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CHAPTER II

LITERURE REVIEW

A. Authentic Materials

1. Definition of Teaching Materials

Teaching material is the crucial element of the curriculum that has a
role to play in involving and achieving the purposes or goals of learning
(Nunan, 1991, pp. 208). It helps teachers to teach languages (Tomlinson,
2003), facilitates teachers and learners in language learning (Richards and
Schmidt, 2002), and makes the learners actively participate in the classroom
activity (Mathew, 2012, as cited in Castillo, 2021). Materials have many roles.
They can inform learners about the target language, guide them in practicing
the language, give the learners hands-on experience with the language in use,
encourage them to use the language, and assist the learners in
making discoveries about the language (Tomlinson, 2012).
However, teaching materials are not limited to a textbook; there are
other options, such as materials prepared by the institution, or the teachers’
materials (Richards, 2001). Richards and Renandya (2002, pp. 65) agree,
stating that materials, whether textbooks or other types (materials provided
by the institution, or materials prepared by the teachers), are the most
important source of language acquisition since they serve as the language
input for the learners. They then continued that materials can be printed, non-
printed, or both printed and non-printed. Examples of printed materials are
books, workbooks, worksheets, etc. Non-printed materials are like audio
materials, cassettes, videos, etc. An example of materials which are available
in both printed and non-printed form are self-access materials and materials
from the internet.
It can be concluded that materials play a vital role in language
learning as they provide the input for language learners to achieve the
learning objectives. The materials can be a textbook, materials prepared by

7
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the institution, or the teachers’ materials, whether printed, non-

printed, or both.
2. Definition of Authentic Materials
Generally, materials used in teaching English are divided into two
categories: non-authentic materials and authentic materials. Non-authentic
materials, according to Peacock (1997), are intentionally created texts for
language learning objectives. It can be in the form of textbooks, dictionaries,
workbooks, or institutionally prepared materials. Its role is to be the main
source of language practice in the classroom. Otherwise, authentic materials
are developed by native speakers in their daily activities and are not designed
for educational purposes.
Morrow (1977) describes authentic materials as a collection of
original languages, developed for a particular audience by a real speaker or
writer, and developed to convey some kind of authentic message. In line with
that, Bacon & Finneman (1990) also note that texts written by and intended
for native speakers for non-pedagogical purposes are authentic materials.
Authentic materials are not made for educational purposes. It is intended for
real-life goals and communication between native speakers (Polio, 2014).
From the explanation above, it can be concluded that authentic
materials are materials that are not specifically created for a pedagogical
purpose but for communication use among native speakers in real life, which
can be in the form of newspapers, magazines, schedules, brochures, and other
sources on the internet.
Before using authentic materials as the teaching
materials, teachers should prepare them well. The teacher should know about
the variety of authentic materials, how to select them, and what the
advantages and disadvantages of using them are.
3. Types of Authentic Materials
Gebhard (1996) classifies authentic materials into four categories:
a. Authentic listening materials, such as comedy shows, movies, news clips,
TV commercials, radio ads, audio book, etc.
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b. Authentic visual materials, such as postcards, picture books, stamps, etc.

c. Authentic printed materials, such as strain tickets, university catalog, etc.
d. Realia (real-world objects): coins and currency, folded papers, dolls, and
puppets, etc. (realia were often used to illustrate points very visually or for
role-play situations).
4. Selecting Authentic Reading Materials
There are three crucial criteria in choosing authentic reading
materials, according to Nuttall (1996, pp. 54): suitability of the content,
exploitability, and readability. The most important factor among the three is
suitability. Suitability means the reading materials should interest the
students and also be relevant to their needs. It should also motivate the
students. Exploitability refers to how the text can be used to enhance
students’ reading competence. Materials that cannot enhance students’
competence as readers have no use in the classroom. Readability means
evaluating the text in which it should be at the right level for the students. It's
a term that describes a text's combination of structural and lexical difficulties.
It also relates to the quantity of new vocabulary as well as any grammatical
forms that have been introduced. Furthermore, Berardo (2006) adds one more
factor, which is variety and presentation. It is also considered important
because it would be more attractive if the reading course used a wide variety
of texts. The more attractive the text, the higher the students' motivation is.
5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Authentic Materials
a. Advantages
Many theories, studies, and findings have shown how useful
authentic materials are. It is believed that authentic materials can improve
students’ reading comprehension (Omar & Mekael, 2020; Ciornei & Dina,
2015; AbdulHussein, 2014; Beresova, 2015; Kung, 2017; Assiddiq, 2019;
Marzban, 2015; Al Musallam, 2009; Khoshbakht & Gorjian, 2017; Aftab
& Salahuddin, 2015; Ihtiari, Sundari, & Andayani, 2013; Islam & Santoso,
2018). They can also increase students’ vocabulary mastery (Bacon &
Finneman, 1990; Omar & Mekael, 2020; Cimermanová, 2015;
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AbdulHussein, 2014; Guo, 2012; Al Musallam, 2009). Authentic materials

