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Quantitative and Qualitative Designs

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Section 1: Qualitative Research

a) Meaning of Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research in Nursing: An In-Depth Examination

As a methodological approach, qualitative research aims to explore, comprehend, and

interpret the intricate and subjective facets of human experiences, behaviors, and phenomena.

It is marked by its emphasis on thorough exploration, contextuality, and the generation of

comprehensive, narrative data (Tenny et al., 2022). Within nursing, qualitative research is

crucial in unraveling complex issues, enabling researchers to delve into the subtleties of

healthcare practices, patient experiences, and the socio-cultural dimensions of health

(Anderson, 2010). To elucidate the essence of qualitative research, it is imperative to delve

into its characteristics, potential applications in nursing, methodological comparisons, and

assessing its strengths and weaknesses in informing nursing practice.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Subjectivity Recognition: Qualitative research acknowledges the subjectivity inherent

in human experiences and perceptions (Tenny et al., 2022). Its objective is to capture the

diverse perspectives of individuals involved in a study, whether patients, healthcare

providers, or family members.

Contextual Understanding: This approach significantly emphasizes comprehending

phenomena within authentic, real-world contexts (Anderson, 2010). Researchers frequently

conduct studies in natural settings to understand better the factors influencing the subject of

inquiry.

Data Collection Methods: Qualitative research relies on various data collection

techniques, including interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis. These

methods exhibit flexibility and adaptability, permitting researchers to amass comprehensive

and contextually pertinent data.

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Inductive Analysis: Qualitative data analysis adheres to an inductive approach,

signifying that it entails systematic coding and categorization of data to identify emerging

themes, patterns, and insights (Tenny et al., 2022). It does not commence with preconceived

hypotheses but instead allows themes to surface organically from the data (Anderson, 2010).

Nursing Issues Suitable for Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is particularly well-suited for investigating intricate, multifaceted,

and context-driven aspects within the nursing field (Tenny et al., 2022). For example, it is apt

for exploring the first-hand experiences of patients grappling with chronic illnesses,

comprehending the decision-making processes of healthcare practitioners in high-stress

scenarios, and scrutinizing the cultural beliefs and behaviors that shape healthcare practices

within specific communities.

Comparison of Qualitative Research Methodologies

Phenomenology: This approach centers on comprehending the fundamental nature of a

specific phenomenon through the viewpoint of individuals who have encountered it

(Anderson, 2010). It aims to reveal the foundational frameworks and significance linked to

the phenomenon.

Grounded Theory: Aims to develop theories or explanations grounded in empirical data

(Anderson, 2010). It involves the systematic data coding and theory-building process to

generate new insights.

Ethnography: Involves immersion in a specific cultural or social context to understand

the social practices, norms, and values that shape individuals' experiences and behaviors.

Strengths and Weaknesses in Nursing Practice

Qualitative research offers several strengths in informing nursing practice. It provides a

deeper understanding of the human aspects of healthcare, gives insights into patient-centered

care, and helps uncover hidden issues that may not be apparent through quantitative methods
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(Tenny et al., 2022). However, it also has limitations, like subjectivity, potential researcher

bias, and challenges in generalizability.

Utilizing Qualitative Research in Nursing

Qualitative research is employed in nursing by designing studies that align with its

characteristics and objectives. Researchers select appropriate data collection methods,

analyze the data using established qualitative techniques, and interpret the findings to

contribute to nursing knowledge (Tenny et al., 2022). Qualitative research findings can

inform nursing practice by guiding interventions, improving patient care, and influencing

policy decisions.

b) Research Paper Critique

Study Purpose

Since introducing the term "Artificial Intelligence" at the Dartmouth workshop, AI has

garnered increasing attention from the scientific community and the general public. It is

crucial to grasp its societal perceptions to preempt any potential misapplications

comprehensively (Hick & Ziefle, 2022). This research utilized a qualitative methodology to

examine the awareness and anticipation of AI among the general public.

Description of the Study Design

The study utilizes a qualitative approach involving semi-structured interviews, which is

well-suited to delve into individual reasons, attitudes, and explanations behind the acceptance

or rejection of AI technology (Hick & Ziefle, 2022). Qualitative research allows for an in-

depth exploration of participants' perspectives, which aligns with the research goal of

understanding public perceptions and cognitive concepts related to AI.

