LECTURE TWO

THE EARLY MUSLIM SETTLERS ALONG THE COAST

THE COMING OF ISLAM IN THE KENYAN COAST

The Kenyan shores are known to have maintained well established trade relations with the
maritime India and red sea civilization predating the Islamic era. The monsoon winds brought
Arabs, Indians and Chinese in search of ivory, spices, incense, gold, ambergris and slaves. These
trading contacts were further developing pad in the Islamic era.
The early Muslim settlers along the Kenyan coast were primarily of Arab and Persian origin.
They played a significant role in shaping the culture, trade, and history of the region. Some of the
prominent early Muslim settlers along the Kenyan coast included:
 Arab Traders: Arab traders were among the earliest to arrive on the Kenyan coast. They
established trade routes and settlements in cities such as Mombasa, Malindi, and Lamu.
These traders were instrumental in facilitating trade between the East African coast and
the Arabian Peninsula.
 Swahili People: The Swahili people are a Bantu ethnic group who embraced Islam
through interaction with Arab and Persian traders. They developed a unique Swahili
culture that blended elements of their Bantu heritage with Arab and Persian influences.
Swahili towns and settlements, such as Lamu and Mombasa, were important centers of
trade and Islamic culture.
 Persian Settlers: Persians, particularly from Shiraz and other regions of Persia (modern-
day Iran), were among the early settlers on the Kenyan coast. They contributed to the
spread of Islam and were involved in trade and cultural exchange.
 Omani Arabs: The Omani Arabs, from what is now Oman, played a significant role in
the history of the Kenyan coast. They established the Sultanate of Zanzibar, which
controlled various coastal territories, including parts of Kenya, and had a major influence
on the region's politics and trade.
These early Muslim settlers, through their interactions with the indigenous populations,
contributed to the development of the Swahili culture, the spread of Islam, and the establishment
of trading networks that connected the Kenyan coast with other parts of the Indian Ocean world.
Their influence is still evident in the architecture, language, and customs of the coastal
communities in Kenya today.

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The coming of Islam in Kenya coast has been mainly explained by three theories, viz, the
Abyssinian, the Abdul Malik Bin Marwan and the refugees/religious persecution theories.
The Abyssinian theory
This theory maintains that Islam arrived at the Kenyan coast during the lifetime of Prophet
Muhammad. That is 615 A.D, Muhammad advised Muslims to migrate to Abyssinia to escape
from the intensified persecutions in Makkah. The migrants were mostly merchants; they
involved themselves in trade and preached Islam with a missionary zeal as a result, Islam spread
in Ethiopia and eventually found its way to the Kenyan coast through the Red sea.
This theory is supported by archaeological findings. In the excavation done at Shanga in Pate
island by Dr. Mark Horton and Dr. Richard Wildings together with a team from National
Museum of Kenya, a site was excavated with evidence indicating that it was the earliest Islamic
community in Sub Saharan Africa. “Two mosques among other things were uncovered on the
site, one on top of the other, the lower mosque being the oldest was estimated to have existed in
670 to 850 A.D.
The mosque was unroofed without midribs and its Qiblah was not titled towards Makkah but
faced Jerusalem. It was probably built in 621 A.D at the time when Muslims faced Jerusalem
while praying. It was only after the prophet’s migration to Madinah in the year 615 A.D. that
Allah ordered the Muslims to pray facing the holy ka’abah in Makkah.
b) Abdul Malik Bin Marwan theory
This theory maintains that Islam entered Africa in7th century during the caliphate of Malik Bin
Marwan (655-706A.D). The conquest of Oman by Hajjaj Bin Yusuf, the Syrian governor of
Abdul Malik Bin Marwan, and the subsequent expulsion of its Muslim ruler, Suleiman Bin Said
who fled with family to the East African coast, their settlements in Lamu were dated around 685
A.D. This theory is corroborated by oral narratives of Lama archipelago.
c) Refuges/religious persecution theory.
This theory maintains that Islam entered Kenyan coast through Muslims seeking refuge from
prolonged civil wars raging in Arabia 40 years after the death of the Prophet. The coming of the
Muslims was divided into the following waves of immigrants;
i)The first settlers 700 AD.
The first group came around 730 A.D. and was made up of two Omani chiefs, Suleiman and Said
Self and their supporters, who had refused to submit to the Umayyad Caliph, Abdul Malik Bin
Marwan and had chosen to flee with their families and supporters. They landed in Pate around
700 A.D.
ii) The Amu-Zaid Group 730 A.D/Iraqis
Zaid, the younger brother of Imam Jaffar the leader of Shiahs led a rebellion against the
Umayyad Caliph, Hisham Bin Abdul-Malik. The rebellion was short lived and Zaid was killed.
His followers sought refuge in East African coast. They left Yemen and landed in Banadir

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Somalia around 730 A.D, later moving into the interior and were assimilated by the interior
tribes of the northern coast of Kenya.
iii) The Shiraz group 975 A.D.
The third group consisted of migrants from Shiraz, Southern Iran, and was led by Hassan Bin Ali
and his six sons, their families and supporters. They left in a fleet of 7 ships. They landed in
several places in the East African coast, where they settled and founded ruling dynasties. One of
the ships anchored in Mombasa. The Shiraz were more resourceful and energetic.
They founded more settlements in the East African coast making it predominantly Muslim. from
the three theories above, it can be safely argued that Islam first registered its presence during the
lifetime of the prophet as stated by the Abyssinian theory that the latter waves of Muslim
immigrants that came during the reign of Abdul Malik bin Marwan and during the difficult
period of religious schisms in Arabia strengthened Islam and spread it over a wide expanse of the
Kenyan coast.

THE SPREAD OF ISLAM IN THE KENYAN COAST

In the Kenyan coast, the mode of Islamization was trade intermarriage, slavery, assimilation and
the efficacy of Islam as a healing tool against illness and spirit possession. Islam was also
perceived as representing a higher culture and a more refined way of life. The Wangozi who
were the proto-Swahili speaking people and the original inhabitants of Kenyan Coast
intermarried with Arabs. They were Islamized and their language borrowed heavily from Arabic
that it became the modern day Kiswahili.

