studies
investigating the ergogenic effects of pre-task music on
exercise and sports performance, focusing on the meth-
ods and results of experimental studies, and to offer ba-
sic and applied recommendations.
Evidence acquisition
Firstly, a literature search was performed in July
2015 to identify published articles on the effects of pre-
task music on exercise or sports performance. The data-
bases used were Web of Science, PubMed, and Google
Scholar, and there was no limit to the search period. In
order to retrieve the highest number of articles, broad
search terms were used in combination: “pre-task mu-
sic,” “pre-test music,” “pre-exercise music,” “exercise
performance,” “sports performance.” Collectively, only
5 articles on the topic were found. The literature search
was expanded by both hand searching review articles
on the effects of music on exercise performance and
sports performance in general and by searching the ref-
erence lists from the articles retrieved for any relevant
references. Specifically, “pre-task music” sections from
review articles 4, 8, 11 were identified and provided rel-
evant references. The criteria for inclusion in the pres-
ent review were: 1) studies investigating the effect of
pre-task music on exercise or sports performance ob-
jectively measured; 2) studies comparing at least two
conditions (either two pre-task music conditions or
one pre-task music condition and a control condition);
3) studies published in scientific journals employing
peer review that use English as their primary language.
Studies in which the dependent variable was not charac-
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.
terized as exercise or sport performance,5, 12, 13 in which
exercise performance was not objectively measured,14
or involving only qualitative interviews 10 were not in-
cluded. Thus, a total of 15 studies in 14 articles were
Vol. 57 - No. 7-8 The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness
SMIRMAUL
included. Studies were divided in three categories, ac-
cording to the nature of the task investigated. Due to
the low number of studies, muscular strength (i.e., grip
strength) and muscular endurance tasks (i.e. bent-knee
sit-ups and dumbbell shoulder flexion), were grouped
under “muscular strength/endurance tasks” (Table I;
N.=4); 30-45 s Wingate tasks were grouped under “an-
aerobic tasks” (Table II; N.=6); and sports or sports/like
tasks (e.g., 200-m swimming and 60-meter dash) were
grouped under “sports and sports-like tasks” (Table III;
N.=5). All tables depict the studies’ characteristics and
the main exercise or sports performance results based
on both P<0.05 and respective effect sizes. Effect sizes
(Cohen’s d) were calculate as the mean difference be-
tween conditions divided by the standard deviation of
the control condition (when reported).
Evidence synthesis
Pre-task music and muscular strength/endurance tasks
From the four studies in Table I, two investigated
the effects of pre-task music on maximum force (grip
strength).15, 16 Both studies, using undergraduate stu-
dents, showed a statistically significant improvement
in performance after stimulative music. While it was
not possible to calculate the effect size for one study
due to the lack of information reported,15 the other 16
showed an effect size of 0.14. Pearce,15 who did not
report the fitness level of the individuals, selected
stimulative and sedative music using a purely anec-
dotal proposition by a previous paper.17 Such propo-
sition defined stimulative and sedative music based
on its rhythm, with stimulative music presenting “de-
tached notes” and sedative music being “melodic.”17
On the other hand, Karageorghis et al.,16 who repli-
cated Pearce’s study with individuals who engaged in
regular physical activity (no further details provided),
improved the music’s selection process by using a
music rating inventory, as well as other limitations
such as music intensity (volume) and experimental
condition ordering.16 Nonetheless, the duration of mu-
sic exposure was different between conditions (longer
for stimulative music) and time between exposure and
task was not reported.16
The remaining two studies of this section investigat-
ed the effects of pre-task music on muscular endurance
(bent-knee sit-ups and dumbbell shoulder flexion).18, 19
977
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SMIRMAUL EFFECT OF PRE-TASK MUSIC ON PERFORMANCE

Table I.—Characteristics and findings of the pre-task music effects on exercise performance during muscular strength/endurance tasks.

