UNIT 5

Sigma Notation

Observe the sum:

1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8

Assign an index number for each number in the

sum, starting from the index of 1 being 0, to the
index of 8 being 7

Sigma, is denoted by ∑ with the bottom

7

i=0

meaning the first index (0) in the sum, and the

top meaning the last index (7) in the sum.

∑
7

i=0
ai in this case is equal to

a0 + a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 +a7
Which is
1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8

In this case, we can call ∑ (i+1) as the actual

7

i=0

values are all one larger than their respective

indices.
Properties of Sums

1. Distributive Property
∑
n
cai = c∑ ai
i=m
n

i=m

2. Associate Property
(an ± bn) = ∑ (an) ± ∑ (bn)
j j j
∑
n=i n=i n=i

A Few Fun Sums We Should Know

1. ai = 1
ai = ∑ 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 ... + 1 = n
n n
∑
i=1 i=1

2. ai = i
∑
n

i=1
i = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 ... + (n-1) + (n)
=
n(n+1)

3. ai = i2
∑
n

i=1
i2 = 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 ... + (n-1)2 + n2 =
n(n+1)(2n+1)

4. ai3
i3 = (
n n(n+1) 2
∑ )
i=1 2

Please note, the rules of addition are still valid:

∑
n

i=1
i3 = ∑ n

i=1
i3 + 1 - 1 = (∑ n

i=1
i3 + 1) - 1 = ∑ n

i=2

i3 - 1 = ( -1
n(n+1) 2
)
2

lim n→∞ ∑
n

i=1
ai called an infinite sum

i2 = lim =∞
n n(n+1)(2n+1)
lim n→∞ ∑ n→∞
i=1 6

1. Telescoping Sums
These are sums where terms from one
element of the sum cancels terms for a
second element of the sum.

Example:

∑
100

i=1
(i2 - (i-1)2) = (12 - 0) + (22 - 12) ... (1002 -
992)

As you can see here, the second term in each

element cancels out the first term in the element
before it, only leaving one term, 1002

This means
∑
100

i=1
(i2 - (i-1)2) = 1002
 2. Geometric Sums
∑
n
r k = r1 + r2 ... + rn = r(1−r
n
)
,r≠1
k=1 1−r

where r = 1, this sum returns the answer n

lim n→∞ ∑ r
n k= lim n→∞
r(1−r
n
)
, r ≠ 1 and
k=1 1−r

lim n→∞ ,r=1

The second limit does not exist, but the first

exists if |r| < 1

Areas as Limits of Sums

How do we find the area of some arbitrary

function in the domain [a,b]
You could estimate that the area is
approximately equal to (b-a)f(a) or (b-a)f(b)
(imagine the function as a rectangle).

You could also try and approximate it by splitting

it into two rectangles with two heights, f(a) and
f(b) and adding the areas of the rectangles as
such:
b−a

2
f(a) + f( ). The point to be noted is that
b−a

2
a+b

you can split the function into multiple

rectangles, to try and get closer and closer to the
area.

So we can say

A=∑ n

i=1
△ xf(xi*)

△ x= b−a

xi* is some point between [xi-1, xi]

To get A exactly, lim n

xf(xi*)
n→∞ ∑ i=1 △

△ x= b−a

This is called the Riemann Sum.

lim nax(△x
i )→0
∑
n

i=1
△ xf(xi*)

Example:
f(x) = x + 1
a=0
b = 10

lim n→∞ ∑
n

i=1
△xf(xi*)