can also enhance students’ confidence in reading (Omar & Mekael, 2020;
Ciornei & Dina, 2015; Kung, 2017; Islam & Santoso, 2018). It can also
improve students’ receptive and productive skills (Ghaderpanahi, 2012;
Koshbakht & Goriian, 2017; Masood, 2013). On the teachers’ side,
authentic materials also help them to apply approaches that are more
creative in their teaching activities (Richards, 2001).
Besides the academic aspects, authentic materials can also
improve students' non-academic aspects, such as increasing their
motivation (Peacock, 1997; Sample, 2015; Mahsefat & Sabet, 2012;
Berardo, 2006; Richards, 2001; Otte, 2006; Phillips & Shettlsworth, 1978;
Clarke, 1989; Nuttall, 1996; Gilmore, 2007; Sherman, 2003; Kilickaya,
2004; Thanajaro, 2000; Otte, 2006) and provide the students with authentic
cultural information about the target culture (Garcia, 1991; Richards, 2001;
Phillips & Shettlesworth, 1978; Clarke, 1989; Peacock, 1997). Some
researchers explain the way authentic materials improve students’
motivation in this way. One of them is Sample (2015), who says that the
exposure to authentic materials makes the students feel more motivated. In
addition, Peacock (1997) describes how authentic materials enhance
students’ motivation in such a way that the students need to take time to
adjust to the use of authentic materials. It also makes the students feel more
confident.
b. Disadvantages
Besides all the benefits that we can get from authentic materials,
there are some disadvantages to them. Because they are taken from the real
world and not particularly created for pedagogical purposes, they may
contain difficult language and vocabulary items (Lee, 1995; Richards, 2001;
Kilickaya, 2004, Belaid & Murray, 2015; Martinez, 2002). Students may
also encounter different accents of pronunciation, ungrammatical features,
and slang words that potentially impede students' language learning
(Woottipong, 2010; Ghaderpanahi, 2012). At lower levels of students, the
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use of authentic materials can lead them to feel frustrated, confused, and
demotivated (Kilickaya, 2004; Guariento & Morley, 2001).
From the teacher’s side, it will waste the teacher's time (Richards,
2001; Miller, 2005). Authentic materials require extra time to prepare
because teachers have to collect them from different sources and still need
to make sure that the materials are appropriate for the students. Teachers
also have to make an extra effort to explain and teach as a result of the
students' confusion, since it may contain difficult vocabulary that is
unfamiliar to students (Kilickaya, 2004).

B. Reading

1. Definition of Reading
Heilman, et.al. (1981) declares that reading is a process of language.
It is a process by which symbols are translated into a written language to
derive meaning. He adds that reading interacts with language that has been
coded into text. Aebersold & Field (1997) state, in agreement with Heilman,
et.al., that reading is what occurs when people look at a text and give
meaning to the written symbols in that text.
Reading, though, is something more than just seeing a collection of
alphabets; it is also not a passive mechanical activity. Efforts by readers to
analyze and use what they have read are important. It is about thinking about
reasoning activities (Burnes & Page, 1991). Reading can also be defined as "a
cognitive ability that a person can use when dealing with texts" (Urquhart &
Weir, 1998). It is supported by Nunan, who said that reading requires
numerous skills from the words that are written, including making sense and
driving meaning. While reading is an activity for interpreting written
discourse (Burnes & Page, 1991), reading may also be an intense and private
activity that is fun. There can be a lot of enjoyment from it and one can be
fully absorbed (Alderson, 2000).
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In short, reading is a skill that requires learners to be able to decode,