Islam recognized the institution of slavery and allowed masters to cohabit with their unmarried
female slaves. The product of such unions were free and mothers automatically attained to
freedom upon the death of their masters.6 Some Arab slave owners freed and married female
slaves, while the members of slave caravans who were normally detribalized adopted Islam for
convenience because they came from various ethnic groups; indeed the slavery system facilitated
the assimilation of many among the coastal tribes to Islam.

The Swahili did not venture deeply into the hinterland for fear of animals and difficult
conditions, but arranged for trade from the interior to come to them, from tribe to tribe through
barter trade. In this way, they received ivory and gold and bartered them with cloths, beads, glass
and other articles. Through trading intercourse, Islam was passed to some hinterland tribes. The
best example of this were the Pokomos who were Islamized through trade.
The Pokomos sold rice in exchange for cloth, sugar, and salt from the Arab-Swahili merchants of
Lamu. In order to cement the good trading relationship with their neighbors, the Arab-Swahili
merchants married Pokomo women who had to convert to Islam. On the other hand the Pokomos

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were attracted by the Muslims dressing, especially the long shirt, the cap and the sandals, and
because they sought social equality with the ArabSwahilis, Islam was seen as the only route to
attain this and the converted to end mass.
Among the Digos, sickness and spirit possession played a major role in their conversion. People
possessed by spirits and who were sick got better upon conversion, So Islam was associated with
more efficacious supernatural powers than those of the traditional Digo society. As a result,
Islam gained superiority over.
traditional practices which were returned, even after conversion. This accounts for the
predominant Islamization of the Digos.
iii. WHY DIDN'T ISLAM SPREAD IN THE IMMEDIATE HINTERLAND OF THE
COAST?
By the end of 19th century, Islam was predominantly coastal and even in the coast, it was urban
based with the hinterland wholly adhering to traditional religions. This scenario may be
accounted for by the following factors;
i. First, the Swahili society was deeply mercantile and attention was turned towards the sea,
rather than the interior. They did not venture deeply into the hinterland for fear of animals
and difficult conditions but arranged for the interior trade to come to them through barter
trade. This militated against hinterland islamization.
ii. Second, for the majority of Mijikenda tribes inhabiting the inland of Kenyan coast,
converting to Islam means detribalization and assimilation into the Swahili community;
This made them resentful towards Islam.
iii. Third, most of the time the Swahili city-states in the Kenyan coast were involved in inter-
sate rivalry and wars, Mombasa battled with Malindi, Lamu fought with Pate, this
militated against the spread of Islam into the immediate interior.
iv. Four, there was lack of peaceful settlement of ethnic groups in the immediate hinterland
of Kenya coast. Many parts of the immediate interior were not permanently settled until
15th century. Tribe were in constant movement in search of pasture and due to ethnic
warfare.
v. Five, the Portuguese conquest of the Kenyan coast, which lasted 1500 to 1600. AD and
the attendant harsh treatment inflicted on the inhabitant, some of whom had the towns
burnt or destroyed, their properties looted and sometimes entire people were put to the
sword, considerably delayed the Islamization of the interior.
vi. Six, it was not in the interest of the Arab-Swahilis traders to Islamize the immediate
hinterland as this would have denied them a steady supply of slaves, as the people of the
interior will have become their brothers in faith and fellow members of the ummah.
vii. By allowing them to persist in their traditional belief system, the Arab traders feel
justified to declare them as Darul Harb. Hence attacking their settlement, raiding them for
slaves and looting their properties were falsely justified in the name of the Jihad. 10 It
was only at the end of 19th century that Islam began to seriously penetrate the interior of
Kenya. Summar

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The early Muslim settlers along the Kenyan coast were primarily of Arab and Persian origin.
They played a significant role in shaping the culture, trade, and history of the region. Some of the
prominent early Muslim settlers along the Kenyan coast included:

 Arab Traders: Arab traders were among the earliest to arrive on the Kenyan coast. They
established trade routes and settlements in cities such as Mombasa, Malindi, and Lamu.
These traders were instrumental in facilitating trade between the East African coast and
the Arabian Peninsula.
 Swahili People: The Swahili people are a Bantu ethnic group who embraced Islam
through interaction with Arab and Persian traders. They developed a unique Swahili
culture that blended elements of their Bantu heritage with Arab and Persian influences.
Swahili towns and settlements, such as Lamu and Mombasa, were important centers of
trade and Islamic culture
 Persian Settlers: Persians, particularly from Shiraz and other regions of Persia (modern-
day Iran), were among the early settlers on the Kenyan coast. They contributed to the
spread of Islam and were involved in trade and cultural exchange.
 Omani Arabs: The Omani Arabs, from what is now Oman, played a significant role in the
history of the Kenyan coast. They established the Sultanate of Zanzibar, which controlled
various coastal territories, including parts of Kenya, and had a major influence on the
region's politics and trade.
 These early Muslim settlers, through their interactions with the indigenous populations,
contributed to the development of the Swahili culture, the spread of Islam, and the
establishment of trading networks that connected the Kenyan coast with other parts of the
Indian Ocean world. Their influence is still evident in the architecture, language, and
customs of the coastal communities in Kenya today.