△ x= = b−a

n
10−0

n
= 10

xi = a + i△x
xi = 0 + i 10

xi = i 10

xi* = xi
lim n→∞ ∑
n

i=1
10

n
f( i10

n
)
= lim n→∞ ∑ i=1
n
( ) 10

n
i10

= lim n→∞ ∑
n
(1+ )
i=1
10

n
i10

= lim n→∞ ∑ ( +
n

i=1
) 10

n
i100

n
2

= lim n→∞ ∑
n

i=1
+ lim 10

n n→∞ ∑ i=1
n i10

= lim n→∞
10

n
∑ 1 + lim
n

i=1 n→∞ ∑
n

i=1
100

n
2
∑
n

i=1
i
= lim n + lim
10 100 n(n+1)
n→∞ n→∞ 2
n n 2

= lim 10 + lim
50(n+1)
n→∞ n→∞
n

= 10 + 50
= 60

A = lim n→∞ ∑
n

i=1
△ xf(xi*)
△ x= = b−a

n
5−1

n
= 4

xi = a + i△x
xi any # in [xi-1,xi]
xi = xi = xi = a + i△x
=1+i 4

A = lim (1 + )2
n 4 i4
n→∞ ∑ i=1 n n

= lim (1 + 2 + )
2
n 4 i4 i 16
n→∞ ∑
i=1 n n n

= lim + lim + lim

n 4 n 32i
n→∞ ∑ n→∞ ∑ 2 n→∞
i=1 n i=1 n
2
n 64i
∑ 3
i=1 n

= lim n→∞
4

n
∑
n

i=1
1 + lim n→∞
32

n
2
∑
n

i=1
i+
lim n→∞
64

n
3
∑
n

i=1
i2
= lim n + lim + lim
4 32 n(n+1) 64
n→∞ n n→∞ 2
2 n→∞ 3
n n
n(n+1)(2n+1)

6
2

= 4 + 16 + 2
64 n (1)(1+1/n)
2
6 n

= 20 + = 64

3
124

Integration

Riemann Sum

lim n→∞ ∑
n

i=1
△ xf(xi*)
 △ x= b−a

xi* is some point between [xi-1, xi]

The Riemann sum is equivalent to ∫ f(x)dx

b

where f(x) is a continuous function on the

interval a ≤ x ≤ b.

This is called the Definite Integral

∫ is the Integral sign, you can think of it as an

open bracket {

dx is the end of the integral, so its the closing

bracket }, and you also mention the variable you
are dealing with (x in this case)

The a at the bottom is the lower limit, while the b

is the upper limit of the domain you are finding
the integral on.

The function, f(x) is called the Integrand, the

function that defines the top of all your
"rectangles" which we find the sum of for finding
the area under the curve.
 g(x)dx ≡ ∑ xg(xi*)
d n
∫ △
c i=1

where △x = d−c

xi = c + i△x
xi*ϵ[xi-1,xi]

△ x can be positive or negative, however n is

always positive

= ∫ f(x)dx
n 1 i−1 b
lim n→∞ ∑ √
i=1 n n a

△ x= =
b−a

n
1

n
∴ b-a=1
xi = a + i△x
f(xi) = ? = √ i−1

xi*ϵ[xi-1,xi]

Assume a = 0 and b = 1

This gives us ∫ dx
1
√x
0

Properties of Definite Integrals

1. ∫ f(x)dx = -∫ f(x)dx
b a

a b
2. ∫ f(x)dx = 0
a

This is because a−a

n
is equivalent to 0
3. ∫ cdx = lim
b n
∑ △xc n→∞
a i=1

= clim
n
∑ △x
n→∞ i=1

= clim
n b−a
∑n→∞ i=1 n

= clim 1 b−a n
∑
n→∞
n i=1

= clim n
n→∞
b−a

= c(b-a)
4. ∫
b b
cf (x)dx = c ∫ f (x)dx
a a
n ∗
lim n→∞ ∑ = cf (x ) △ x
i=1 i

5. ∫
b b b
(f (x) ± g(x))dx = ∫ f (x)dx ± ∫ g(x)dx
a a a

6. ∫
c b b
f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx
a c a

7. If f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b then ∫

b
f (x)dx ≥ 0
a

8. If f (x) ≥ g(x) and a ≤ x ≤ b then

b b
∫ f (x)dx ≥ ∫ g(x)dx
a a

9. If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for a ≤ x ≤ b then

b
m(b − a) ≤ ∫ f (x)dx ≤ M (b − a)
a

Riemann Sum

lim n→∞ ∑
n

i=1
△ xf(xi*)
 △ x= b−a

xi* is some point between [xi-1, xi]

Definite Integral

f(x)dx = some real number

b
∫
a

Riemann Sums and Definite Integrals are not

always areas

But we can calculate area's using Definite

Integrals, so can I use areas to calculate Definite
Integrals
3 1
∫ | x|dx
−4 2

This makes up two triangles that looks like this

So we can split this into two triangles split at the
origin and find the height at -4 and 3 using the
function as so:

f(-4) = 2
f(3) = 3

Area of a triangle is bh

Therefore the definite integral in this case is

equivalent to
3

+
×3
4×2

2
2

2
= 25

1
∫ √ 1 − x 2 dx
−1
For this function, we can rearrange the function
as so:
2
y = √1 − x

2 2
y = 1 − x

2 2
x + y = 1

This gives us the function for a circle, which we

know the area is πr 2

From -1 to 1 we get a semicircle of which the

area would be which in this case would be
2
πr

which is
2
π1 π

2 2

=
1 π
∫ √ 1 − x 2 dx
−1 2

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Suppose f is continuous on [a,b]