Study N. Sample characteristics Music conditions Music selection

Pearce (1981) 15 49 Undergraduate students Stimulative, sedative, and no Selected by the investigator; artist and title provided
(33 M, 16 F) music

Karageorghis et al. (1996) 16
Dorney et al. (1992) 18
Study 2
Crust (2004) 19
NR: not reported; >: statistically higher; =: no statistical difference; <: statistically lower.
50 Physically active sport Stimulative music, sedative Top 10 of the British music chart; categorized as
science undergraduates music, and white noise stimulative (134 bpm) or sedative (90 bpm);
(25 M, 25 F) graded by a modified music rating inventory by 10
students; artist and title provided
40 University students Positive imagery with and without Selected by the investigators; artist and title
(40 M) music provided; 148 bpm, popular vocal track
9 Sport and exercise Self-selected music and white Self-selected according to: 1) top 40 British music
science undergraduates noise charts; 2) fast tempo (>120 bpm); 3) 180-270 s; 4)
(9 M) >18.3 points in the Brunel Music Rating Inventory

Both studies, which did not report the fitness level of the
participants, did not find a significant effect of pre-task
music on muscular endurance (Table I). One of the stud-
ies actually investigated the additional effect of pre-task
music on a positive imagery technique, confounding the
relationship between pre-task music and performance.18
Although both conditions (imagery-only and imagery-
plus-music) improved performance, the addition of
music had no further effect (both conditions, d=1.00).
While one study used fast music (148 bpm) selected by
the investigators,18 the other used stricter criteria in an
attempt to control for the motivational qualities of the
music.19 Both studies performed the task immediately
after listening to music and, while the duration of the
exposure to music varied within studies (190-230 s and
180-270 s), it was similar between them.18, 19
In summary, the results of this section suggest a likely
ergogenic effect of pre-task music on muscular strength
performance, as both studies reviewed demonstrated a
statistically significant improvement in grip strength. It
is noteworthy that it was not possible to calculate the ef-
fect size for one of the studies, while the other showed
an effect size of d=0.14. In contrast, there has been no
indication of a statistically significant influence of pre-
task music on muscular endurance performance.
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.
Wingate anaerobic test. All but one 20 employed 30-sec-
ond exercise duration tests. While this same study 20
only compared pre-task music rhythms (slow versus
fast), finding no differences between conditions, 4 out
of the remaining 5 studies showed a statistically signifi-
cant improvement in peak power 21-24 and 3 out of 5 on
mean power 22-24 during the Wingate test using pre-task
music (calculated effect sizes ranging from 0.17 to 0.50;
Table II). These results appear to be consistent regard-
less of the fitness levels of individuals, which varied
from physically active students to national-level ath-
letes. Two distinguishing characteristics were consis-
tent among the studies which improved performance:
1) all utilized pre-task music of at least 120 bpm; and
2) all performed the anaerobic task immediately after
music exposure. Loizou and Karageorghis,25 who did
not find a statistically significant improvement in per-
formance (although presenting an effect size of 0.17
for peak power), employed a 3-min warm-up plus ad-
ditional measurements between the pre-task music ex-
posure and task initiation, not reporting the exact time
between them. In addition, they did not specify music
rhythm.25 A new aspect observed in this section is that
three studies 21, 22, 24 utilized pre-task music during the
warm-up, rather than at rest, raising a topic for further
discussion. Lastly, 4 out of 6 studies measured ratings

Pre-task music and anaerobic tasks of perceived exertion (RPE).21-24 The results were con-
flicting, with two studies finding a higher RPE after the
All 6 studies within this section investigated the ef- warm-up during the music condition,21, 22 and two find-
fects of pre-task music on the same exercise task, i.e., ing no differences between conditions.23, 24 At the end of