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 LECTURE THREE
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM IN THE INTERIOR OF KENYA

This section explores the rapid penetration of Islam into the interior and investigates the role of
trade, Muslim missionary effort, the penetration of the British into the interior of Kenya under
I.B.E.A, the establishment of colonial rule in 1895. The emergence of administrative and
commercial centers followed by the building of Uganda railway in 1896-1901, from the
perspectives of how the above factors facilitated this penetration. In addition, factors like famine,
migrations, Arab-Swahili perceived cultural superiority and their cuisine, traditional dances
Maulidi, Idd ceremonies and the fast of the Holy month of Ramadhan are also explored as agents
of Islamization.
1. Trade
Arab-Swahili traders began penetrating the interior from the beginning of the 19th century. Most
were engage in their business interest, but some promoted Islam. Trading posts were set in
various interior stations to arrange for supply of food and merchandise, with passage of time
settlements grew. Local populations and Muslim traders developed contacts, intermarriages
occurred and conversions ensued. The conversions were based on personal relationship and they
were voluntary.
This scenario is best illustrated among the Kamba people. The Kamba people had commercial
interaction with the Arab-Swahili traders at the Kenyan coast. The Muslims exchanged cotton
cloth, beads, iron, copper or brass ware for ivory, grains and cattle. The Arab-Swahili trade
caravans were allowed through the Kamba country with full security guarantee for travelers and
their properties. On the other hand, Kamba’s had established a commercial settlement in Rabai
long before 1836, the year in which there was an influx of Kamba refugees, a number of whom
found their way to Mombasa and eventually converted to Islam. By 1898 there were Arab-
Swahili settlements in Kitui which became powerful agencies of Islamization.
1. Muslim missionary efforts
The Muslim missionary efforts was spearheaded by preachers who were mainly Arab-Swahili
merchants and Nyamwezi laborers from the Uganda railway and the Kikuyu MA hajis. Muslim
traders were important in the spread of Islam in Western Kenya, Nyanza, Ukambani, Nairobi and
the Mt. Kenyans regions. The Mrima, Barawa, Comorian and Bajuni -some of whom were well
versed in the teaching of the Quran- establish themselves in Mumias before the advent of
colonial rule. Many traders moved to other parts of Western Kenya, Nyanza and Rift Valley
where they settled, intermarried and spread Islam. In Western Kenya, Islam was first introduced
in Mumias in 1870-1885, by a caravan of Arab-Swahili traders led by Shariff Hassan from
Pangani. The Wanga people accorded the traders respect and

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traditional African hospitality. The traders helped the Wanga defeat their traditional enemies and
to celebrate the victory, Nabongo Mumia bestowed the status of brotherhood upon them.
Eventually the Nabongo, his three brothers and the entire cabinet converted to Islam. Mumias
become the center of Islamic missionary effort from where Sharif Hassan sent missionaries to
diverse areas i.e. Gaziti was sent to Kakamega Hamisi to Mwingi, Akida Jeshi to Kisumu,
Msangeni to Kisii, Sharif Abdallah to Bungoma and Maalim Mtondo to Kabete
Islam reached Kendu bay in 1905 when Nassir Bin Ali arrived. He traded in hides and skins,
married a native woman and employed locals who eventually converted to Islam. He was later
followed by Mbarack Bin Hubaisha and Abdallah Bin Buckwheat both of whom settled, married
local women and preached Islam.

Such spirit of integration encouraged local people to convert. From Kendu Bay Islam expanded
to Oyugis, Homabay, Migori, Awendo, Sondu, Suna and Marindi. In 1895, two brothers, Abeid
and Muhammad Mbarak Doman travel around Mt. Kenya and reached Mbiri where they built a
mosque. They later went to Meru Muichande Bin Turki went to Embu, Nondo Mughubir Salmin
settled in Nyeri. They all spread Islam.

In Nairobi, Maalim Mtondo pioneered Islamic missionary work. He arrived at the end of the 19th
century and together with other Muslims from coast built Swahili village Pumwani. He preached
Islam and converted several Kikuyus and Kambas who became his disciples. Later sheikhs Ali
Bin Khalid, Muhudhari Muhammad and Sheikhuna Muhammad, who were coffee merchants
from Lamu settled in Nairobi and were very active in missionary work. Also in Nairobi, the
Jumuia Baladia, founded by Kikuyu mahajis in 1937 was very active in the propagation of Islam
amongst the upcountry people. It built mosques and madrassas wherever muslims lived. It
propagated Islam throughout the colonial period and its influence had spread to Mombasa,
Thika, Nyeri, Margwa, Nanyuki and Embu.

3.The British penetration and establishment of colonial rule.

In 1895, the British annexed the territory that came to be Kenya and renamed East African
protectorate. The British penetration and the establishment of colonial rule facilitated the spread
of Islam in the following ways;
4. Muslims as auxiliaries to colonial rule
In the process of establishing colonial rule, the British enlisted the Muslims as porters, askaris
guides, cooks, house-helps, nyaparas, scribes, craftsmen, interpreters, tax collectors, court and
administrative clerks. Muslims who are preferred due to their knowledge of the interior and their
literacy and were considered civilized natives as opposed to upcountry’s raw natives”14.
Henceforth each center of European presence was in reality a center of Muslim influence and
many of the “raw natives” were won over to Islam.

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5. Colonial consolidation and pacification.
The pacification of the interior tribes and land alienation led to the breakdown of African
traditional society. Many were thrown out of tribal homes into harsh urban conditions. Colonial
governments discouraged urban migration by not providing housing to migrant labor and by
creating harsh urban conditions. Africa Muslims were considered detribalized with no real
homes and were tolerated in urban areas. many alienated interior Africans found homes,
brotherhood and acceptance with the urban Muslims and many converted to Islam.
6. The King African Rifles
The colonial authorities widely utilized the Swahili askaris in pacification of interior tribes and
posted them in various upcountry stations such as Ndi, Makindu, Machakos, Kitui, Muranga,
Nairobi, Kisumu, and Mumias. Early adminstrators favored the employment of the Swahilis who
were chosen as models of civilized natives to impress and be emulated by up-country people.
Until the 1900 Swahili and Nubian askaris comprised the total strength of protectorate force,
their presence was reinforced by recruitment of Arabs, Somalis, Nyamwezi askaris who were all
Muslims. By 1920s and 30s the army was still Muslim dominated. As a result, it become an
important agent of islamization in the following ways; Many of the soldiers wasted no time in
converting their newly recruited upcountry colleagues especially those from the present day
Nyanza and Western Province. During the pacification campaigns, the army inflicted punitive
measures on the rebellious tribes making them seek refuge in towns from where they were
converted to Islam. Demobilized soldiers often times settled up country marrying local women
and spreading Islam. Administrative and military camps often times formed the nucleus of
Swahili settlements up country. As the incoming waves of Swahili settlers preferred to settle
along the military or administrative camps manned by the Swahili askaris. The settlement
developed in the villages which attracted and offered employment to the locals. This personal
contact often times led to the locals converting to Islam. The best example of this is Bondeni,
Nyeri.
a) The Uganda railway of 1896-190
The Uganda railway, which was to consolidate the British colonial authority in Kenya played a
major role in facilitating the penetration of Islam into the interior of Kenya. This it did in the
following ways;
1.Indian coolies
Since the local laborer had no prior experience in railway construction, Indian coolies, some of
whom were Muslims were imported to do the job. Many settled in Kisumu upon the completion
of the Railway. They built the Railway mosque in Kisumu and played an active role in the spread
of Islam in the neighboring areas.