Ethical Issues and Mitigation Procedures

Ethical considerations are paramount in research involving human participants. The

study acknowledges informed consent, ensuring that participants were aware of the
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interviews' data processing and voluntary nature (Hick & Ziefle, 2022). This tackles ethical

considerations concerning informed consent and people’s privacy.

Sampling and Recruitment

The sampling technique utilized in this study consisted of enlisting individuals from the

researcher's social circle. Despite the potential for this method to introduce bias in participant

selection, it is deemed appropriate in qualitative research. In such research, the primary

objective is to delve into a wide range of viewpoints and obtain in-depth insights rather than

striving for broad generalizability, as outlined by Hick and Ziefle (2022). The study

ultimately encompassed a cohort of 25 participants, ensuring the availability of a

substantively comprehensive dataset suitable for qualitative analysis.

Appropriateness of Sampling Procedure

Given the qualitative nature of the study, the sampling method aligns with the

research's aims (Hick & Ziefle, 2022). The goal is not to generalize findings to a broader

population but to gain an in-depth understanding of public perceptions (Hick & Ziefle, 2022).

Recruiting participants from the researcher's social network can provide access to diverse

perspectives and ensure participant comfort during interviews.

Data Collection Method

The study employed semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions appropriate

for gathering rich qualitative data (Hick & Ziefle, 2022). This approach allows participants to

freely express their views, expectations, and concerns about AI technology.

Appropriateness of Data Collection Method

Semi-structured interviews are well-suited to explore complex topics like public

perceptions of AI. Open-ended questions enable participants to share their thoughts without

imposing pre-defined categories, aligning with the study's qualitative nature.

Data Analysis
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The analysis of interview transcripts involved categorization and thematic analysis

(Hick & Ziefle, 2022). This method is suitable for identifying recurring themes, patterns, and

concepts within qualitative data.

Appropriateness of Data Analysis

Categorization and thematic analysis align with the qualitative research goals of this

study (Hick & Ziefle, 2022). They help uncover the diversity of perspectives, knowledge

gaps, and barriers related to AI technology acceptance.

Rigor Criteria in Qualitative Research

Four criteria to judge the rigor of qualitative research are credibility, transferability,

dependability, and confirmability.

Rigor Evaluation

Credibility: The study demonstrated credibility through in-depth interviews and careful

analysis of participant responses, contributing to the trustworthiness of the findings.

Transferability: While the study's sample may not be representative, it provides

valuable insights into public perceptions of AI that can inform similar contexts (Hick &

Ziefle, 2022).

Dependability: The study's methodology is clearly described, allowing for replicating

procedures to enhance reliability.

Confirmability: TAXQDA for data analysis and the transparent reporting of findings

enhance confirmability.

Findings and Limitations

The study's findings suggest that participants generally understood AI's basic functions

and were open to its possibilities (Hick & Ziefle, 2022). However, there were discrepancies

in participants' understanding of AI and its prevalence in everyday life. The study recognizes

the importance of addressing these discrepancies.

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Trustworthiness and Applicability

Overall, the study demonstrates trustworthiness in its methodology and analysis. It

contributes to understanding public perceptions of AI, which has implications for educating

the public, designing AI technologies, and fostering responsible research and innovation in

the field (Hick & Ziefle, 2022). As exemplified in the study, public engagement is vital for

ensuring that AI aligns with societal values and needs.

Section 2: Quantitative Research

a) Meaning of Qualitative Research

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Objective and Empirical: Quantitative research is based on objective, empirical

observation and measurement (Apuke, 2017). It strives for objectivity by relying on

structured data collection methods and minimizing researcher bias.

Numerical Data: Quantitative research deals with numerical data that can be quantified,

counted, or measured (Apuke, 2017). This data is typically subjected to statistical analysis.

Large Sample Sizes: It often requires large sample sizes to ensure statistical validity

and generalizability of findings (Bloomfield & Fisher, 2019). This allows for the

identification of patterns and trends within a population.

Hypothesis Testing: Quantitative research typically formulates hypotheses and aims to

test them rigorously using statistical methods (Bloomfield & Fisher, 2019). This facilitates

the establishment of causal relationships.