comprehend, and deliver the meaning of the written words or text, as well as
to understand the text so that they can connect with great enjoyment.
2. Types of Reading
According to Brown (2001), there are many types of reading. He
classified types of reading as follows:
a. Perceptive
Perceptive reading entails focusing on the elements of longer
passages of text, such as letters, words, punctuation, and other graphic
symbols. This category needs bottom-up processing. As part of a
perspective reading assessment, a teacher can employ reading aloud,
written responses, multiple-choice, and picture-cued questions.
b. Selective
In this types of reading, picture-cued tasks, matching, true/false,
multiple choice, and other popular tasks are used to measure one's reading
recognition of lexical, grammatical, or conversational features of language
during a short period of time. The use of words, brief paragraphs, and basic
charts and graphs by the teachers may excite students. To measure the
pupils' understanding, they need to give brief response. In this category, a
combination of bottom-up and top-down processing may be applied.
c. Interactive
Interactive reading is the process of negotiating the meaning of a
text in relation to the reader's comprehension of the text. Anecdotes, short
narratives and descriptions, excerpts from lengthier texts, surveys, notes,
announcements, directions, recipes, and other types of writing are
examples of interactive reading. An interactive exercise asks students to
identify key characteristics (lexical, symbolic, grammatical, and discourse).
In this sort of reading, top-down processing is common, although bottom-
up performance may be necessary in some circumstances.
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d. Extensive
Extensive reading is a term used to describe the types of reading
activities utilized in casual reading materials such as articles, essays,
technical reports, short tales, and books. The tasks are commonly
accomplished outside of class time. For the most complex jobs, top-down
processing is expected in this category. The teacher may emphasize some
evaluations, such as skimming, summarizing, and responding, as well as
note-taking and planning.
3. Teaching Reading
Teaching reading is described by Johnson (2008) as creating an
environment where the students learn to read and enhance their reading skills.
Teaching is more than simply showing the students a text; there must be
contact between the reader and the symbols that are written. Furthermore,
when teaching reading, a teacher should pay particular attention to the
students' previous knowledge since it is this existing knowledge that will
assist the students in interpreting the information from the text.
According to Williams (1996; 37–39), there are three major stages in
reading instruction, which are as follows:
a.Pre-reading
The goal of this phase is to present the issue and stimulate the
learners' interest in it. The activity includes offering students a purpose to
read and asking them questions about their prior knowledge, beliefs, and
opinions in order to stimulate them to read.
b.While-reading
This phase's action starts with comprehending the text as a whole, or
globally, and then continues on to smaller units like paragraphs, phrases,
and words. The goals of this phase are to help students grasp the author's
purpose, the text structure, and the text content.
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c. Post-reading
This phase's activities mostly consist of questioning the text. The
goals are for students to reflect on what they've read and to connect the
material to their own understanding, interests, or views.

C. Teaching Strategy

1. Definition of Teaching Strategy

According to Kindsvatter et al. (1996), a teaching strategy is an
important element in teaching and consists of a combination of a variety of
methods designed to achieve the learning objectives. In line with that,
Sanjaya (2008) stated that a teaching strategy is a plan, method, or set of
activities that are created to help the teacher accomplish particular academic
goals. In addition, Suparman (2005) argued that a teaching strategy is a
combination of a sequence of activities, methods or techniques, media, and
the amount of time that the teacher needs in the learning process to
accomplish the set of learning goals.
Meanwhile, according to Brown (2007), teaching strategies are the
solutions that teachers implement to an issue, and they differ greatly within
each individual. They are the techniques that the teachers apply to solve
"problems" that are brought about by second-language input and output. This
argument is supported by Gagne (in Iskandarwassid, 2011), who said that
strategies are the ability of the teachers to think, problem solve, and make
decisions when they are teaching in class.
Based on the definition of teacher strategy proposed by many
scholars above, then it can be concluded that a teaching strategy is a set of
tools that the teachers implement in the class that consist of a combination of
methods, sequences of activities, media, and time used in the class to help the
teacher solve the issue that arouses in the classroom because of the second
language input and output.
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2. Communicative Language Teaching