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2. Pacification campaigns
Some inland tribes refused to have the Railway passing through their territories and had to be
pacified by the Muslim askaris. After the pacification campaigns, demobilized soldiers Settled in
the pacified communities, marrying local women and spreading Islam.
3. The interior towns
The Uganda railway opened up the interior and settlements started along the railway. Swahili
traders carried out trade in hides and skins in these settlements. They intermarried with the local
Women and spread Islam. With the formation of Swahili settlements came in the Quran teachers
who played a monumental role in the Islamization of the interior. The completion of the Railway
in 1901 facilitated the ease of movements between coat and upcountry which helped in spread of
Islam. This was done in the following ways;
 First, the completion of the railway caused the decline of the Arab-Swahili trade
caravans. Trade and occupations were opened up in the interior. Swahili and Arab traders
move up country to supply materials, to man public service and establish trading posts
along the Uganda railway. Quran teachers went along with the business community.
Swahili villages formed the focus of their missionary works. Close integration with the
local population helped foster good relations and Islam gained convert as a result of
individual efforts.
 Second, before the advent of the Uganda railway porterage was lucrative business. The
work of the porters was usurped by the Uganda Railway so that by 1904 nearly 2000
porters were unemployed in Mombasa. Many migrated to the interior where they were
employed as farm hands, Nyaparas, cooks, askaris, craftsmen, clerks. Through their
interaction with the local people they spread Islam. Third, the completion of Uganda
railways made Mombasa an important distribution center. Europeans and Asian
businesses attracted secondary industries, new job opportunities were created and good
wages attracted migrant laborers as far as Ukambani, Kikuyu and Luhya lands. Many of
the Kambas, Kikuyus and eventually converted to Islam, and upon returning to their
homes, they propagated Islam among their people.
 Fourth, the establishment of colonial rule in the interior of Kenya made the British
neglect the coastal economy, in favor of European farming in the white Highlands. This
coupled with drought that hit Lamu district during the World War I resulted in major
economic decline. Mainly of the Bajunis from Lamu migrated to Mombasa, Zanzibar and
some utilizing the Uganda Railway, to Nairobi and Kiambu in search of fortune. Many
set themselves as petty traders while others were employed as clerks and foremen in
European farms. This was an additional impetus in the spread of Islam in the interior of
Kenya.

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4. Famine In 1901,
There was faminE in Kikuyu land brought by rain failure, it was known as “Nyaragu ya Ruraya”
some Arab-Swahili were in Kikuyu land trading. “The kikuyu men who had daughters decided to
pawn them with the Swahili in exchange for rice …and the girls were never claimed back.”16
They eventually became Muslim and were married to the Swahilis. Some Kikuyus decided to
travel to coast in search of employment and a number reverted to Islam.
5. Employment and migration
By 1902, the Swahili at Kampi in Nyeri employed local Kikuyus as house helps, general workers
and farmhands. The Swahilis paid higher wages and treated their workers better than European
settlers. Many among the Kikuyu preferred to work for Swahilis and many eventually converted
to Islam. Indeed, some men from Nyeri migrated to Nairobi and the coast to avoid the harsh
conditions imposed by white employers. The average pays rate in Nyeri was Rs. 4 plus Posho
while in Nairobi it was Rs.8 per month.18 Many Kikuyus from Nyeri settled in Pumwani, where
they became Muslims. Many who had migrated to coast also embraced Islam. By 1914 there
were about 120 Kikuyus living and working in Kilifi.
6. Traditional Dances
Traditional dances attracted Arab-Swahili settlers, particularly the “Ngweko” a dance according
to Jomo Kenyatta, involving platonic love and fondling in which the participant attained sexual
relief.19 This dance involved members of the same riika.20 Swahili men requested to participate
and were allowed. Relationships were struck which resulted in conversion and marriages. For the
Kikuyu women it was socially lifting to be married to an Arab-Swahili man as lots of gifts
followed, this made many a girl to be attracted to the Swahili men. Even the relatives who visited
the married couple were influenced to Islam.
7. Arab-Swahili cultural superiority
According to Trimmingham, Muslims showed pride in their religious culture which created self-
respect and feeling of superiority over the up-country Africans. This had a great impression in
the minds of upcountry people, as Islam was associated with Ustaarabu as opposed to the ushenzi
of the upcountry Africans. To be Muslim meant social enhancement and upliftment and many
aspired to this
8.Muslim ceremonies and festivals
Many were won over to Islam during the Maulidi festivities that were organized with a lot of
fanfare in most Muslim towns with invitations sent to other towns all over the colony and
beyond. The Maulidi ceremonies were held in Muranga, Nairobi, Machakos, Kitui, Kutus,
Riruta, Karai, Kisumu, Mumias, Eldama Ravine, Eldoret, Kibos, Meru, Nyeri and Embu.
Hundreds of people converted to Islam during these annual festivals. Friday prayers, Ramadhan
congregation especially during the breaking of the fast, marriage festivals and large Idd
congregation all impressed those who were won over to Islam. The hospitality, brotherhood and
fellow feelings demonstrated among the Muslims during such occasions attracted many to Islam.