Replicability: Quantitative studies are designed to be replicable, meaning that other

researchers can replicate the analysis using the same methods and obtain similar results.

Nursing Issues Suited for Quantitative Research

Nursing issues that lend themselves to quantitative research include the assessment of

treatment outcomes, patient satisfaction, medication adherence rates, and the prevalence of
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health conditions in specific populations (Apuke, 2017). For instance, a quantitative approach

can be employed to investigate the effectiveness of a new nursing intervention in reducing

pain among post-operative patients. Collecting numerical data on pain levels, medication

dosages, and recovery times can facilitate a statistical analysis to determine the intervention's

impact.

Differentiating Research Designs

Observational Research: This involves the systematic observation of individuals or

phenomena without any manipulation of variables (Apuke, 2017). It is used to describe and

understand existing behaviors or conditions.

Interventional Research: Within this research category, investigators purposefully

manipulate one or more independent variables to gauge their influence on dependent

variables. This method is employed to establish causal relationships.

Experimental Designs: Experimental research exhibits the practice of randomly

allocating subjects into control and experimental groups (Bloomfield & Fisher, 2019). Such

an approach facilitates the drawing of causal conclusions.

Quasi-Experimental Designs: These designs lack random assignment but involve

manipulating independent variables (Apuke, 2017). They are used when randomization is

impractical or unethical (Bloomfield & Fisher, 2019).

Inferential and Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics serve the purpose of succinctly

encapsulating and elucidating data (Apuke, 2017). These encompass indicators of central

tendency (mean, median, mode) and data spread (standard deviation, range).

Inferential Statistics: Inferential statistics find application in making forecasts or

drawing conclusions about a broader population grounded in a representative sample (Apuke,

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2017). These include hypothesis testing, establishment of confidence intervals, and

engagement in regression analysis (Bloomfield & Fisher, 2019).

Relationship to Levels of Measurement

The level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio) dictates the type of

statistics that can be applied. Inferential statistics are most powerful when working with

interval or ratio data, allowing for more precise comparisons and predictions (Apuke, 2017).

b) Research Critique

The Study Purpose

This research endeavor aimed to assess the influence of AI on HIPAA concerning

safeguarding patient data's privacy and security within the healthcare domain (Humphrey,

2021). The research methodology comprises the acquisition of data via surveys distributed to

two distinct cohorts within the healthcare sector: healthcare practitioners and HIPAA

specialists. Notably, this study does not explicitly delve into matters pertaining to blinding

and randomization, as these factors do not bear relevance to its primary investigation, which

revolves around the impact of AI on HIPAA and the privacy of patient data (Humphrey,

2021). Ethical considerations in this research pertain to the potential hazards involving

privacy breaches and the inappropriate utilization of patient data in AI applications. To

mitigate these concerns, the study ensures the confidentiality of survey participants and

adheres to ethical research guidelines.

Sampling Method

Question Pro was utilized in this research phase to gather data via online surveys. The

study focused on individuals aged 18 and above in the United States who held specific roles

as stipulated in the research population. LinkedIn and Facebook groups housing subject

matter experts relevant to the research were employed to identify suitable participants

(Humphrey, 2021). The selection criteria for participants encompassed factors such as age,
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gender, educational attainment, years of experience in roles such as compliance, privacy, and

security officers, and familiarity with AI. The primary sample population was purposefully

selected based on their job descriptions, while the second sample was chosen using

convenience sampling. Although it would have been ideal to include a more extensive portion

of the medical community, the constraints of time and the sheer size of the population

rendered this unfeasible.

Data Collection

The researchers meticulously collected data after receiving Institutional Review Board

(IRB) approval to ensure ethical compliance. They utilized online surveys via Question Pro

as data collection instruments (Humphrey, 2021). These surveys were disseminated within

LinkedIn and Facebook groups to reach the intended audience (Humphrey, 2021). They

attached consent forms and the IRB letter for review by group administrators, aiming to

guarantee informed consent and ethical standards adherence.

Validity concerns the precision and relevance of measurements, while reliability

pertains to the consistency and stability of the instruments utilized. Researchers partly

addressed the validity of their tools by including consent forms and IRB approval, which

ensured ethical appropriateness in data collection (Humphrey, 2021). However, the study

does not explicitly specify measures taken to evaluate the content validity of survey

questions, a critical factor in ensuring that the survey measures its intended constructs.

