Multiple access techniques

17 January 2022 08:49

Introduction to multiple access methods

• many users at same time

• share a finite amount of radio spectrum

• high performance

• duplexing generally required

• frequency domain

• time domain

Types of multiple access techniques

Lecture 1 (Demo) Page 1

 Need of spread spectrum
Increased in the demand of wireless communication have faced problem because of limited

1. Spectrum capacity 2. Multipath Propagation

1. Concept of bandwidth utilization

2. Concept of multipath Propagation

In radio communication, multipath is the propagation phenomenon

that results in radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or
more paths

Definition of the spread spectrum

1. It is modulation technique in which
transmitted bandwidth is larger than
information signal bandwidth
2. Form of wireless communication in which
Lecture 1 (Demo) Page 2
1. It is modulation technique in which
transmitted bandwidth is larger than
information signal bandwidth
2. Form of wireless communication in which
frequency of transmitted signal is varied
deliberately
3. Results in greater bandwidth
4. Spreaded bandwidth is needed to transmit
the data
5. Helps in providing resistance to narrowband
interference

Block diagram of spread spectrum

Significance of the spread spectrum

1- Immunity to jamming

2- Low interference

3- High processing gain

4- Easy encryption

5- Greater security

6- Multiple access
Lecture 1 (Demo) Page 3
5- Greater security

6- Multiple access

Frequency hopping spread spectrum

(FHSS)
Why to use it ?

1. Interference from 3rd party

2. Spying

Block diagram of FHSS

Types of FHSS

Lecture 1 (Demo) Page 4

 Direct Sequence spread spectrum

DSSS Generator and receiver

Lecture 1 (Demo) Page 5

Lecture 1 (Demo) Page 6
Evolution of wireless generations – 1G to 5G (Based on technological
differences and advancements)
24 January 2022 06:16

5G and above wireless networks

Lecture 2 Page 7
 5G and above wireless networks
1. 5g standard will be made coercially available by 2020. This standard is way beyond just the faster data speed and faster mobile
devices
2. 5G will provide access to high and low speed data services
3. It will involve the combination of existing and evolving systems

Need of 5G
1. It provides very high speed, high capacity and low cost per bit
2. It supports interactive multimedia, voice,video, internet and other broadband services more effectively
3. 5G technology offers global access and services portability
4. It can provide high quality services due to high error tolerance
5. 5G technology uses remote management so that user can get better and fast solution
6. With the use of 5G technology the uploading and downloading speed will be very high

Lecture 2 Page 8
5th generation & its drivers
31 January 2022 09:11

1. Millimetre wave

5G Page 9
 2. Smart cell

3. MIMO (Multiple input multiple output)

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3. MIMO (Multiple input multiple output)

4. Beamforming

5. Full duplex

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 6. Non orthogonal multiple access (NOMA)

NOMA is fundamentally different than these multiple access schemes which provide orthogonal access to the users either in time, frequency,
code or space. In NOMA, each user operates in the same band and at the same time where they are distinguished by their power levels. NOMA
uses superposition coding at the transmitter such that the successive interference cancellation (SIC) receiver can separate the users both in the
uplink and in the downlink channels.

NOMA was proposed as a candidate radio access technology for 5G cellular systems. Practical implementation of NOMA in cellular networks
requires high computational power to implement real-time power allocation and successive interference cancellation algorithms. By 2020, the
time that 5G networks are targeted to be deployed, the computational capacity of both handsets and access points is expected to high enough to
run NOMA algorithms.

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Module 2: Wide Area Networks
14 February 2022 08:14
Concept of cellular network

1. What is cellular network ?

2. What is the Need of cellular network ?

• The main design objective of mobile system was to cover large area with the
help of high power transmitter having an antenna placed at the top of the
tower.
• But reusing the same across the system was nearly impossible as it would
result in interference and less capacity. Therefore it could lead to signal loss
or bad quality of signal.
• Even government agencies were not able to meet the high demand in mobile
services and therefore it was decided to reconstruct the system.
• Therefore cellular concept was introduced.
• It was mainly designed to improves user capacity and spectral congestion.
• This technique offered a very high user capacity and less interference with
limited spectrum allocation.

3. Cellular system architecture

What is cell ?

concept of cellular network Page 13

 Advantages of cellular networks

1. Increased capacity
2. Reduced power use
3. Larger coverage area
4. Reduced interference from other signals

Need of frequency reuse

Let's calculate…..!

Solution to Problem…

Concept of frequency reuse

• In mobile radio system assigning channels and reusing is very essential as this
result in saving Bandwidth.

• In wireless communication each BS is allotted a set of channels. The main

goal of each BS is to offer accurate coverage and better performance by using
minimum number of radio channels.

• The design process containing the assignment and reuse of radio

channels is known as Frequency Reuse technique.

• When deciding the number of channels for a particular geographical region, it

is important to know the radio coverage for that cellular area.