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Muslims usually invited their non-Muslims neighbors who were normally struck by the
generosity of their hosts and after the feast, many proclaimed themselves Muslims.

10. Arab-Swahili cuisine

In Nyeri, many were attracted by the chapattis prepared by Swahili men. Normally women
ganged up and visited a Swahili man requesting that he prepares chapattis for them. Most of
them ended up marrying the Swahili men. Indeed, Kikuyu women who knew how to prepare
chapattis were taken to be knowledgeable. Eventually some Kikuyu came to appreciate the Arab-
Swahili cuisine and decided to associate themselves with the Muslims and ended up converting.
1. CONVERTING TO ISLAM IN THE INTERIOR OF KENYA.
This section explores the concept of conversion in Islam, the nature of conversions that took
place in the interior and outlines the factors slowing down the spread of Islam.
1. Converting to Islam
Muslims consider accepting Islam to be merely reverting to human being’s natural disposition of
acknowledging and worshipping the only one God- Allah, that every man is born with this
disposition
but oftentimes family, society, and culture distorts it, making one adhere to other faith traditions.
Upon accepting Islam, one returns to his natural disposition hence one reverts, but does not
convert to Islam.
The conversion of the shahadah with sincerity, knowledge, deep understanding and appreciation
for its meaning makes one Muslim. The shahadah proclaims: there is no God worthy of worship
but Allah, that Muhammad is his slave and messenger. The first part of the shahadah negates all
the false deities worshipped by mankind and affirms the reality of worshipping only one good.
That He is the only law giver, that sovereignty belongs to Him. The second part maintains that
Mohammed is the slave and messenger of Allah, implying that to submit to Allah, mankind must
submit to Mohammad, that his sayings, doings approvals and disapprovals are binding to all
believers.
The confession of shahadah requires sincerity, certainty, conviction, and knowledge. Sincerity,
because shahadah should be proclaimed only for the sake of Allah. Certainty because the
confessor should be certain about the existence of Allah, His attributes and the implication on his
life. Conviction, because one must be convinced beyond a reasonable doubt about the
truthfulness of Islam. Knowledge because one cannot be Muslim while remaining ignorant about
Islam. One has to learn Islam for sincerity, certainty and conviction to be actualized in life.
Sadly, these important aspects were lacking in most of the conversions that took place up
country. Converts may have had other motives other than Allah and post-conversion teachings
had it been imparted, would have purified their motivations, but For the overwhelming majority,
It wasn't making most of the converts traditional Muslims, some of whom were deeply rooted in
the traditional cultures and customs some of which was in direct contravention with Islam. Some

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adopted the cultures of those who initiated them to Islam, most of which was un-Islamic. It is to
these conversions that we turn
2. Nature of the conversions
The conversions that took place at the end of 19th century when Islam was penetrating the
interior of Kenya had the following characterizations:
Firstly, they were urban based haphazardly conducted and highly localized, as they were done
through personal contacts. Vast expanses of Kenyan interior were left untouched.
Secondly, the Message of Allah and His Prophet did not seem to win converts, but the Muslim
way of life, the ties and security offered by becoming part of Muslim community did. Many were
impressed by the bonds of brotherhood that transcended ethnic lines. in the words of Ikua
Kariuki conversions meant more than acquiring a new religion, Many felt secure in the harsh
urban environments, where Muslims welcomed all and made them feel part of their families.
Thirdly, unlike in North and parts of West Africa, where the Sufi orders played a major role, The
spread of Islam in Kenya lacked zeal and drive and was characterized by absence of ulamas who
devoted their lives to the spreading, teaching and preaching of Islam. Hence many of the early
conversions were done by Muslims with little knowledge of Islam.
Subsequently, “many of the tribal rites of Tanganyika ethnic groups were blindly passed over to
new converts and were adopted as Islamic.” Most unfortunate was that no educational
arrangements were undertaken to teach the converse their new faith. They knew very little of
Islam despite claiming to be Muslims. “Many remain deeply rooted in their traditional cultures
and customs with some drifting back into their former religious beliefs.”
Indeed, it was due to the innate resilience of Islam that it survived attempts by the missionaries
and the colonial government of totally obliterating it from the Kenyan interior. The attempt
succeeded in slowing down its spread. It is to the factors that slowed the spread of Islam that we
turn.
FACTORS SLOWING THE SPREAD OF ISLAM
The factors slowing the spread of Islam can be categorized into three, viz, Muslims,
missionaries, and colonial government related factors.
1. Christian missionaries related factors
Missionaries like Dr. David Livingstone, and Reverend Taylor denounced Islam as a religion
that sanctioned slavery and tolerated the horrors of the slave trade, making Muslims to be looked
upon with suspicion and contempt, thereby slowing its spread.
Christian missionaries started schools, technical colleges and provided social services, hence
providing material benefits for adopting Christianity. Indeed, this served as stimulus for
upcountry Africans converting to Christianity. Indeed, among the Kikuyu education was seen by
the youth as key to best opportunities Africans could hope for in the colonial dispensation. Even
some Muslim families were known to have converted to Christianity in order to partake of the