978 The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness July-August 2017
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EFFECT OF PRE-TASK MUSIC ON PERFORMANCE
Duration of Time between
exposure Task
the exposure
and task
2 min NR Grip strength
190-230 s NR Grip strength
30 s 0 min Muscular endurance (30-s bent-knee sit-ups)
180-270 s 0 min Isometric strength endurance (shoulder flexion)
the Wingate tests, only one study 22 found a difference
for RPE between conditions, with a higher RPE for the
music condition.
In summary, the results from this section suggest
a very likely ergogenic effect of fast pre-task music
(>120 bpm) immediately prior anaerobic exercise per-
formance (Wingate tests), irrespective of the individu-
als’ fitness level.
Pre-task music and sports and sports-like tasks
Although this section involved sports and sports-like
tasks, the five studies included presented considerable
methodological heterogeneity among them. Both the
dart throwing 18 and karate drill 26 tasks presented a quite
particular nature of performance, once it involves par-
ticular skills such as concentration and precision, rather
than aspects such as muscular power and fatigue tol-
erance as in the running,27 cycling,28 and swimming 29
tasks. While fast or slow tempo pre-task music did not
alter dart throwing performance, both positive and neg-
ative pre-task music resulted in a statistically significant
improvement in the karate drill performance, with effect
sizes of 2.00 and 1.98, respectively. Both studies, how-
ever, did not provide much information regarding music
selection. While in the dart throwing study 18 there was
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.
no details regarding music tempo (only the labels of fast
and slow), in the karate drill study 26 positive and nega-
tive music were chosen according to an unpublished
study, precluding further analysis. Additionally, neither
Vol. 57 - No. 7-8 The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness
SMIRMAUL
Performance
Results (based on P<0.05) Effect size (d)
measurement
Maximum force Stimulative > sedative –
No music = sedative –
Stimulative = no music –
Maximum force Stimulative > sedative 0.14
Stimulative > white music 0.06
White music > sedative 0.08
Repetitions Imagery + music = imagery Imagery: 1.00
Imagery + music: 1.00
Time Self-selected = white noise 0.08
study reported the exact time between pre-task music
exposure and task initiation.
Of the remaining three studies included in this sec-
tion, both the 200-m swimming and the 60-m dash
tasks presented a statistically significant improvement
in performance after pre-task music.27, 29 Effect size
was 0.09 for pre-task self-selected music when com-
pared to the no music control condition in the 200-m
swimming task.29 However, in the 60-m dash study,
authors did not provide neither standard deviation data
nor individual results, precluding the effect size cal-
culation.27 It is noteworthy that both studies in which
pre-task music significantly improved performance
involved relatively short and predominantly anaero-
bic tasks (60-m dash and 200-m freestyle swimming),
compared to the 5-km cycling time trial, a rather lon-
ger and predominantly aerobic task, which resulted
in no differences between pre-task music and control
conditions.28 The music selection process, as well
as the duration of exposure to pre-task music varied
among studies. While in the 60-m dash study music
was selected by the investigators and duration of expo-
sure was only 1min, in the 5-km cycling time trial and
200-m swimming study, participants self-selected the
pre-task music, and duration of exposure was 10 and
5 minutes, respectively. Only two studies measured
RPE.28, 29 During the 5-km cycling time-trial, RPE was
measured at each kilometer, with no statistical dif-
ferences between conditions, although “likely” lower
for the music condition using the smallest worthwhile
979
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SMIRMAUL EFFECT OF PRE-TASK MUSIC ON PERFORMANCE

Table II.—Characteristics and findings of the pre-task music effects on exercise performance during anaerobic tasks.

Study N. Sample characteristics Music conditions Music selection

Yamamoto et al. (2003) 20
Eliakim et al. (2007) 21
6 Physically active students Slow- and fast-paced music Selected by the investigators; artist provided
(6 M)
24 Elite, adolescent, Arousing music and no music Selected by the investigators; title provided;
national-team level 140 bpm
volleyball players
(12 M, 12 F)

Chtourou et al. (2012) 22 12 Physical education High tempo and no music Selected by the investigators, based on the
students (morning and evening) recommendations of Karageorghis et al.;2 >120-
(12 M) 140 bpm

Chtourou et al. (2012) 24 9 National- and regional- High tempo and no music Selected by the investigators; 120-140 bpm
level sprinters
(9 M)

Jarraya et al. (2012) 23 12 National- and regional- High tempo and no music Selected by the investigators; based on the
level sprinters recommendations of Karageorghis et al.;2 >120-
(12 M) 140 bpm

Loizou et al. (2015) 25 15 Heterogeneous sports Music and control Selected by the investigators; artist and title
participation level provided
(15 M)

NR: not reported; >: statistically higher; =: no statistical difference; <: statistically lower.

Table III.—Characteristics and findings of the pre-task music effects on exercise performance during sports and sports-like tasks.