• In figure , it can be seen that cells labelled with same alphabet use
the same set of channel or frequencies. These cells are called as
co-channel cells

concept of cellular network Page 14

 co-channel cells

• The hexagonal cell shape is the universally accepted for representing

a simple model of radio coverage for each BS.

• The radio coverage for a cell is popularly called a footprint.

Why hexagonal shape ?

Calculation for capacity of the system

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 Sums on system capacity
concept of cellular network Page 16
 Sums on system capacity
calculate system capacity if cluster size is 7 and per cell number of channels are
72. Calculate total system capacity if 14 such channels are available

If 20 MHz of total spectrum is available for duplex system which uses 225 kHz simplex
channels to provide full duplex voice and control channel, compute number of channels
available per cell if the system uses 7 cell frequency reuse pattern

A spectrum of 30 MHz is allocated to wireless FDD cellular network which uses 25 Khz simplex channel to provide full
duplex voice and control channel, Compute the number of channels available per cell if the system uses
1. 4 cell reuse
2. 7 cell reuse

concept of cellular network Page 17

 3. 12 cell reuse

concept of cellular network Page 18

 14 February 2022 08:15

Channel Assignment Strategies

• Channel assignment strategies play an important role in radio frequency spectrum. The channels should be allotted
in such a manner that all users are served completely.
• To utilize the radio spectrum frequency reuse scheme is required. The main goal of the system should be to
increase the radio capacity and reduce interference. Therefore different type channel assignment strategies have
been developed to achieve these goals.
• There are basically two types of channel assignment strategies they are:

Types of channel assignment

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Channel Assignment Strategies Page 20
 Hand off
14 February 2022 08:16

• When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is

in progress, MSC automatically transfers the call to a new channel
belonging to the new base station.
• Handoff operation not only involves identifying a new base
station, but also requires that the voice and control signals be
allocated to channels associated with the new base station.
• Prioritize handoff requests over call initiation requests when
allocating unused channels in a cell site.
• Handoffs must be:

1. performed quickly

2. performed infrequently

3. imperceptible to users

4. performed successfully

Handoff strategies

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 Types of handoff
Handoff Page 22
 Types of handoff

Mobile assisted handoff (MAHO)

Inter cell handoff (inter BS handoff) Intra cell handoff

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 Co channel interference and
adjacent channel interference

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Handoff Page 25
GSM (Global system for mobile communication)
25 February 2022 15:42

What is GSM?

Features of GSM

Services in GSM

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 GSM architecture

GSM Page 27
 GSM interfaces

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GSM Page 29
GSM Channels
04 March 2022 10:39

GSM channels

GSM physical Channel

GSM Logical channels

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 TDMA Frame Structure

GSM Channels Page 31

GSM security Algorithms
04 March 2022 11:00

GSM Security Page 32

GSM Security Page 33
 GSM TDMA frame structure
04 March 2022 11:25

GSM TDMA Frame structure Page 34

GPRS- General Packet Radio service
07 March 2022 08:46

• GPRS is packet based data network. It is recommended for non real time internet usage, including the
retrieval of email, faxes and asymmetric web browsing. The user is able to download much more data
that that uploads on internet

• GPRS supports multi user network sharing of individual radio channels and time slots. Thus GPRS can
support many more users than HSCSD, But in the burst manner

• GPRS standard Provides a packet network on dedicated GSM radio channels

• It retains the original modulation formats specified in the original 2G TDMA standards. But uses a
redefined air interface in order to handle the packet data access
• Eight time slots of GSM radio channel is alloted for GPRS then the individual user can obtain as much
as 171.2 kbps

• Own correction method as a portion of the carried data payload

• 100 million subscribers

GPRS architecture

1. The GPRS installation only needs the GSM operator to install new routers and internet gateways at
the base stations, along with new software that redefines the base station air interface standard for
GPRS channel and time slots. No new base station RF hardware is needed.
2. Own error correction scheme

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 Coding schemes in GPRS

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GPRS Page 37
EDGE- Enhanced data rate for GSM evolution
08 March 2022 14:28

• It is also known as EGPRS

• It allows improved data transmission rate and reliability

• It is considered as pre 3G technology

EDGE Architecture

Features of EDGE technology

1. Use of 8 PSK

1. For high data rate modes instead of GMSK, 8 PSK is used. At lower data rate GMSK is used.
2. How we can increase data rate in 8 PSK?

EDGE Page 38
 1. For high data rate modes instead of GMSK, 8 PSK is used. At lower data rate GMSK is used.
2. How we can increase data rate in 8 PSK?

2. Slow Frequency hopping

1. It is also present in GSM but it is an optional feature

2. In this method, different carriers are used for each encoded block. These carriers are allocatd according
to the hopping pattern generated. It provides security to data along with increase in system capacity.
3. Frequency hopping is actually the form of the frequency diversity and it helps in reducing the channel
fading.
4. It also deals with the co channel interference.