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been recognized as
one of the newest and most innovative approach in English teaching to
address the needs of students in the modern century (Celce-Murcia, 2001).
This approach claims that language teaching and learning stresses
communication that involves both linguistic and communicative skills
(Larsen-Freeman, 2000). In the recent communicative language teaching
(CLT), students are the center of teaching and learning process. It requires
students to engage in the real communication, and meaningful tasks. It also
used mixed syllabus in the teaching and learning process. (Richards, 2006).
The major aim of it is to develop students; communicative skill (Hymes,
1972).
The communicative practices in the CLT are characterized by some
principles. Richards and Rodgers (1986) formulate some underpinning
principles in the CLT in practice. First of all, the teacher will create activities
that facilitate real communication motivating students to learn. For example,
the well-informed teacher can create a classroom setting in which interaction
between one student and another happens. Gass& Mackey (2007) argue that
interactions will enable learners to negotiate language input. Next, the teacher
will hold task principle, which implies that he will encourage learning by
creating classroom activities in which language is used to conduct meaningful
task (Johnson, 1984). Swain (1995) suggests that with particular task
conditions learners will not merely reveal their language hypotheses, but
think seriously about them and use the language as well.
The next principle the teacher should apply in communicative
classroom is the meaningfulness. Learners will be encouraged if they use
language that is meaningful to them. In contrast, learners will be discouraged
if they merely learn language patterns that do not make meaning for them.
Storch and Aldosari (2012) suggest that in the classroom setting students are
on a language task which is meaning-focused and when they find a linguistic
problem, they negotiate the problem to find a solution and share their
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linguistic information. Therefore, language learning activities should be

managed in a way that enables learners to engage in language use which is
meaningful and authentic.
There are some characteristics of CLT according to Brown (2001),
they will be describe as follow:
a. Classroom goals should focus on all component of communicative
competence: grammatical, discourse, functional, sociolinguistics, and
strategic.
b. Language techniques should engage learners in the pragmatic,
authentic, and functional use of language for meaningful purposes.
c. Fluency and accuracy are complimentary principles underlying
communicative techniques.
d. Language should be used productively and receptively.
e. The activities are learner-centered and the learners focus on their own
learning process.
f. The teacher’s roles is mainly as facilitator to guide the learners in the
interaction that takes place in the classroom.
Shastri (2010), in her book, also recommended some activities or
strategies to teach vocabulary and grammar that based on CLT.
a. Teach Vocabulary
 Teach vocabulary in context, not in isolation.
 Encourage learners to guess meaning from the context.
 Teach the vocabulary in students’ mother tongue if it is hard for
them to understand it in English.
 Use sound, shape, and sense of the words i.e. pronunciation,
meaning, and spelling (Allen, 1983).
 Use magazine pictures to illustrate words.
 Use body gestures and actions.
 Use word games.
 Asked the students to give synonym of words.
 Matching opposites in a sentence.
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 Asked the students to use words in meaningful context.

 Look up words in dictionary.
 Collect other information in the dictionary such as how the words
spelled in American and British accent, different meanings of the
word, colloquial variety, the word class, and so on.
 Present the word in semantic grouping, for example words like
book, pencil, bag, uniform should be taught together so the
students can acquire them better.
 Not doing the direct vocabulary teaching. It should be integrated
with other skills.
 Fill in the blank with the right word given in the bracket.
 Describe a person, place, or object.
 Let students to make list of words related to the word given by the
teacher. Then asked them to write a paragraph with those words.
b. Teach Grammar
 Give the example before the rules.
 Put emphasis on fluency and accuracy.
 Teach grammar implicitly using the inductive method.
 Teach grammar through the four skills in an integrated way.
 Explain the principles in simple language with the help of
illustration.
 Use labels (noun, verb, adj, adv, etc) in explaining the items.
 Give student opportunity to practice in meaningful situation, oral
drilling, pattern practice, substation tables, etc (CIEFL Methods,
1996).
 The grammar items must be contextualized and should relate to the
learners’ experience of the language.
 Students have to be exposed to the different variety of meaning and
structure pattern.
 Role play.
 Drama.
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 Language games.
 Practice students’ question skill by asking them to form yes/no and
WH questions in present, past, and future time reference.
 Do not teaching the tenses in detailed.
 Expose learners to the passages of mixed tenses so they understand
the rules.
 Use mime, actions, sketches, charts, and pictures to teach tenses.
 Use dialogues.
 Descriptive of process to teach active passive.
 Cross word puzzle to teach different part of speech.