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missionary’s fruits, i.e. the Maneno and Ramtu families in Kwale.In starting technical colleges,
and by imparting technical skills to upcountry Africans, the missionaries phased out the Swahili
craftsmen who were instrumental in the spread of Islam into the interior of Kenya.
By welcoming the unfortunate members of society into their fold, the missionaries gained fertile
ground of winning converts. Among the Kikuyu, the missionaries welcomed children of
questionable birth, children whose mothers died while young, young girls who received periods
before circumcision, Twins from newly married couples, people with ailments considered taboo,
etc. Such people swelled the rank of Christianity at the expense of Islam. Missionaries by
building mission stations deep into the rural areas, were fully able to interact with the host
societies.
They learnt local languages and cultures, translated the bible into the local dialects, taught
literacy hence facilitating the locals authentic dialogue with the scriptures. This swelled the
Christianity ranks and slowed down spread of Islam. It is instructive to note that the first
Kiswahili translation of the Quran was done for proselytization purpose in 1973 by Canon Dale
and that Arabic, the language of the Quran, was only taught to selected few with the vast
majority of the Muslims remaining blissfully ignorant.
b) Colonial government policies
The colonial government pursued policies antagonistic to Islam. Muslim settlements in the
interior were destroyed in an attempt to concentrate the Muslims in urban slums and thereby
control spread and influence. In Nyeri, Muslims had settlements and farm holdings in Mihuti,
Kagio Mukurwe-ini and Gakindu. In 1911. The colonial government ordered Muslims to vacate
the outskirts of Nyeri and move to Kambi, in Nyeri town. This move considerably reduced the
interactions between the Muslims and the Kikuyu, checking the spread of Islam.
In 1918. The colonial government evicted the Muslims from Kitui to make way for Asian
settlements. In Nairobi Muslims villages in pangani, and Kileleshwa were moved to make way
for ratio zoning of the city. The colonial government policy of classifying the Colonials along
racial lines and pegging privileges on such classifications succeeded in alienating the Muslim
from the rest of Kenyan Africans
In the coast most Muslims struggled to be classified as Arabs, while in upcountry they strive to
impress the colonial government of their complete detribalization, hence be not treated like
Africans from the reserves and be allowed to stay town. This made Muslims to be resented by
fellow Africans, hence slowing the spread of Islam. The colonial government by allowing the
missionaries to run education sector in Kenya facilitated the utilization of education as a tool for
Christian proselytization making the majority who went through the system to be Christians.
This accounted for the Muslims antipathy toward Western education, causing Muslims to lose
their influence and prestige as a consequence and this slowed down the spread of Islam

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Muslim related factors
These are issues arising from the Muslim community that slowed down the spread of Islam in the
interior.
I. Firstly, Islam, though a missionary religion by nature, but did not arrive as such in
Kenya. No organized efforts were made to spread it, no social services were provided to
attract the indigenes hence conversions were limited and based on personal contacts.
II. Secondly, according to Maingi, A.N, after World War One, the Kamba and Kikuyu
Muslims resented the Arab-Swahili dominance of Islam upcountry and accused them of
misinterpreting it. On the other hand, the Arab-Swahili Muslims in the interior look down
upon convert and saw themselves as superior by virtue of having being born to the faith.
This internal division slowed down the spread of Islam.
III. Thirdly, the overwhelming majority of the converts who were too poorly grounded in
Islam to propagate it effectively. It follows that Islam had limited impact on the lives of
upcountry converts, but paradoxically it heavily impacted on Kenya. It is the impact of
Islam in Kenya that we turn.
10. IMPACT OF ISLAM IN KENYA
The slowing down of the rate of islamisation in the in interior of Kenya contributed to making
Muslims a minority, yet despite their minority status, Islam has had major impact in the Kenyan
society. This impact can be seen in Kiswahili language, literature and culture, in education and
literacy in technical skills and navigation instruments, in lifestyle changes as evidenced by
religious tolerance, pluralism and dialogue. It is such impacts that we explore

a) Islam and Religious Tolerance, Pluralism and Dialogue

The Holy Quran emphasis of non-compulsion on any matter religious had motivated the
Muslims to be religiously tolerant. It is the same religious tolerance that made Sayyid Said and
other Zanzibar’s sultans to allow missionaries free hand in their proselytization activities by
giving them rites of passage and safety guarantees. It was the Muslims who facilitated the
missionary’s penetration into the interior of Kenya. They served as guides, porters, interpreters,
carriers. Hence the spreading of Christianity in Kenya was facilitated by Muslims and the
coming of Christianity contributed to religious pluralism. Today the Christian Muslim debates
known as Mihadharas has facilitated interreligious dialogue at local levels creating deeper
understanding between Muslims and Christians.

b) Islam and Lifestyle Changes

Islamic influence can be seen in matters dressing whereby people, some of whom non-Muslims,
adopted the Islamic dress code consisting of the long shirt known as Kanzu for men and Kanga
and buibui for women. It is interesting to note that among the Wanga, Baganda and even
Mijikendas, kanzu is the formal dress code for men Islamic influence can also be evidenced in

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matters cuisine, with the Biryani, Pilau, chapattis and Kachumbari being recipe of choice in
Kenyan families, especially during festive occasions. By being essentially an urban phenomenon,
Islam facilitated detribalization and cosmopolitanism as the ties of faith transcended ethnic
identities, enabled into-marriages across ethnic groups and facilitated the adoption of a new
urban Cosmopolitan culture. This can be clearly seen in the Muslim areas of Majengo, Nairobi
and Nyeri

D) Islam, Kiswahili literature, Literacy and numeracy

Development of Kiswahili language is the greatest legacy of Islam in Kenya. Kiswahili is a
Bantu language with 30% of its lexical items borrowed from Arabic, Persian, Portuguese,
Gujarati and other languages. Kiswahili as a language is deeply Islamic, as evidenced by most of
its linguistic items including proverbs and idioms, i.e. “kidole cha shahada” for index finger.
Kiswahili facilitated urbanization and created new consciousness transcending tribal identity
hence detribalizing people and creating melting point of cultures.30 In towns, Kiswahili became
lingua franca facilitating changes in customs rules and a shift towards cosmopolitan lifestyle. It
created new loyalties to Islam and diversified social attachment beyond the tribe. It played a
major role in the formation of Kenya African nationalism. On this, Mazrui, a. A and Mazrui A.M
quoted that:
“what is clear is that Kiswahili played an important role in the new phenomenon of African
nationalism… Africans in Mombasa and Nairobi heard speeches from new breed of African
politicians agitating for African rights. Politics in Kenya became more nationalistic partly due to
the familiarity of Kiswahili as a lingua franca…Further, the Kiswahili language facilitated
literacy, numeracy and distinctive literary tradition as good as produced by any other cultural
tradition. Utenzi wa Mwanakupona and Al-Inkishafi bears witness to this tradition. Kiswahili
was written in Arabic alphabet, facilitating literacy and learning, Islam facilitate the numeracy
beyond the tens, which was the limit of Bantu counting, to hundreds and hundreds thousands.
Muslims established education institutions known as madrasa where literacy and numeracy were
imparted, together with the knowledge of the Quran and the Sunnah. At higher levels, Arabic,
mathematics and Geography were also taught. The Islamic laws of inheritance strengthened the
numeracy among the Muslims as they necessitated dealing with fractions.
e) Islam and local cultures
Islam heavily influenced leadership and other institutions among the Islamized coastal tribes.
Among the Digos and the Segejus, the Ngambi lodge ceremonies which were characterized by
wantonness and abandon frowned upon by Islam were suppressed, age set systems were
weakened and leadership positions were Islamized with titles changing from wazee wa miji to
shaykhs. Local leaders known as the Angambi, Dzumbe and Kubo who constituted the council of
elders in the miji co-operated with the Arabs. The unit of power was changed to incorporate
Arab-Islamic dynastic to rule with wazee wa miji exercising autonomy over local affairs.