1. if g(x) ≡ ∫ f (t)dt, then g'(x) = g(x) = f(x)

x d

a dx

for any aϵR

2. ∫ f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a), where F is any
b

antiderivative of f (that means F'(x) = f(x))

i.e.
 6 2
∫ x dx
3

f(x) = x 2

F(x) = 1

3
x
3
+ c

F(6) - F(3)
=( x 1

3
3
+ c) − (
1

3
(3)
3
+ c)

= 63

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 2

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Suppose f is continuous on [a,b]

1. if g(x) ≡ ∫ , then g'(x) = g(x) =

x d
f (t)dt
a dx

f(x) for any aϵR

2. ∫ f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a), where F is any
b

antiderivative of f (that means F'(x) = f(x))

i.e.
6 2
∫ x dx
3

f(x) = x 2

F(x) = 1

3
x
3
+ c
 F(6) - F(3)
=( x 1

3
3
+ c) − (
1

3
(3)
3
+ c)

= 63

g(x) = ∫
x
f (t)dt
a

g'(x) = f(x)
d
g(x) = f (x)
dx

d t
∫ f (t)dt = f (x)
dx a

g(x) = ∫
x 2
t dt
a

f(t) = t2
d x 2 2
∫ t dt = x
dx a

h(x) = ∫
x
sin(2t)dt
0
2

h'(x) = d x
∫ sin(2t)dt
dx 0

let u = x2
du = 2xdx
1
du = dx
2x

= = =
d u d d du
∫ sin(2t)dt h(x) h(x)
dx 0 dx du dx

d u du
( ∫ sin(2t)dt)
du 0 dx

= sin(2u) x dx
d 2

= sin(2u) 2x
= sin(2x2)2x
h'(x) = 2xsin(2x2)

PROOF OF
FUNDAMENTAL
THEOREM OF
CALCULUS
Start with part 1:
x
g(x) ≡ ∫ f (t)dt
a

′
g (x) = f (x)

So g(x) is an antiderivative of f(x)

So F(x) = g(x) + C is all the antiderivatives of f(x)

So
a
g(a) = ∫ f (t)dt = 0
a
b
g(b) = ∫ f (t)dt
a

then
F (b) − F (a) = (g(b) + C) − (g(a) + C)
F (b) − F (a) = g(b) − g(a)

Remember, g(a) = 0
b
F (b) − F (a) = g(b) = ∫ f (t)dt
a

So
b
F (b) − F (a) = ∫ f (t)dt
a

This is the second part of the FTOC, therefore

we have proved it!

Examples:
2π
∫ cos(x)dx
0

= sin(2π) + C − πsin(0) + C
=0-0
=0
4 1
∫ dx
1 √ (x)

= 2√ (4) − 2√ (1)

= 4 − 2

= 2

1 1
∫ dx
−1 x

But 1

x
is not continuous of [-1,1] so this is wrong!
 9 2
x 2 2
∫ cos(e )x √ x + 9tan(x)dx
6

This is a very hard integral to solve for, so we

must do the opposite of the chain rule!

Substitution Rule
If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whos range
is on interval I and f is continuous on I then
′
∫ f (g(x))g (x)dx = ∫ f (u)du

This is the Chain Rule in reverse

b ′ u(b)
∫ f (g(x))g (x)dx = ∫ f (u)du
a u(a)

from 1 to 2
2 3 4 3 4
∫ 4x (x + 6) = (∫ 4x (x + 6)dx))
1

3 4
∫ 4x (x + 6)dx

Let u = x 4
+ 6

du 3
= 4x
dx

3
du = 4x dx

3 4
∴ ∫ 4x (x + 6)dx = ∫ udu

1 2
∫ udu = u + c
2

3 4 1 4 2
∫ 4x (x + 6)dx = (x + 6) + C
2

=
1

2
(x
4
+ 6)
2
from 1 to 2
Substitution Rule
′
∫ f (g(x))g (x)dx = ∫ f (u)du

For example
2
∫ (2x + 6)cos(x + 6x)dx

let u = x2 + 6x
du
= 2x + 6
dx

du = (2x+6)dx
∫ cos(u)(2x + 6)dx

= ∫ cos(u)du

= sin(u) + C

2
= sin(x + 6x) + C

Another Example
4x
∫ 2
dx
x +1

∫
4x

w
dx where x 2
+ 1 = w

dw
= 2x
dx

dw = 2xdx

4x
∫ dx
w

1
= ∫ 4xdx
w

1
= ∫ × 2(2xdx)
w
 1
= ∫ × 2dw
w

1
= 2∫ × dw
w

2
= 2(ln|w| + D) = 2(ln|x + 1| + D)