D. Methodology of The Reviewed Articles

1. Action Research
a. Types of Action Research
According to Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun (2012), there are some
types of action research. The types are explained as follows:
1) Practical Action Research
Practical action research aims to solve a specific problem in a
classroom, school, or other "community." Its main goal is to enhance
practice in the short term while also providing information on wider
concerns. Practical action research should provide an action plan that
is ultimately implemented and assessed in order to be most successful.
2) Participatory Action Research
Participatory action research is a type of study that focuses on
a specific local issue and uses the results to take action. It also serves
two other goals: to empower people and groups to better their lives
and to effect social change at some level (school, community, or
society).
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b. Steps in Action Research

According to Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun (2012), the steps in
action research are:
1) Determining the study challenge or question.
2) Collecting the information required to answer the
question(s)/problem(s).
3) Evaluating and analyzing the data that has been acquired.
4) Creating a plan of action.
c. Criteria of Validity of Action Research
According to Burns’ (1999) book “Collaborative Action Research
for English Language Teachers”, there are five kinds of validity:
1) Democratic Validity
It refers to the extent to which the study is really collaborative
and enables diverse perspectives to be heard. The following are some
of the most important questions to consider: Can all sides offer
additional perspective? Are solutions beneficial to all parties involved?
Are solutions valid on a local level, in the sense that they are relevant
or applicable to the situation? For instance, eliciting feedback and
ideas from participants on the measures taken in order to improve
future actions.
2) Outcome Validity
It refers to the concept of activities contributing to effective
results in the context of research. The most effective results would
include not just a solution to the problem, but also a re-frame of the
problem that leads to new questions. It is dependent on the reliability
of the research method. For instance, the researcher examines the
study findings to determine whether the activities taken were effective
or not.
3) Process Validity
It is intimately linked to the reliability and competence of the
research. The most important questions are: can the study participants
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continue to learn from the process? Are events or actions evaluated

from several viewpoints and data sources in order to avoid
oversimplified or biased interpretations? For instance, an observation
sheet, daily notes, recording, documentation, and interviewing the
individual are all possible options.
4) Catalytic Validity
It refers to the extent to which the researcher permits
participants to have a better knowledge of the context's social reality
and how they can make a difference. It can be addressed by narrating
changes in teacher and learner's understanding of their roles, as well as
the actions taken as a result of these changes, or by monitoring other
research participants' views of difficulties. For instance, the researcher
questioned the participants about how the acts were carried out.
5) Dialogic Validity
It is similar to the peer review techniques that are often
employed in action research. Peer review is used to assess the value of
research before it is published in academic publications. In action
research, peer review would entail interaction with practitioner peers,
either through collaborative inquiry or reflective discourse with
"critical friends" or other practitioner-researchers who can function as
"devil's advocates." For instance, you may hold conversations with the
English teacher. In each meeting, the dialogue is utilized to solicit
feedback on the technique's implementation.
Burns (1999) also stated that there are various ways that may be
used to determine the reliability of the data. Triangulation is one of them.
Triangulation is the most prevalent and well-known method of determining
validity. The goal of triangulation is to collect diverse viewpoints on the
subject under investigation.
Action researchers employ a variety of techniques and viewpoints
from various participants to acquire a deeper and less subjective image than
what is obtained by relying on a single data-gathering methodology. When
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identical results are produced or confirmed by various approaches, the