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In addition, Islam modified inheritance laws of Bantu communities by legislating female
inheritance from both their husbands and parents. This brought conflict especially among the
Digos as they were matriarchal and followed different tradition in which inheritance was by
collaterals while in Islam collaterals were excluded by a genitor. Religious allegiance is barrier
to inheritance as a Muslim can never inherit a non-Muslim and vice versa.
Factors that led to the spread of Islam in Kenya
Portuguese effect
The 16th Century saw the establishment of the Portuguese powers on the coast, but the 17th
century saw its decline. Arab Authority was finally restored and after a century of independent
coastal Arab settlement, a partial political unity was established during the rule of Seyyid said of
Oman (1806-1856)1 The first presence of the Portuguese in the Eastern coast of Africa dates
back to the time when Vasco da Gama (a Portuguese explorer) set foot in it in the year 1498. The
cities along the coast was busy in trade and this impressed Vasco da Gama. After his return to
Europe he sent the fleet with a command to force the sheikh to submit and pay tributes. Worst
was the attack by Francisco Almeida who is said to have captured the Eastern coast of Africa and
even went to storm, capture and destroy Mombasa, leaving the city a wreck, its streets piled with
over 1,500 corpses. With the experience from the Portuguese, the locals who were used to
peaceful co-existence with the Arab traders would later accept the Islamic political organization
as means of protection and for economic prosperity. It is reported that when the Portuguese
arrived in the Eastern coastal cities, they found that the cities’ economic achievement was that of
urban policies whose prosperity lay not in production but exchange. Kilwa in the south, Pemba
and Mombasa in the north: these were ‘city empires’ in the same sense of medieval Venice or
Genoa. Their genius lay in the buying and selling. Owing to the negative experience of the
presence of the Portuguese, the coming back of the Muslim authority in the person and authority
of the Sultan of Oman helped in the spread of Islam since the locals saw the Muslims as friendly
in contrast to the Portugues.

ii) Omani Sultanate in Zanzibar

The establishment of the Oman Sultanate in Zanzibar helped in the spread of Islam right from the
time of its establishment to the present time. In the 19th Century Sayid Said ibn Sultan moved
his capital from Muscat in Oman to Zanzibar. His movement was not as such towards the spread
of Islam but to guarantee security for his commercial activities for trade in ivory and slaves of
which he owned some caravans.
Strategic position of the Eastern African Coast
The Eastern African coast played a very important role in the trade and facilitating the contacts between
Arab traders and the local coastal communities. These Arab traders found it easy to carry out their trade
by sea rather than by land. The natural phenomenon helped in their flow of the trade to and from Eastern
Africa. The winds in the first half of the year blew to Africa and to Arabia in the second half of the year
respectively. Having to live almost half a year carrying out trade, the Muslim traders lived their daily

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requirements as Muslim, observing moments of prayer and other obligations. The local communities
could see them seriousness in observing them and could be moved in personal way to adhere to this new
way of life.

Trade
The presence of the Muslims on the coast of Kenya was not primarily to spread Islam but rather trade.
Those Africans who travelled for the trade with the Arabs used Swahili as language for trade and some of
them returned as Muslims. Trade between the local people and the Arab traders could happen only with a
common means of communication between the two groups. Kenya being a country of many tribes needed
a language that can unite. In fact Swahili as a language spread faster than Islam. It is true that even now,
businessmen dealing with petroleum products are Muslims of Somali origin and they have spread to the
various parts of the country and wherever they settle a simple mosque is set. Even if they are as few as
five people they put loud speakers and call for prayers.

Arabs and Bantu Intermarriage

Arab presence on the coast dates back to the 7th Century A.D and most of them came as individuals and
not as families unlike those who entered North Africa and to Sudan. The situation of being there as
individuals and not as families, favored their intermarriage with Bantu women. This intermarriage did not
only help in the establishment of Islamic families and hence society, but also the coming to being of a
language that has become an Eastern African language- Swahili. The community which came up because
of this intermarriage is called Swahili. The community will later be an important group in the welcoming
and propagation of Islam.

Colonialism
The coming of the Europeans in the nineteenth century was of a disadvantage to the Muslims
communities on the coast and on the other hand an advantage towards the spread of Islam to the interior.
The initial British administration was confined to the coastal region between Mombasa and Rift Valley.
The protectorate was administered from Zanzibar, where the first commissioner Sir Arthur Hardinge
lived, a clear sign that the Islamic community under the Sultan had established administrative structures.
The British unlike the Portuguese recognized the existing order and incorporated in their administration
which will be seen later in the negotiation on the future of the Mombasa Islamic community in post
independent Kenya. Europeans
employed Muslims as their laborers going with them to the interior parts of the country. British having
colonized Muslim and non-Muslim countries, acted like a pollination agent by bringing in some Asians,
for the construction of the Kenya Ugandan Railway. “Most of the Kenyan Asians are Sunnis among
whom; the Hanafi school of Law is wide spread. Many of the Imams in the country’s mosques are of
Indian or Pakistan Origin Enjoying a superior economic position, the Asians have contributed funds to the
building of mosques and were an important factor in the spread of Islam in Kenya.”4 Though Muslim saw
the coming of the Europeans as a threat to the spread of Islam, it was during the colonial period that the
spread of Islam managed to go the interior part of Kenya. With road and railway network, the movement
to the interior part of the country was made easy.