2 2
= 2ln(x + 1) + 2D = 2ln(x + 1) + D

2 2
= ln((x + 1) ) + D

cos(x)
∫ 2
dx
4+sin (x)

= ∫
cos(x)

4+w
2
where sin(x) = w
dw = cos(x)dx
dw
= ∫ 2
dw
4+w

let u = w 1

du = dw 1

dw = 2du
1
∫ 2
2du
4+(2u)

2 1
= ∫ 2
du
4 1+u

1 −1
= tan u + C1
2

1 −1 1
tan ( sin(x)) + C 1
2 2

b ′ g(b)
∫ f (g(x))g (x)dx = ∫ f (u)du
a g(a)

2
9π cos(√ (x)
∫ 2
dx
4π
2√ (x)
u = √ (x)

1
du = dx
2√x

2
x = 4π

2
u(x) = u(4π ) = √ 4π = 2π = g(a)
2

2
x = 9π

2
u(x) = u(9π ) = √ 9π = 3π = g(b)
2

2
cos(√ (x))
=∫ = sin(u)
9π 3π
∫ 2
dx cos(u)du
4π 2π
2√ (x)

= sin(3π) − sin(2π) = 0

=∫
sin(x)
∫ tan(x)dx dx
cos(x)

u = cos(x)
du = -sin(x)dx
−du −1
∫ = ∫ du = −ln|u| + C
u u

−1
= −ln|cos(x)| + C = ln|(cos(x)) | + C

= ln|
1

cos(x)
| + C = ln|sec(x)| + C

Areas Between Curves

 b
∫ f (x) − g(x)dx
a

This will return the value of the area between

the two curves

local maximum

A local maximum is point a on f(x) where f(a) ≥

f(xL) and f(a) ≥ f(xR) where xL is smaller than
but really close to a and xR is greater than but
really close to a

Areas Between Curves

 b
∫ f (x) − g(x)dx
a

This will return the value of the area between the

two curves

FINAL CALC 1 LECTURE

Last day: The area of a region bound by the

curves y=f(x), y=g(x) and the line x=a, x=b when
f(x) and g(x) are continuous on [a,b] is
b
∫ |f (x) − g(x)|dx
a

Example:
Find the area by y=x2 and y=√x and the lines x
= and x =
1

2
3

4
A. Sketch

B. Build
3

4 2
∫ 1
|√x − x |
2

Get rid of the absolute values:

The bigger curve in the interval is the square
root of x as shown in the figure above. Therefore
it yields a positive value and we can remove the
absolute value symbols, which yields:
3

4 2
∫ 1
√x − x
2

C. Evaluate
 3
1
4 2
∫ 1
x 2 − x
2
3 3
1
4 4 2
= ∫ 1
x 2
− ∫ 1
x
2 2

From half to three fourths

3
2 1 3
= x 2
− x
3 3
3 3
2 3 2 2 1 2 1 3 3 1 1 3
= ( − ) − ( − )
3 4 3 2 3 4 3 2
√3 19 √2
= − −
4 192 6

Find the area bound by y = 6-x2 and y = 3-2x

A. Sketch

Set equations equal and solve for POI for the

points you are integrating, which end up being -1
to 3
B. Build
3 2
A = ∫ |(6 − x ) − (3 − 2x)|dx
−1

6-x2 is always larger therefore we can remove

absolute value signs
3 2
A = ∫ (6 − x ) − (3 − 2x)dx
−1
3 2
A = ∫ (−x + 2x + 3)dx
−1

C. Evaluate
1 3 2
− x + x + 3x
3

1 3 2 1 3 2
= ( (3) + (3) + 3(3)) − ( (−1) + (−1) + 3(−
3 3

32
=
3

Find the area bound by the curves y=x and y=x2

from x=-1 to x=1

A. Sketch
Find POIS by setting equal and finding x=1 and
x=0

B. Build
A = ∫ |x
1
2
− x|dx
−1

However no curve is larger than the other

completely on the interval given, x2 is bigger
than x from -1 to 0 and x is bigger than x2 from 0
to 1, so we can make this into two integrals as so

A=∫ +∫
1 0
2 2
(x − x ) (x − x)
0 −1
C. Evaluate
A = ( x − x ) + ( x − x ) with the first
1

2
2 1

3
3 1

3
3 1

2
2

term being evaluated from 0 to 1 and the second

from -1 to 0
1 2 1 3 1 2 1 3 1
A = (( (1) − (1) ) − ( (0) − (0) )) + (( (0
2 3 2 3 3

1 1 1 1
A = ( − − (− − )
2 3 2 3

A = 1