researcher might be more certain that their findings are not solely the
product of adopting a specific method. They can be more certain about the
reliability of their research. Besides using multiple methods, there are other
forms of triangulation.
1) Time Triangulation
It refers to the collection of data at a single moment in time
(cross-sectionally) or across time (longitudinally) to determine what
elements are involved in change processes. They compared the data
and utilized it to come up with research topics and ways for
classroom intervention. The group then tracked the changes in
teaching methods over the course of a term. Interviewing
participants before, during, and after the cycles' implementation is
an example.
2) Space Triangulation
It refers to the collection of data among several subgroups
of individuals in order to circumvent the limitations of research
done within a group. Teacher research teams, for example, gathered
data from diverse language competency levels and nationality
groups to see if distinct or comparable language learning strategies
were employed.
3) Investigator Triangulation
It refers to the employment of more than one observer in
the same study environment. This helps to eliminate bias and
ensures that the observations are reliable. For example, during the
activity in the classroom, the researcher asked the instructor and
collaborator to assist him, and then they exchanged notes.
4) Theoretical Triangulation
It refers to the analysis of evidence from many theoretical
perspectives. Reviewing theories from a few books, for example.
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2. Case Study
a. Types of Case Study:
According to Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun (2012) there are some types
of case study. The types are explained as follows:
1) Intrinsic Case Study
The researcher is primarily interested in knowing more
about a single person or situation, such as why a pupil is having
difficulty in writing or how successful a program is functioning. It
entails the investigation of a specific case. The objective is to
comprehend the case in its entirety, including its inner workings. It's
utilized in exploratory research when scientists want to discover
more about a little-known phenomena by digging deeper into it.
2) Instrumental Case Study
It is one in which the researcher is interested in learning
more about anything other than a specific case; the researcher is
only interested in studying the case as a means to a wider aim. In
such investigations, the researcher's purpose is more broad and less
focused on the specific people, event, program, or school being
investigated. Researchers that perform such studies are more
interested in generating findings that are generalize rather than
results that are specific to a single case.
3) Multiple or Collective Case Study
The researcher studies several cases at once as part of one
overall study, for example, a researcher might choose numerous
cases to study because he or she is interested in the effects of certain
method for the certain age group.
b. Criteria of Validity of Case Study:
According to Riege (2003), there are two types of design tests,
both of them can and should be incorporated to enhance the quality of
the case study method.
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1) First Design Test

a) Construct validity:
It is the process of determining whether practical
measurements are appropriate for the theoretical concept being
investigated. To improve construct validity, the researcher
should make an attempt to avoid making subjective judgments
during the research design and data collection phases.
Techniques that may be used to increase construct validity:
 For prevention of researcher bias, use various sources of
evidence throughout the data collection phase, such as
triangulation of interview recordings, papers, artifacts, and
others.
 Development of a collection of evidence during the data
collection phase, which includes the use of verbatim
interview transcripts and field trip notes that allow for
sufficient citations and cross-checks of specific sources of
evidence.
 In the report-writing process, reviewing draft case study
reports means allowing key informants and research
assistants to examine interview transcripts, portions of the
data analysis, and the final report describing the findings,
and make changes as needed.
b) Internal validity
It refers to the formation of a cause-and-effect
relationship, but the emphasis in case study research on
developing an internally valid research method is on
establishing phenomena in a convincing manner. The researcher
attempts to uncover not just large patterns of parallels and
variations across respondents' experiences or opinions, but also
what components are important for those patterns and what
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mechanisms created them. Techniques that may be used to

increase internal validity:
 In the data analysis phase, use within-case analysis, cross-
case analysis, and cross-nation pattern matching.
 Display of pictures and diagrams throughout the data
processing phase to aid explanation building.
 Cross-checking the results might help ensure internal
coherence of findings during the data processing phase.
c) External validity
It refers to the extrapolation of specific study findings
to the general population from the immediate manner of inquiry.
Case studies rely on analytical generalization to achieve this
validity, in which specific findings are applied to a larger theory.
The focus is on understanding and exploring constructions,
which is generally done by comparing theoretical structures that
have been recognized and/or constructed with empirical
outcomes from one or numerous case studies.Techniques that
may be used to increase external validity:
 In the research design phase, the use of a (literal and/or
theoretical) replication logic in several case studies was
explored.
 During the study design phase, define the scope and
limitations.
 During the data analysis step, compare the findings to the
existing literature.
d) Reliability
It refers to demonstrating that the research inquiry's
operation and methods can be duplicated by other researchers,
resulting in comparable findings, that is, the amount of findings
can be replicated given that interviewing techniques and
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processes, for example, remain consistent. Techniques that may