Study N. Sample characteristics Music conditions Music selection

Dorney et al. (1992) 18 30 University students Slow-tempo classical and fast- Selected by the investigators; artist and title
Study 1 (13 M, 17 F) tempo popular music provided

Ferguson et al. (1994) 26 14 Shotokan karate Positive, negative, and white noise Selected by the investigators; classified as positive
practitioners or negative by a previous unpublished study
(10 M, 4 F)
Hall et al. (1995) 27 15 NCAA division II track Music and control (counting Selected by the investigators; track provided
and field athletes backwards)
(15 M)
Bigliassi et al. (2012) 28 10 National- and regional- Self-selected and no music Selected by the participants
level cyclists
(10 M)
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.

Smirmaul et al. (2015) 29 18 Regional-level Self-selected and no music Selected by the participants
swimmers
(18 M)
NR: not reported; >: statistically higher; =: no statistical difference; <: statistically lower.
*Shorter time means better performance.

980 The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness July-August 2017
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EFFECT OF PRE-TASK MUSIC ON PERFORMANCE SMIRMAUL

Duration of Time between Performance Effect

exposure Task Results (based on P<0.05)
the exposure measurement size (d)
and task
20 min 1 min 45-s Wingate anaerobic test Mean power Slow music = fast music –
output
10 min 0 min 30-s Wingate anaerobic test Peak power Peak power
Mean power Males: music > no music 0.43
Females: music > no music 0.19
Mean power
Males: music = no music 0.15
Females: music = no music 0.15
10 min 0 min 30-s Wingate anaerobic test Peak power > Peak power and mean power with music in the morning –
Mean power and evening
> Improvement in mean power with music in the morning –
10 min 0 min 30-s Wingate anaerobic test Peak power Peak power
Mean power High tempo > no music 0.43
Mean power
High tempo > no music 0.77
10 min 0 min 30-s Wingate anaerobic test Peak power Peak power
Mean power High tempo > no music 0.42
Mean power
High tempo > no music 0.50
5 min NR 30-s Wingate anaerobic test Peak power Peak power
Mean power Music = control 0.17
Mean power
Music = control -0.04

Duration of Time between Performance Effect

exposure Task Results (based on P<0.05)
the exposure measurement size (d)
and task
90 s NR Dart throwing Points achieved Fast = slow 0.12
No-music = slow -0.08
Fast = no-music 0.04
1 min NR Karate drill Karate drill ratings Positive > white noise 2.00
Negative > white noise 1.98
Positive = negative 0.02
1 min NR 60-meter dash Time Music < control* –

10 min 2 min 5-km cycling timed trial Time Self-selected = no music* -0.55
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.

5 min 1 min 200-m freestyle swimming Time Self-selected < no music* 0.09
timed trial

