Q UANTUM H ARMONIC O SCILLATOR :

A N A LGEBRAIC D ERIVATION FOR T HE G ROUND S TATE

Mina BH Arsanious
STEM Asyut
Assuit
basiliousmina2@gmail.com

Undersupervision
Mr/ Ayman Youssef

A BSTRACT
In this paper, we present a method for solving the ground state wave function of the quantum harmonic
oscillator. The quantum harmonic oscillator, serving as a fundamental model in quantum mechanics,
offers insights into the behavior of systems under harmonic potentials. Our focus lies specifically on
deriving the wave function corresponding to the lowest energy eigenstate of the oscillator. Utilizing
algebraic techniques and the ladder operator formalism, we systematically construct the ground state
wave function. By solving the Schrödinger equation with a potential energy term proportional to
1
mω 2 x2 , we obtain the energy eigenvalue and the associated wave function for the ground state.
2
The ground state wave function is given by:

 mω  41 −mω 2
ψ0 (x) = e 2ℏ x
ℏπ

Keywords Harmonic oscillator · Ladder operator · Schrödinger equation

1 Introduction

The quantum harmonic oscillator [Mor11] (QHO) stands as a cornerstone system in quantum mechanics. It serves as a
quantum-mechanical analog of the classical harmonic oscillator, where a particle oscillates around a stable equilibrium
point. Due to its simplicity, the harmonic potential (proportional to x2 ) often serves as a local approximation for
various physical systems near their equilibrium positions. Comparing it to the Morse potential, which describes the
potential energy of a diatomic molecule, the harmonic oscillator is very good approximation Figure 1. This widespread
applicability makes the QHO one of the most important model systems in quantum mechanics. Furthermore, it is one of
the few systems for which an exact, analytical solution is known.
Among its diverse applications, the quantum harmonic oscillator finds particular relevance in understanding the
vibrational spectra of diatomic molecules. Conceptually, the vibrational motion of a diatomic molecule resembles
that of two masses connected by a spring, where the potential energy depends quadratically on the displacement from
equilibrium. However, the quantum nature of the system introduces a crucial departure from classical mechanics: the
energy levels become quantized, occurring at evenly spaced intervals.
This quantization of energy levels imbues the vibrational motion of diatomic molecules with distinct characteristics,
fundamentally differentiating it from classical harmonic oscillation. The discrete energy levels dictate the vibrational
transitions accessible to the molecule, each associated with a specific quantum state characterized by the harmonic
oscillator wave function.
Quantum Harmonic Oscillator: An Algebraic Derivation for The Ground State

Our goal in this paper is to present an algebraic derivation of the wave function and energy eigenvalues for the QHO. To
achieve this, we will leverage the concept of ladder operators.

Figure 1: Comparison between Harmonic Potential and True Potential [Kel]

2 Central Equation and Operators

2.1 Schrödinger equation

The core equation governing the behavior of a quantum system is the Schrödinger equation:

Ĥ |ψ⟩ = E |ψ⟩

Here,
The Schrödinger equation stands as the cornerstone of quantum mechanics, providing a mathematical framework for
describing the behavior of quantum systems. It encapsulates the fundamental principle that governs the evolution of
wave functions, which encode the probabilistic information about the state of a quantum system.
The position-dependent Schrödinger equation for a quantum system with a single particle is given by:

Eψ(x) = Ĥψ(x)

where:

• ψ(x) is the wave function representing the state of the system at position x,
• Ĥ is the Hamiltonian operator representing the total energy of the system.