be used to increase reliability:
 For each study step, provide a detailed overview of
hypotheses and concepts.
 During the research design phase, ensure that the research
issue and study design elements are in sync.
 Keep a detailed record of the observations and activities.
 Several pilot studies assessing the manner of questioning
and its structure can be used to develop and modify the
case study protocol throughout the research design phase.
 Use of a case study technique that is systematic or semi-
structured.
 Use numerous researchers who discuss methodological
decisions on a regular basis.
 Data should be recorded mechanically, such as on a tape
recorder or videotape.
 At the conclusion of the data collection phase, create a case
study database.
 Ensure that outcomes from numerous data sources are
meaningfully parallel.
 Make use of peer review and examination.
2) Second Design Test
a) Confirmability
This test attempts to determine whether the data
interpretation is rational and unbiased. That is, to determine if
the conclusions are the most logical ones that can be drawn
from the data. Techniques that may be used to increase
confirmability: use the confirmability audit during the
research's data collection and analysis phases. That is, raw data,
results, interpretations, and suggestions are all examined.
During the data collection stage, raw data such as field notes,
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tapes, documents, and others are kept for further examination

by the auditor if necessary. During the data analysis phase, the
auditor must determine if the conclusions based on the data are
reasonable and also check the quality of the results and
interpretations.
b) Credibility
As reality may be understood in a variety of ways,
credibility entails the validation of study findings by either
respondents or peers. Techniques that may be used to increase
credibility:
 During the data gathering and data analysis phases of the
research, the use of triangulation strategies such as
numerous sources of evidence, investigators, and
procedures to increase credibility.
 Using peer debriefing approaches at the data analysis stage,
such as presenting the data analysis and results to
colleagues on a regular basis to encourage eventual
credibility.
 Using the member checks approach, which involves
presenting the results and conclusions to the respondents
and taking their feedback into consideration throughout the
research report writing process.
 Considering the researcher's assumptions and viewpoint, as
well as being conceptually oriented.
 Another strategy for creating credibility is researcher self-
monitoring, which happens during the data collection and
processing phases.
c) Transferability
This test is achieved when the research shows similar
or different findings of a phenomenon among similar or
different respondents or organizations, which enables analytical
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generalization. Techniques that may be used to increase

transferability:
 Develop a case study database during the data collection
phase of the research.
 Use of cross-case and, where appropriate, cross-nation
analysis in the data analysis stage.
 During data analysis, specific coding and analysis
procedures, such as symbols, signs, and others, are used.
d) Dependability
The purpose of this test is to show indications of
stability and consistency in the process of inquiry. The
underlying issue here is whether the procedures or techniques
used in the process of study are consistent. Techniques that may
be used to increase dependability:
 Use of the dependability audit during the research design
phase of the research involves the examination and
documentation of the process of inquiry, and this occurs in
the research design stage. The auditor examines whether
the processes followed in the inquiry are in order,
understandable, well documented, and provide a
mechanism against bias, thus establishing dependability.
 Safeguarding against a researcher’s theoretical position and
biases.

E. Review of Relevant Studies

1. Authentic Materials
Omar and Mekael (2020) performed quantitative research, including
40 Kurdish EFL instructors. This study looked at the perspectives of EFL
teachers on the usage of authentic materials in EFL classes. The findings
reveal that teachers prefer authentic materials and that authentic materials are
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useful in improving students' reading comprehension, communication

competence, and vocabulary acquisition.
In another study, Ciornei and Dina (2015) investigated the
association between the usage of authentic materials and the enhancement of
students' communication abilities. They employed qualitative experimental
research that included 90 students in the Pedagogy of Preschool and Primary
Education program as participants. The results indicated that the
communicative competence and reading comprehension of more than half of
the students improved. The researchers also noted some of the teachers'
perceptions of the benefits and drawbacks of authentic materials. Among the
advantages, it is easy to find the texts, makes the students acquainted with the
current language and issues, enhances their confidence, and aids in the
development of a feeling of cultural identity among the pupils. Meanwhile,
the researchers identified the following drawbacks: the texts are too advanced,
they are not assessed, they have simple grammar but high vocabulary, and the
texts feature irrelevant terms that pupils are unlikely to apply.
With 39 participants who were first grade students in a high school
in Bone, Indonesia, Assiddiq (2019) did a quasi-experimental study about the
impact of authentic materials in the Indonesian reading comprehension
classroom. In this study, the researcher employed two types of tools to assess
students' reading comprehension and motivation to learn to read: the reading
comprehension test and the Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ).
The study lasted over 12 class meetings, which consisted of the first meeting
used to give the students the reading comprehension and MRQ pre-test, 10
meetings for treatments, and the last meeting used to give the reading
comprehension and MRQ post-test. The results indicated that students'
reading comprehension and motivation improved when they used authentic
materials.
The following research is by Khoshbakht and Gorjian (2017). They
examined the impact of both authentic and non-authentic materials on
increasing Iranian EFL learners' reading comprehension using a quantitative
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methodology. The participants in this study were 50 Iranian EFL students