Vol. 57 - No. 7-8 The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 981
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SMIRMAUL EFFECT OF PRE-TASK MUSIC ON PERFORMANCE
change analysis.28 RPE was also measured at the end
of the 200-m swimming time-trial, presenting no dif-
ferences between conditions.29
In summary, both studies investigating tasks requir-
ing specific skills such as concentration and precision
(dart throwing and karate drill) presented mixed results,
precluding any conclusion or indication of a possible
ergogenic effect of pre-task music on this kind of sport
performance. On the other hand, while the longer and
predominantly aerobic task (5-km cycling performance)
was not improved by pre-task music, both shorter and
predominantly anaerobic tasks (60-m dash and 200-m
swimming) presented an improvement in performance
after self-selected pre-task music, indicating a possible
relationship between the duration of the task on the er-
gogenic effects of pre-task music on performance.
Discussion
This brief review addressed 15 intervention studies in
14 scientific peer-reviewed articles investigating the er-
gogenic effects of pre-task music on exercise and sports
performance. This represents a pioneer effort to critically
review the existing scientific evidence on this topic and
offers basic and applied recommendations. Since the first
study by Pearce 34 years ago,15 research on the effects of
pre-task music on exercise and sports performance has
been unsystematic, methodologically limited and infre-
quent (less than one publication every two years: one
study in 1980s; five studies in 1990s; three studies in
2000s; six studies in 2010s). This is somewhat surpris-
ing, giving the widespread utilization of this strategy by
competitors from a variety of sports worldwide.5-10
From the 15 studies reviewed, the dependent vari-
ables investigated were: muscular strength/endurance
tasks in 4 studies (2 grip strength and 2 muscular endur-
ance tasks); anaerobic tasks in 6 studies (all Wingate
tests); and sports and sports-like tasks in 5 studies (dart
throwing; karate drill; 60-meter dash; 5-km cycling
time trial; 200-m freestyle swimming time trial). Sam-
ple characteristics in terms of level of fitness exclude
varied greatly, from recreationally active university stu-
dents to elite national athletes. However, a fairly poor
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.
description of participant’s fitness level was provided
throughout studies. Exclusively males (10 studies) or
both male and female adults (5 studies) were investi-
gated, with sample sizes varying from six 20 to 50 indi-
982 The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness
viduals.16 Studies utilized music entirely selected by the
investigators (11 studies), entirely self-selected by the
participants (2 studies), or selected within specific top
music charts (2 studies). Most of the studies employed
a two-condition design including music and no-music
conditions (10 studies), while some employed a two-
condition design with differing music’s characteristics
(2 studies) or a three-condition design with two music
and one no-music condition (3 studies). The duration
of pre-task music exposure varied from 30 seconds 18
to 20 minutes,20 with the most prevalent duration being
10 minutes (5 studies). The most prevalent time length
between pre-task music exposure and beginning of the
task was 0 (i.e., immediately) (6 studies), but varied
from 0 to 2 minutes, with 8 studies not providing (or not
clearly stating) this information. Lastly, while most of
the studies utilized pre-task music at rest (11 studies),
5 studies employed music during the warm-up period
before the exercise task.21-24, 28
Overall, the utilization of pre-task music significantly
improved exercise performance in 9 of 15 studies, in-
dicating a likely pattern distinguishing among exercise
tasks characteristics (i.e., anaerobic × aerobic tasks).
Within the section “muscular strength/endurance tasks,”
while both studies investigating grip strength showed
improvements in performance after pre-task music,
both studies involving muscular endurance tasks did
not. For the “anaerobic tasks” section, 4 out of 6 studies
resulted in improvements in performance immediately
after fast (>120 bpm) pre-task music, whereas only the
shorter and predominantly anaerobic tasks from the
“sports and sports-like tasks” section were affected by
pre-task music.
By focusing on the methods and results of the articles,
this brief review has identified several significant limi-
tations on overall pre-task music research to date. A first
major limitation in pre-task music research has been the
absence of a guiding rationale for the music selection
process. According to Karageorghis and Priest,4 consid-
eration of the music’s motivational qualities during its
selection process are crucial, once motivational quali-
ties are closely linked to the music’s effects on arousal,
perception of effort and mood. For instance, percep-
tion of effort and motivation are proposed as crucial
variables affecting/limiting exercise performance.30, 31
However, 11 of the 15 pre-task music studies reviewed
employed music arbitrarily and entirely selected by
July-August 2017
not permitted. It is not permitted to remove, cover, overlay, obscure, block, or change any copyright notices or terms of use which the Publisher may post on the Article. It is not permitted to frame or use framing techniques to enclose any trademark, log
means which may allow access to the Article. The use of all or any part of the Article for any Commercial Use is not permitted. The creation of derivative works from the Article is not permitted. The production of reprints for personal or commercial use i
This document is protected by international copyright laws. No additional reproduction is authorized. It is permitted for personal use to download and save only one file and print only one copy of this Article. It is not permitted to make additional copies
(either sporadically or systematically, either printed or electronic) of the Article for any purpose. It is not permitted to distribute the electronic copy of the article through online internet and/or intranet file sharing systems, electronic mailing or any other