2.1.1 Hamiltonian Operator:

- The right-hand side of the equation involves the action of the Hamiltonian operator, Ĥ, on the wave function, Ĥψ(x, t).
- The Hamiltonian operator represents the total energy of the system and consists of kinetic energy and potential energy
terms.
- Mathematically, the Hamiltonian operator is expressed as a sum of the kinetic energy operator, which involves
derivatives with respect to spatial coordinates, and the potential energy operator, which depends on the spatial
coordinates.
1
The potential energy term, V (x) ,in the case of a QHO is proportional to kx2 , where x is the position operator and
2
k is the force constant [Nav06]. In terms of the angular frequency ω, k can be expressed as k = mω 2 . The kinetic
energy operator involves the momentum operator p̂, where p̂ = −iℏ∂x . The Hamiltonian operator for a QHO can be
mathematically represented as:

2
Quantum Harmonic Oscillator: An Algebraic Derivation for The Ground State

p̂2 ℏ2 2 1
Ĥ = + V (x) = − ∂ + mω 2 x̂2
2m 2m x 2
Here,

• p̂ is the momentum operator,

• m is the mass of the particle,
• x̂ is the position operator, 1
• ω is the angular frequency of the oscillator.
• i is the imaginary unit,
• ℏ is the reduced Planck constant, 2

This Hamiltonian operator acts on the wave function ψ(x) in the Schrödinger equation to determine the energy
eigenvalues and corresponding eigenstates of the QHO. Solving the Schrödinger equation with this Hamiltonian
operator provides the wave function and energy eigenvalues for the QHO, offering a comprehensive understanding of
its quantum mechanical behavior.

2.1.2 Eigenvalue Equation:

- The Schrödinger equation is essentially an eigenvalue equation, where the wave function ψ(x, t) represents an
eigenvector of the Hamiltonian operator Ĥ with corresponding eigenvalue E.
- Solving the Schrödinger equation yields the allowed energy eigenvalues E and the corresponding wave functions
ψ(x, t), which describe the quantized states of the system.

2.1.3 Physical Interpretation:

The Schrödinger equation embodies the wave-particle duality inherent in quantum mechanics, as it describes the
behavior of particles in terms of wave functions. The solutions to the Schrödinger equation provide probabilistic
information about the possible outcomes of measurements on the quantum system.

2.2 Ladder Operators

The key to our algebraic approach lies in ladder operators. These are specific operators denoted by â (annihilation
operator) and ↠(creation operator) defined through their action on the eigenstates of the QHO:
r  
mω i
â = x+ p̂
2ℏ mω
r  
† mω i
â = x− p̂
2ℏ mω

These operators connect adjacent energy levels. The creation operator, ↠, "raises" the quantum number by 1 (increases
the energy), while the annihilation operator, â, "lowers" it by 1 (decreases the energy). Notably, the creation and
annihilation operators are Hermitian adjoints of each other, meaning ↠= (â)† . These operators, along with their
commutation relations, form the backbone of our algebraic derivation.

3 Derivation of the Ground State [Hal16]

3.1 Mathematical relation between the Hamiltonian and ladder operators

Given the Hamiltonian operator

1
x̂f (x) = xf (x); the position operator is equivalent to multiplying the function with the position, x.
2 h
ℏ= , where h is "normal" Planck constant
2π

3
Quantum Harmonic Oscillator: An Algebraic Derivation for The Ground State

ℏ2 2 1
Ĥ = − ∂ + mω 2 x̂2
2m x 2
ℏ2 2 1 2 2 2
=− ∂ + m ω x̂
2m x 2m
1
−ℏ2 ∂x2 + (mωx)2


=
2m
1
p̂2 + (mωx)2 ψ(x)


=
2m
1
(mωx)2 − i2 p̂2


=
2m
1 1
= √ (mωx + ip̂) √ (mωx − ip̂)
2m 2m
Which looks very similar to the ladder operators.
Recall what the ladder operators are
r  
mω i 1
â = x+ p̂ =√ (mωx + ip̂)
2ℏ mω 2mℏω

r  
mω i 1
↠= x− p̂ = √ (mωx − ip̂)
2ℏ mω 2mℏω
For simplification, and intuition purposes. I will define a new notation contrary to the mainstream one. Let the
annihilation operator, â, be a− , and the creation operator, ↠, be a+ .
Then

1
a± = √ (mωx ∓ ip̂)
2ℏmω

1
a∓ a± = (mωx ± ip̂)(mωx ∓ ip̂)
2ℏmω
1
(mωx)2 + p̂2 ± ip̂mωx ∓ mωxip̂


=
2ℏmω
1
(mωx)2 + p̂2 ∓ imω ±xp̂ ∓ p̂x3



=
2ℏmω
We will use a new notation to work with the term, ± (xp̂ ∓ p̂x), which is commonly called a commutator.
A commutator is simply;
[c, b] = cb − bc
Let us work with our commutator of x and p̂ and see how it acts on a function.