studying English at the Pooya Language Institute in Abadan. They completed
an online proficiency exam (OPT), and 24 of them were randomly allocated
to one of two groups: authentic or non-authentic. This study lasted for 14
meetings, during which the pre-test and post-test were given at the first and
last meetings to assess students' reading comprehension before and after the
treatments. The authentic group received 12 authentic-based reading passages
during the 12 meetings, while the non-authentic group received 12 non-
authentic-based reading passages. The results revealed that the individuals in
the authentic group performed better in terms of reading comprehension.
Furthermore, pupils felt more motivated to read after reading the authentic
texts since the passages were engaging to them.
2. Systematic Review
A systematic review study about flipped classrooms was conducted
by Turan and Akdag-Cimen (2019). The goal of this research is to look at the
trends and key findings from studies on the flipped classroom approach in the
field of English language instruction (ELT). In this study, the trends and key
results of 43 publications obtained from the Web of Science, Eric, Taylor &
Francis, and Education Full Text EBSCO were examined. For the first study
question, the data revealed that, in terms of publication years, the number of
papers discussing the usage of the flipped classroom approach in ELT has
increased significantly since 2014. The issue has also generated a lot of
attention, especially after 2017. The researchers discovered that mixed and
quantitative research methods were the most widely employed research
methods. The findings revealed that university students were the most
prevalent sample group, followed by K-12 students and other participants
(teachers and EFL and ESL learners). Finally, in terms of article nations, the
research found that Taiwan had the largest number of publications discussing
the flipped classroom approach in EFL.
Meanwhile, for the second research question, in the examined
studies, the results revealed that speaking and writing were the most widely
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learned language abilities. The most generally stated benefit of the flipped
classroom approach in EFL is enhanced student involvement because the
flipped classroom technique emphasizes active learning. Meanwhile, when it
comes to the negatives of the flipped classroom technique in ELT, the most
prevalent issues raised by research include increased workload for
students and internet/technology issues. Finally, numerous studies compared
the flipped classroom technique to traditional teaching in ELT in order to
determine its efficacy. According to the findings, the flipped classroom
technique outperforms traditional instruction. Other studies that used pre and
post examinations to assess the impact of the flipped classroom
technique also found that it enhances the EFL learning process.
Mateus-Vasconcelos, et al. (2017) conducted a comprehensive
review of the literature as well. In their study, they reviewed physiotherapy
strategies for facilitating pelvic floor muscle contraction. This study looked at
six papers that discussed physiotherapy approaches for facilitating pelvic
floor muscle contraction. Instruction on the anatomy and function of the PFM,
vaginal palpation, palpation on the central perineal tendon, interruption of
urinary flow, biofeedback with a perineometer, vaginal cones, hypopressive
exercise, PFM contraction associated with diaphragmatic breathing, and
coactivation of abdominal muscles were among the methods investigated.
After analyzing the data, the researchers concluded that while all of the
studies showed improvement in PFM contraction using various approaches,
none of them were superior to the others. The majority of the research was of
poor methodology. Only one piece of research received a good rating for
methodological quality. The treatments utilized in the research had no
negative effects. In healthcare decision-making, patient preferences should be
considered. There is a need for further high-quality methodological study on
this topic.
Purchase and Volery (2020) conducted a systematic review of
research about marketing innovation. The goal of their research is to look at
the evolution of "marketing innovation," which is described as the
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deployment of new marketing methods, including major improvements in a

product or service's design, distribution, promotion, or price. They analyzed
353 articles in this study. While marketing strategies are commonly confused
with the dominant technological focus that underpins product or service
innovation, the findings reveal that there is a growing trend to consider the
innovation potential offered by the development of new distribution channels,
branding strategies, communication types, or pricing mechanisms. New
communication techniques, branding tactics, product designs, and transaction
settings are all made possible by digitization, which is a primary driver for
marketing innovation. Focusing on co-production, service-dominant rationale,
and user viewpoints is becoming increasingly prevalent.