©
COPYRIGHT 2017 EDIZIONI MINERVA MEDICA
EFFECT OF PRE-TASK MUSIC ON PERFORMANCE
either the investigators or participants for their experi-
mental conditions, without a valid consideration of
its motivational properties. In order to overcome such
limitation, effective and standard selection of motiva-
tional music is needed. Utilization of instruments such
as The Brunel Music Rating Inventory-3,32 which has
been used to assess music’s motivational properties for
in-task utilization may be a feasible solution. However,
future research should address the need for a specific
instrument for pre-task music selection, as none are cur-
rently available. Another limitation has been the lack
of controlling/reporting methodological procedures in
sufficient detail. Information regarding music’s char-
acteristics such as tempo and intensity, as well as the
time between music exposure and task initiation has
been largely disregarded. For instance, only 7 studies
controlled for music tempo, and 6 studies did not report
the time length between music exposure and beginning
of the task. While the former is known as an important
feature for the ergogenic properties of music,33 the latter
information is potentially important once it is reason-
able to speculate, despite the lack of direct scientific ev-
idence, that the carryover effects of pre-task music may
be time-dependent. Lastly, as previously suggested,34
no study has employed an additional oudeterous music
condition (neither motivating nor demotivating). Such
additional condition would work similar to a placebo
condition, allowing the specific determination of the er-
gogenic effects of motivational/neutral pre-task music
compared to a no-music condition.
Due to the methodological limitations and mixed re-
sults identified in this review, there is no sufficient sci-
entific evidence to support the overall ergogenic effects
of pre-task music on exercise performance. Nonethe-
less, pre-task music has showed a likely ergogenic ef-
fect on short and predominantly anaerobic tasks such
as grip strength, Wingate, and short-duration sports/
sports-like tasks, in contrast to longer and predominant-
ly aerobic tasks. In order to strengthen such prelimi-
nary applied recommendations and advance scientific
knowledge on this topic, researchers should be aware
of previous methodological limitations when designing
future experiments on the effects of pre-task music on
or other proprietary information of the Publisher.
exercise performance. A good starting point may consist
in: 1) improving the quality of the music selection pro-
cess by considering the music’s motivational properties,
working with a guiding rationale; 2) controlling and re-
Vol. 57 - No. 7-8 The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness
SMIRMAUL
porting procedures in sufficient details, such as music’s
tempo and intensity, as well as the time length between
music exposure and beginning of the task; 3) adding
a pre-task music condition designed to be neutral re-
garding its motivational properties. Moreover, various
research questions on the ergogenic effects of pre-task
music on exercise performance remains to be answered
in order to improve this research topic and enable rec-
ommendations for its practical application. For instance,
the influence of the following factors may be further
explored: 1) the characteristics of the task (muscular
strength/endurance or whole-body anaerobic/endurance
with varying durations); 2) pre-task music exposure at
rest vs. during the warm-up; 3) the combination of pre-
task music with pre-task video, primes, imagery, etc.; 4)
the time between pre-task music exposure and begin-
ning of the task; 5) the duration of pre-task music ex-
posure; 6) the baseline motivational level of individuals
(especially in high-level athletes); and 7) the effects of
pre-task music during actual sports competition.
Conclusions
Previous work reviewing early general research on
music and exercise-related tasks prior to the mid-1990’s
identified several methodological and theoretical limi-
tations.2 Currently, music research in the exercise and
sports context, particularly in-task music, has markedly
overcome these earlier shortcomings,3, 4 arguably mov-
ing from its infancy to its adulthood. However, research
on the particular topic of pre-task music still appears to
be on its infancy, once similar limitations were identi-
fied throughout the studies reviewed here. In addition to
the recommendations here proposed, taking a page out
of the book of its more mature sibling, in-task music
research,3, 4 and learning from its development is likely
to be of great benefit to the pre-task music research, per-
haps facilitating its growth from infancy to adulthood
more rapidly.
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not permitted. It is not permitted to remove, cover, overlay, obscure, block, or change any copyright notices or terms of use which the Publisher may post on the Article. It is not permitted to frame or use framing techniques to enclose any trademark, log
means which may allow access to the Article. The use of all or any part of the Article for any Commercial Use is not permitted. The creation of derivative works from the Article is not permitted. The production of reprints for personal or commercial use i
This document is protected by international copyright laws. No additional reproduction is authorized. It is permitted for personal use to download and save only one file and print only one copy of this Article. It is not permitted to make additional copies
(either sporadically or systematically, either printed or electronic) of the Article for any purpose. It is not permitted to distribute the electronic copy of the article through online internet and/or intranet file sharing systems, electronic mailing or any other
©
COPYRIGHT 2017 EDIZIONI MINERVA MEDICA
SMIRMAUL EFFECT OF PRE-TASK MUSIC ON PERFORMANCE
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2016.
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