[x, p̂]f (x) = xp̂f (x) − p̂xf (x)

= −iℏx∂x f (x) + iℏ∂x xf (x)
= −iℏx∂x f (x) + iℏf (x) + iℏx∂x f (x)
= iℏf (x)

=⇒ [x, p̂] = iℏ, [p̂, x] = −iℏ

3
xp̂ ̸= p̂x

4
Quantum Harmonic Oscillator: An Algebraic Derivation for The Ground State

Let’s plug this into the Ladder operators again

1
(mωx)2 + p̂2 ∓ imω (±iℏ)


a∓ a± =
2ℏmω
1
(mωx)2 + p̂2 ± ℏmω


=
2ℏmω
1
1
= (mωx)2 + p̂2 ±
2ℏmω 2

We could notice that it is similar to our Hamiltonian.

1 1
a∓ a± = Ĥ ±
ℏω 2

1
=⇒ Ĥ = ℏω(a∓ a± ∓ )
2
Corollary, we have
1 1 1 1
a− a+ − a+ a− = Ĥ + − Ĥ + = 1 = [a− , a+ ]
ℏω 2 ℏω 2
=⇒ [a∓ , a± ] = ±1

3.2 Relation Between Ladder Operators and The Wave Function

3.2.1 The Value of The Eigenvalue After Applying Ladder Operators

The Schrödinger equation states that
1
Eψ = Ĥψ = ℏω(a∓ a± ∓ )ψ
2
Let us substitute the creation operator on the wave function and observe the change of its eigenvalue.

Let the eigenstate ψ : a+ ψ• .

WLOG, consider the positive branch of a∓ a± .
1
Ĥa+ ψ• = ℏω(a+ a− + )a+ ψ•
2
1
= ℏω(a+ a− a+ + a+ )ψ•
2
1
= a+ ℏω(a− a+ + )ψ•
2
1
= a+ ℏω(a+ a− 4 + + 1)ψ•
 2 
  1
 
= a+ ℏω a+ a− + +ℏω  ψ•
 
 2 
| {z }
Ĥ=E
= a+ (E + ℏω)ψ• = (E + ℏω)a+ ψ•
We can see now the reason that makes a+ called the raising(creation) operator because it raises the energy level by ℏω.
Similarly, we could go with the same procedure and reach that
a− ψ =⇒ (E − ℏω)a− ψ

4
∵ a− a+ − a+ a− = 1, ∴ a− a+ = 1 + a+ a−

5
Quantum Harmonic Oscillator: An Algebraic Derivation for The Ground State

3.2.2 Wave Packets

While wave packets are not directly involved in the algebraic derivation of the QHO wave function, they provide a
valuable conceptual bridge between the mathematical formalism and physical interpretation. In the context of the
QHO, wave packets can be constructed as superpositions of the energy eigenstates obtained from the ladder operator
1
formalism. The parabola shown in Figure 2 describes the curve of the potential , kx2 .
2

Figure 2: Comparing Eigenstates of the wave function with the curve of a parabola [Wei+22]

The algebraic derivation of the QHO wave function yields stationary eigenstates corresponding to definite energy
eigenvalues. However, these eigenstates, when combined appropriately, can form wave packets that represent the
particle’s probability distribution in position space. Understanding the construction and evolution of wave packets
allows us to interpret the physical significance of the QHO wave function and its relation to observable quantities such
as position and momentum.
While wave packets are not directly derived in the algebraic approach to the QHO, they offer a crucial perspective
for interpreting the results of the derivation and understanding the probabilistic nature of quantum systems. Their
construction and evolution provide insights into the behavior of particles in quantum mechanics, enriching our
understanding of the underlying principles governing the quantum harmonic oscillator.