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Islam into the interior
It is clear even to date that Islam encountered difficulties in entering into the interior of the country
owing to many factors making it an urban phenomenon. This is because of the nature and structure of the
local communities with varied belief systems bounding every member. And of utmost important was the
means of transport and prevalent hostilities from the tribes. The attempts to spread Islam to the interior
came with the possibility to communicate with the building of the railways and the roads. Even though
communication with the interior was improved with the putting up of the infrastructures, the spread of
Islam was met with resistance due to the fact the societies had their own unique structure from each other
and these made it difficult for Islam to penetrate. It is noted that the spread of Islam to the interior was
more individual effort than communal. There are other regions of the country where they never heard of
Islam. While towns along the railway line, especially in the western Kenya, have a number of Muslims
because the railway builders brought with themselves Islam from Asia, most of them being Indians and
Pakistanis.

Tribal affiliation as hindrance to the spread of Islam

Most of the tribes in Kenya had traditional forms of government led by council of leaders; hence power
did not rest on one individual, unlike in places where they had a king whereby if the king converts then
the subjects must follow. These made the conversion to Islam difficult. Within a tribe there are other sub-
divisions called clans. If one, then, is to convert to Islam and has to observe all the religious obligations
stated by religion then he has to cut himself off from the society. Many tribes resisted conversion to Islam
leaving it as an individual adherence, hence making it impractical in the rural areas where much was
communal.

Composition of Islamic Community

Muslims are concentrated in some areas of the country making their political weight felt within those
areas and also in the entire state. From the results of the census of the year 2009, Muslims are 4,304,7985
which translates to 11.15% of the Kenyan population. About 50% of the Muslim population lives on the
coastal strip while the rest is spread within the country, with the highest population of Muslims above the
Coastal province, that is, in the North Eastern province, where most of them are Somalis. “There are also
considerable numbers of Muslims in the large towns, including Nairobi,
Kisumu, Nakuru and Eldoret. In Western Kenya they are concentrated in the areas of Mumias and Homa
Bay.”6 The majority of the Kenya’s Muslims are Sunni, believed to be of the Shafi’ school. Among them
are the Swahili groups.

Swahili
Swahili is an important group in as far is Islam in Kenya and in Eastern Africa is concerned. More than
half of the Muslim population lives in the coastal province with the largest community being the Swahilis.

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In this case, it is not the language which defines one’s identity as a Swahili but the fact of having Arab
origin. “The Swahili in Mombasa area are categorized into loose confederation of twelve groups (Miji
Kumi Na Miwili or Miji Ithna’ashara). The twelve groups are further subdivided into two sections: one
section is composed of nine groups living in the north Mombasa (Miji Tisa); the other is composed of
three groups living in South Mombasa (Miji Mitatu). Each group is headed by a leader whose title is
tamin and who is assisted by a council of elders (Wazee).”7 Swahili groups in Kenya take themselves as a
special group with its origin being Arabia. The colonialist treated them as a unique group and that is why,
at the eve of Kenya’s independence, the Swahili groups were supporting the movement calling for
autonomy. There are other groups like the Arabs or those who claim to be descending from the Arabs,
who support the autonomy movement? The Somalis occupy the North Eastern part of Kenya and some
suburbs in Nairobi. Each group has its own particular and specific differences. These minor differences
deal with the areas of prayer, like the annual observance of fasting. Some of the groups hold that Friday
prayers should be chanted, while others hold that the daily afternoon prayers should be chanted. As for
the beginning of the month of Ramadan, there is always disagreement throughout Africa concerning the
day of the commencement of the fasting period.

Islam in the Independent Kenya

Even before Kenya’s independence, Muslims made their presence and importance felt. In the
referendum of 1959, Muslim majority of the North Eastern province voted to secede and join the
Somali people in the neighboring country, with whom they identified themselves better than with
the Christian majority of Kenya. Mombasa, the main city on the coast of Kenya (which at a
certain time was part of the Sultanate of Zanzibar), wanted its own autonomy from the mainland
on account of them Islamic background.
There was fear that, if Kenya became independent, it would adopt a secular constitution which
would not have respected the right of the Muslim population. Even during colonial time, when
Kenya was a British protectorate, Sultan of Zanzibar had to be consulted in matters pertaining to
the Muslims in the Coastal region of the country. It is claimed that the introduction of the official
implementation of the personal status law in the Kenyan constitution was because of the
agreement made with the Sultan of Zanzibar and the colonial masters in exchange of the coastal
territory of Mombasa.
These would later cause disagreement and historical misunderstanding in the formulation of the
new constitution from which a cross section of Kenyan Christian denominations fought to
exclude anything religious, while the Muslim demanded the Personal Status Law Courts known
as Qadi’s Courts. In fact, it was in the eve of independence that a recommendation was made by
a certain Sir James Robertson that Kenya’s new constitution 22 should include “guarantees of
human rights and freedom of religion, including the Muslim’s right to follow the Shari’a law in
matters of religion and personal status.”
Kenya gained her independence in 1963, with Mombasa being part of the Kenyan government
territory, dashing out the hope of autonomy of the coast. “Independent Kenya abolished the
traditional administrative posts held by Muslims, such as the liwali, the akida, and the mudiir,
which were considered remnants of the Zanzibar Sultanate.” When the Islamic community did
not succeed to secede and join the neighboring country (Somalia), its leaders decided to adopt a

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friendly attitude towards the government, so that this would take care of the Muslim community
needs. They, then, decided to form organizations.

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