3. Link quality control and adaptation mechanism

EDGE Page 39
CDMA 2000
08 March 2022 16:35

Evolution of CDMA 2000

CDMA 2000 Page 40

 Architecture of CDMA 2000

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CDMA 2000 Page 42
UMTS (universal mobile telecommunication service)
11 March 2022 12:04

Introduction

Need of UMTS

• UMTS is used for variety of data services as well as services. it is standard evolution for TDMA
based GSM. it is provided fixed and mobile access for public and private networks.

• The universal mobile telecommunication system is 3G standard that is developing late 1996
under the european telecommunication standards institute.UMTS was submitted by ETSI to
ITU's IMT-2000 body in 1998 for consideration as a world standard.

• It is designed to provide high capacity path for GSM. Further several other competing
wideband CDMA (WCDMA) proposals agreed to merge into single W-CDMA standard. This
resulted W-CDMA standard is now called as UMTS.

• UMTS or CDMA Assures backward compatibility with 2nd generation GSM and 2.5th
Generation.

• UMTS is being developed for wide area mobile cellular coverage and indoor cordless
applications

• The UMTS air interface standard had been designed for "Always on" packet based wireless
service, so that computers, entertainment devices and telephones can all share the same
wireless network and be connected to the internet anytime, anywhere
• UMTS will support packet data rate upto 2.048 MBPS per user. It also allows high quality data,
multimedia, streaming audio, video and broadcast type services to consumers.
• UMTS provides services like video conferencing, virtual home entertainment, interactive
video, mobile commerce and broadcasting will be possible using a small wireless portable
device.

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Features of UMTS

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Long term evolution(LTE)
30 March 2022 10:19

LTE Architecture

LTE Page 45
LTE Page 46
LTE Page 47
Wireless Metropolitan and local area network
04 April 2022 09:10

This is due to lower bandwidth and limitations to radio transmission. WLAN also
faces problems like

Higher data error rates due to interference, higher propagation delays

Due to lack of standardization many companies are offering proprietary

solutions. But these additional features work only when adapters from the
same vendors are used

WLANs are limited to low power senders and certain license free frequency bands. These
frequency bands may not be same worldwide. There is a lack of government regulations

Senders and receivers have to be controlled for low radiations

Infrastructure and Ad Hoc Networks

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 Wireless metropolitan area network

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Module 3 Page 50
 Wi-Max Architecture
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 Wi-Max Architecture

• It consists of two major parts

1. WiMAX base station

2. WiMAX receiver

WiMAX Base station:

• It consists of a indoor electronics and a WiMAX tower similar to a cell phone tower

• It can provide coverage to a very large area up to a radius of 6 miles.

• Each base station provides a wireless coverage over an area called a cell.

• The area covered by one antenna is called a sector

• WiMAX is connection oriented

• This enables to offer a variety of QOS with respect to latency and jitter.

• The BS send frames one after the other

• A WiMAX receiver may have separate antenna or could be a stand alone box in
your laptop or computer or any other device.

• It is also called as CPE (customer premise equipment)

• For customer located several KM from the WiMAX BS a self install outdoor
antenna may be required to improve the transmission quality.

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Module 3 Page 53
 Following are WiMAX disadvantages:
• LOS (Line of Sight) connection is needed for subscribers located at the far
distant from the WiMAX BS.
• Bad weather conditions such as rain will interrupt the wimax signal and
often cause loss of connection.
• Wimax is power consuming technology and requires significant electrical
support.
• High initial cost is needed as it is not backward compatible with any of the
wireless cellular technologies. Fresh wimax BS and towers are required to
be installed. This leads to higher initial costs and higher operational costs
due to skilled man power requirements.

802.11 (Wi-Fi)

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 1. Supports the associationn and re-association of the station to an access point
2. Roaming between different access points
3. Controls authentication mechanisms
4. Encryption
5. Synchronization of station with regards to an access point
6. Power management to save battery power
7. Maintains the MAC MIB ( management information base)

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 Physical layer of IEEE 802.11

Frame structure used in FHSS phy layer

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Infra-red

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 Secured against eavesdropping as compared to microwave

Separate infrared installations can be installed in every room in a building without interference
Enabling the construction of very large infrared LANs
Equipment is relatively simple and inexpensive

Narrowband microwave LAN

Medium Access control Layer

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Module 3 Page 59
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
18 April 2022 10:38

Wireless Personal area network Page 60

Wireless Personal area network Page 61
 Scatternet

Bluetooth Protocol

Wireless Personal area network Page 62

Wireless Personal area network Page 63
Zigbee
18 April 2022 11:49

Zigbee Page 64
 Zigbee Protocol stack

Zigbee Page 65
Zigbee Page 66
Zigbee Networks
02 May 2023 15:45

New Section 1 Page 67

System Architecture of IEEE 802.11
02 May 2023 17:32

system architecture of IEEE 802.11 Page 68