4 Solving The Ground State

We have a problem here. Applying a− multiple times may make negative energy. For that, we assume a ground state of
the wave, where applying the lowering (annihilation) operator to that ground state, ψ0 , it does not affect it. In another
words
a− ψ0 = 0
Well, ψ0 is a position-dependent function, and the equation we have is a simple homogeneous differential equation,
which we could solve.
Let’s recall the definition of a−

1
0= √ (ip̂ + mωx)ψ0 (x)
2ℏmω
0 = (ip̂ + mωx)ψ0 (x)
0 = (ℏ∂x + mωx)ψ0 (x)
−mωx
ψ0 (x) = ∂x ψ0 (x)
ℏ
−mωx ∂x ψ0 (x)
=
ℏ ψ0 (x)
Integrating to respect to x
−mωx
Z Z
∂x ψ0 (x)
dx = dx
ℏ ψ0 (x)
−mωx2
+ C = ln |ψ0 (x)|
2ℏ

6
Quantum Harmonic Oscillator: An Algebraic Derivation for The Ground State

−mω 2
ψ0 (x) = e 2ℏ x +C

−mω 2
= Ae 2ℏ x

Now we want to find the value of the arbitrary constant A that came from the indefinite integral.
Well, what we know is that the wave function has to be square integrable, as it is equivalent to its probability and equal
to 1. For that, we have to normalize A as we square integrate it, and we get one. In another words
Z ∞
|ψ0 |2 dx = 1
−∞
Z ∞
−mω 2
=⇒ 1 = |A|2 e ℏ x dx
−∞
Z ∞ √
2
Now the integral is very common and known as the Gaussian integral, where e−x dx = π
−∞
r
2 ℏπ
1 = |A|
mω
 mω  14
A=
ℏπ
The ground state of the wave function of the harmonic oscillator is stated as
 mω  41 −mω 2
ψ0 (x) = e 2ℏ x
ℏπ

Calculating the energy of the ground state by applying the Hamiltonian operator.

 
1
Ĥψ0 (x) = ℏω a+ a− + ψ0 (x)
2
 
1
= ℏω a+ a− ψ0 (x) + ψ0 (x)
| {z } 2
0
1
= ℏωψ0 (x)
2

Which then implies that

1
E0 = ℏω
2
And we know that each eigenstate differ in energy with a whole ℏω. For that, we could write that
 
1
En = ℏω +n
2

1
We can see the relation of that with the potintial of the harmonic osillator, kx2 , in Figure 3. We could write a general
2
formula for any eigenstate wave function from then groundstate wave function and the annihilation operator.
ψn (x) = An an+ ψ0 (x)
, Where An represents the normalization constant.

7
Quantum Harmonic Oscillator: An Algebraic Derivation for The Ground State

Figure 3: Wavefunctions of a quantum harmonic oscillator [All10]

5 Conclusion
"Everything is a harmonic oscillator if you are brave enough."

References
[All10] AllenMcC. Wavefunctions of a quantum harmonic oscillator. Sept. 2010.
[Hal16] Brian C. Hall. Quantum theory for mathematicians. Springer, 2016.
[Kel] Peter Kelly. Comparison between Harmonic Potential and True Potential. UCDavis. URL: https://chem.
libretexts.org/@go/page/198678?pdf.
[Mor11] David Morin. Introduction to quantum mechanics. Jan. 2011. URL: https://scholar.harvard.edu/
files/david-morin/files/waves_quantum.pdf.
[Nav06] R Nave. Quantum Harmonic Oscillator. Mar. 2006. URL: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/
hbase/quantum/hosc.html.
[Wei+22] Mengjie Wei et al. Comparing Eigenstates of the wave function with the curve of a parabola. Nature, Nov.
2022. URL: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-34440-0.