Regarding reliability, the scholars offered participants multiple methods for accessing

the surveys, including Question Pro, Google Forms, and Microsoft Forms, to minimize

potential technical issues (Humphrey, 2021). Nevertheless, the study lacks comprehensive

information on the procedures employed to assess the internal consistency and test-retest

reliability of the survey items, which are pivotal facets of reliability.

Data Analysis
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Initially, raw data collected from surveys was meticulously organized and prepared.

Raw data was stored in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet for backup purposes (Humphrey,

2021). Subsequently, the primary data files were imported into IBM SPSS for comprehensive

analysis (Humphrey, 2021). Frequency testing was pivotal in the preliminary study, offering

summary statistics and validating data completeness. This step was particularly critical in

characterizing the sample population.

Frequency distributions were generated for each survey question, and six questions

were selected for comparative analysis between the two surveys (Humphrey, 2021). Cross-

tabulation and Pearson chi-square tests were conducted to explore potential disparities in

attitudes and opinions across different population samples.

Cross-tabulation was a robust quantitative method to assess relationships between

multiple variables, unveiling correlations among different aspects. Meanwhile, Pearson chi-

square tests were instrumental in evaluating respondents' concerns regarding AI in healthcare

(Humphrey, 2021). These tests examined how levels of trust and concern correlated with

factors such as occupation, familiarity with AI, frequency of AI interaction, and the

utilization of AI in the healthcare domain.

Findings and Limitations

This study raises issues concerning the absence of HIPAA oversight for AI developers

and third-party vendors. This omission may result in unauthorized access to patient data. A

significant majority, 81% of the 179 survey participants, stressed the importance of

safeguarding patient data from entities not covered by HIPAA (Humphrey, 2021). They

emphasize the necessity of incorporating AI developers within the purview of HIPAA. A

substantial percentage, 44.7%, strongly supports the idea of AI regulation within the

healthcare sector. Additionally, 50.8% strongly believe that unregulated AI poses potential

risks.
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Respondents have provided insights into who should spearhead the regulation of AI in

healthcare. A significant portion, 49.2%, advocates for joint leadership involving the federal

government and the healthcare community in the regulation process. This study has identified

distinct concerns within the healthcare professional community, which include the absence of

AI regulation (30.6%), improper release of patient data outside of healthcare (21.8%), and

security breaches in AI systems (10.0%), among others.

This study recognizes limitations from the time required to conduct the survey,

particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic when healthcare professionals had demanding

schedules (Humphrey, 2021). The availability of participants, particularly experts in HIPAA,

was affected by their pandemic-related responsibilities, further constraining the study's scope.

Additionally, several participants may have possessed limited knowledge of AI,

potentially influencing their responses to questions concerning AI-related concepts. The

study acknowledges the scarcity of existing literature on the intersection of AI, patient data,

and HIPAA, which constrained the background research for this investigation (Humphrey,

2021). The study intentionally excluded AI developers and lawmakers, acknowledging

potential bias and time constraints associated with their participation.

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References

Anderson, C. (2010). Presenting and evaluating qualitative research. American journal of

pharmaceutical education, 74(8).

Apuke, O. D. (2017). Quantitative research methods: A synopsis approach. Kuwait Chapter

of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, 33(5471), 1-8.

Bloomfield, J., & Fisher, M. J. (2019). Quantitative research design. Journal of the

Australasian Rehabilitation Nurses Association, 22(2), 27-30.

Hick, A., & Ziefle, M. (2022). A qualitative approach to the public perception of AI.

International Journal on Cybernetics & Informatics (IJCI), 11(11), 1.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363225909_A_Qualitative_Approach_to_the

_Public_Perception_of_AI

Humphrey, B. A. (2021). Data Privacy vs. Innovation: A Quantitative Analysis of Artificial

Intelligence in Healthcare and Its Impact on HIPAA regarding the Privacy and Security

of Protected Health Information. Robert Morris University.

https://www.proquest.com/openview/146e12c7a1ead3fc5e2e4d84f67c02fd/1?pq-

origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y

Tenny, S., Brannan, J. M., Brannan, G. D., & Sharts-Hopko, N. C. (2022). Qualitative Study

[Internet]. StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing.