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UPDATED TO 2020-22 SYLLABUS

CAIE A2 LEVEL
FURTHER MATHS
(9231)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE FURTHER MECHANICS SYLLABUS
CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

Final velocity, according to the SUVAT equations, is also

dependent on the initial velocity and any acceleration
1. Projectiles acting on the projectile:
v = u + at
1.1. Initial Velocity Above is a scalar equation which can be written in each
component as:
Consider the following diagram: vx = ucosθ vy = usinθ − gt
​ ​

o Note that only vy has a −gt term because gravity only

​

affects the y -component, and it is negative due to gravity

going downwards.
The final speed of the projectile can be achieved by taking
the magnitude:
v= vx2 + vy2 =
​ ​ ​ (ucosθ)2 + (usinθ − gt)2 ​

This shows that an initial speed can be defined in
components as:
In this notation:
θ defines the angle of projection from the horizontal.
1.4. Displacement
The distance the particle has moved from the origin.
Displacement is dependent on initial velocity and
acceleration, or final velocity and acceleration:
sx = ucos(θ)t sy = usin(θ)t − 12 gt2
​ ​ ​

u x defines the horizontal velocity component.

These can be derived from one of the SUVAT equations:
u y defines the vertical velocity component
s = ut + 12 at2
​

1.2. Gravitational Acceleration

Gravity affects all projectiles.
Gravity only affects the vertical component of speed.
g = 10ms−2 for both Mechanics syllabus in CAIE.
Note: this assumes that air resistance is negligible
1.3. Final Velocity
Sample Question
Question:
A ball was projected at an angle of 60° to the horizontal.
One second later another ball was projected from the same
point at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. One second after
the second ball was released, the two balls collided. Show
that the velocities of the balls were 12.99ms−1 and 15ms−1
. Take the value of g to be 10ms−2 .
Solution:
Visualise the scenario:
At zero time:

At t =1

This defines the velocity of the projectile after seconds of

travel.

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

It can also be written in terms of & only as:

u2 sin2θ
x max = ​

g ​

Maximum Horizontal Range: the maximum possible

horizontal distance the projectile can cover at a given
initial velocity.
u2 sin2θ
Knowing x max = ​

g , the maximum distance can

​

be achieved when θ = 45°

Cartesian Equation of a Trajectory: For any projectile, the
trajectory can be modelled by the equation:
gx2
y = tanθ − 2u2 ​ sec 2 θ
o θ is the angle of projection.
o u is the initial speed.
Therefore, when given a cartesian equation as:
At t =2 y = ax − bx 2
Then,
g
a = tanθ b = 2u2 ​ sec 2 θ

9231/32/M/J/20 - Question 1
A particle is projected with speed u at an angle of 30° above
the horizontal from a point O on a horizontal plane and
moves freely under gravity. The particle reaches its greatest
Let velocity for first ball be U1 and second ball be U2 ​ ​
height at time T after projection.
2
Displacement from origin is equal for both at impact. Find, in terms of u, the speed of P at time 3 T after ​

∴ r1 = r2 ​ ​
projection.
r 1 = (U1 (2)cos60)i + (U1 (2)sin60 − 5(2)2 )j
​ ​ ​
Solution
r 2 = (U2 (1)cos30)i + (U2 (1)sin30 − 5(1)2 )j
​ ​ ​
Get the projectile’s horizontal & vertical component:
Equate horizontal components: vx = ucos30° vy = usin30° − gt
​ ​

∴ 2U1 cos60 = U2 cos30

​ ​
Simplifying:

U1 = 23 U2 ​ vx = 23 u vy = 12 u − gt
​
​

​ ​ ​

For P to be in max height, vertical compoment must be equal

​ ​ ​

Equate vertical components and substitute info above:

∴ 2U1 sin60 − 20 = U2 sin30 − 5 to 0:
0 = 12 u − gT
​ ​

(2( 23 )( 23 ) − 12 )U2 = 15
​

​ ​

u
→ T = 20
​ ​ ​ ​

U2 = 15ms−1
​

We used g = 10 . The above can be instantly found if you

​

Find U1
remember the formula for the time taken to reach max
​

U1 = 23 (15) = 12.99ms−1
​
​

height.
We can then let t = 23 T = 30
u and put it into our components: ​ ​

1.5. Special Events vx = ​

3
2 u
​

​ vy = ​
1
2u ​ − u
g( 30​)
Simplifying vy : ​

Time at Maximum Vertical Height: the time at which the

vy = 12 u − u
3
projectile reaches its max height, at a given initial velocity
​ ​ ​

= u6
and angle of elevation.
​

We can take the magnitude of these components to find the

This occurs when vertical component of velocity is :
speed:
U sinθ − gt = 0
3
∴ t = usineθ v= ( 2 u)
​

​
2 + ( u6 )2 \n = u ​ ​ ( 3 2 )2 + ( u6 )2
​ ​ ​

g ​

Total Flight Time: knowing the time taken to reach max 7

= 3 u
​

vertical height, its total flight time is just twice of it. Hence:
t= 2usinθ
g
2. Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
​

Horizontal Range: the horizontal distance the projectile

covers at a given initial velocity and angle of elevation.
Occurs when the vertical displacement is : 2.1. Moment of a Force
utsinθ − 12 gt2 = 0 ​

Find and substitute into the equation below: Moment of a force = ∣F ∣ × d

x max = utcosθ ∣F ∣: magnitude of the force

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)
d : perpendicular distance from pivot to point of force
Units: Newton-meter (N m)
Moments are vector quantities and act clockwise or
anticlockwise around pivot.
Clockwise is generally considered as positive direction.
Principle of Moments: when a system is in equilibrium the
sum of anticlockwise moments is equal to the sum of
clockwise moments.
anti − clockwise moments =
clockwise moments
Sample Question:
The diagram shows an aerial view of a revolving door. Four
people are exerting forces of 40N , 60N , 80N and 90N as
shown. Find the distance x if the total moment of the forces
about O is 12N m
Solution:
Use the sum of turning forces equation:
clockwise moments + anticlockwise moments = 12N m
Find clockwise moments:
(80 × 1.6) + (60 × 0.8) = 128 + 48 = 176
Find anticlockwise moments:
−((90 × 1.6) + (40 × x)) = −(144 + 40x)
Substitute back into formula and solve for x :
176 + (−(144 + 40x)) = 12
176 − 144 − 40x = 12
x = 0.5m
2.2. Unknown Forces
Magnitude of forces may not always be given.
Eliminate an unknown/unwanted force by making the
point on which it acts the pivot
Sample Question:
A uniform plank is m long and has mass kg. It is placed on
horizontal ground at the edge of a cliff, with m of the plank
projecting over the edge.
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i. How far out from the cliff can a man of mass 75kg safely
walk?
ii. The man wishes to walk to the end of the plank. What is the
minimum mass he should place on the other end of the plank
to do this?
Solution:
Part (i)
Draw up diagram of given scenario:
Use the principle of moments and solve for x :
anti-clockwise moments = clockwise moments
100g × 2 = 75g × x
∴ x = 100g×2
75g = 2.67
​
Part (ii)
Draw up diagram of given scenario:
Minimum mass therefore maximum distance from pivot
Use the principle of moments and solve for x :
anti-clockwise moments = clockwise moments
(100g × 2) + (mg × 8) = 75g × 4
∴ m = (75g×4)−(100g×2)
g×8 = 12.5 m
​
2.3. Forces in Different Directions
Forces may act at an angle to the plane
Equilibrium maintained using components of forces
Sample Question
A uniform ladder of mass 20kg and length 3m rests against a
smooth wall with the bottom of the ladder on smooth
horizontal ground and attached by means of a light
inextensible string, 1m long, to the base of the wall
i. Find the tension in the string
ii. If the breaking strain of the string is 250N, find how far up
the ladder a man of mass 80kg can safely ascend.
Solution:
Part (i)
Daw up diagram of given scenario:
CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

  = m1 ( ) + m2 ( 2 )
x1 x
∴ (m1 + m2 + …) (xy)
​ ​

y1  y2 
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​

+…
We can solve for x & y separately instead of using
​

vectors:
(m1 + m2 + …)(x ) = m1 x 1 + m2 x 2 + …
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

And
(m1 + m2 + …)y = m1 y1 + m2 y2 + …
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

2.6. Centre of Mass of Rigid Bodies

1-Dimensional Objects:

Uniform rod: centre of mass lies at midpoint of the rod

2-Dimensional Objects:

Uniform Rectangular Lamina: centre of mass is at the

intersection of diagonals
The following and more informational can be found in the
formula sheet List MF19

Find the angle of

elevation, θ , from the horizontal:
cosθ = 13 ​

θ = 70.5°
Use the principle of moments and solve for T : G=
 idpoint of
1.5 × 20g × cos70.5 = 3 × T × cos19.5 ( )
m AB
T = 34.7 midpoint of C D
​ ​ ​

Part (ii)
Uniform Circular Lamina: centre of mass is at the centre
In above scenario assume that the man can take any position
of the circle
on the ladder, call it x
Use the principle of moments and solve for x :
anti-clockwise moments = clockwise moments
((1.5)20g + (x)80g)cos70.5 = (3)(250)cos19.5
x = 2.32

2.4. Centre of Mass

Centre of Mass: centre of gravity of the system when it is
placed in a gravitational field such that each part of
system is subject to the same gravitational acceleration
Centroid: geometrical centre; coincides with the centre of
mass when the object is made of a uniformly dense Uniform Triangular Lamina:
material

2.5. Finding Centre of Mass

We can find the centre of mass by taking moments
If each mass mi has position vector, r i then the position
​

Σmi r i
vector of the centre of mass r is: r = Σmi
​

​
​

( ) ( )

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

1 x x
A=( ), B = ( 2 ), C = ( 3 )
x ​ ​ ​

y1  y2  y 3 
​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

1
 (x + x 2 + x 3 )
∴ G = ( 31 1 )
​ ​ ​ ​

3 (y1 + y2 + y3 
​

​ ​ ​ ​

Uniform Circular sector with angle 2θ :

C entre of mass : 14 h from base or 34 h from vertex

​ ​

Uniform Hemisphere: centre of mass lies in the centre of

the base and height 38 of the radius
​

2rsinθ
h= 2θ ​

3- Dimensional Objects:

Uniform Solid Prism: centre of mass lies at the centre of

mass of the cross-section and in the midpoint of length

h= 3r
8 ​

Uniform Cone: centre of mass lies in the centre of the

base and height in ratio 3:1 to its height 2.7. Composite Bodies
Split composite body into simple geometrical shapes
Find the centre of mass of each shape individually
By taking moments with vectors, find the centre of mass
of the composite body
If the separate geometrical shapes have different
densities, use V × ρ instead of just V
Therefore, in general:
x x x
(v1 ρ 1 + v2 ρ 2 + …) ( ) = v1 ρ 1 ( 1 ) +v2 ρ 2 ( 2 )
​ ​

y  y1  y2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

+…

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

For a lamina with a hole in it, find the centre of mass of

the lamina, then find centre of mass of the hole and use
moments to find centre of mass of the shaded part
In these cases:

9231/32/M/J/20 - Question 4:

A uniform sqaure lamina ABCD has sides of length 10cm.

The point E is on BC = 7.5cm, and the point F is on DC
with CF = xcm. The triangle EFC is removed from 2.8. Sliding and Toppling
ABC D (see diagram). The centre of mass of the resulting
shape ABEF D is a distance x cm from CB and a distance Sliding: when the resultant force on the object parallel to
y cm from C D. the plane of contact becomes non-zero, that is, the
400−x2 limiting friction force is exceeded by the other forces, the
a) Show that x = 80−3x and find a corresponding
object will slide
​

expression for y
Toppling: when total moment of the forces acting on the
The shape ABEF D is in equilibrium in a vertical plane with
object becomes non-zero, the object will topple over
the edge DF resting on a smooth horizontal surface
b) Find the greatest possible value of x , giving your answer in
Solution:
the fomr of a + b 2 , where a and b are constants to be
First find the angle needed to slide:
​

determined
Draw diagram at hypothetical angle
Solution:
Part a)

Resolve forces horizontal to slope:

F − mgsinθ = 0
∴ F = mgsinθ
Resolve forces vertical to slope:
R − mgcosθ = 0

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

∴ R = mgcosθ Particle P moves in a circular path (the red line)

Form a relationship by dividing the unknowns: Angular Displacement: θrad
F
R ​ = tanθ Angular Velocity:
Substitute F = 0.4R into the equation
tanθ = 0.4
v is the velocity
θ = tan−1 0.4 = 21.8
r is the radius
Now find the angle needed to topple:
Find centre of mass by using composite bodies rule: From here we can deduce that the velocity is
 0 .15 0 .1
m ( ) = 23 m ( ) + 13 m ( )
x
y  0 .15 0 .4
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

0 .13 Centripetal Acceleration:

( )=( )
x
y  0 .23
​

Prism topples when centre of mass is vertically above point A

Calculate this required angle using Pythogaras:
Centripetal Force:

Applying F = ma to centripetal acceleration, we get,

Time taken for each complete revolution:

Linear Displacement:

tanϕ = 0.13
0.23 Sample Question:
​

ϕ = 29.7 A particle of mass 3kg is placed on a rough, horizontal

From this we can see θ < ϕ, thus when the equilibrium is turntable and is connected to its centre by a light, inextensible
broken, the object will slide string of length 0.8m. The coefficient of friction between the
particle and the turntable is 0.4. The turntable is made to

3. Circular Motion rotate at a uniform speed. If the tension in the string in 50N ,
find the angular speed of the turntable.
Solution:
3.1. Motions in a circular path
Consider the following diagram:

3.2. Motion in Horizontal Circles

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

In this scenario, a body is attached to a fixed point by

string and travels in a horizontal circle below that point
Resolve forces horizontally and vertically with respect to
the rotating body

Resolve forces vertically:

Rcos25 = mg
Resolve forces horizontally:
mv 2
Rsin25 = r ​

Form a relationship by dividing the two:

2
v
tan25 = 150g ​

v = 26.2ms−1
Part (b):
At max speed, car about to slip upwards ∴ frictional force
would act towards the centre of the circle

3.3. Banked Curves

Resolve forces vertically (direction of gravity):
Curved sections of public roads/railway tracks banked, mg + 0.4Rsin25 = Rcos25
enabling cars/trains to travel more quickly around curves Resolve forces horizontally (direction of centripetal):
Normal reaction between the vehicle and the track has a mv 2
= 0.4Rcos25 + Rsin25
r ​

horizontal component when track is banked Pull out common factors from both sides:
This component helps to provide central force needed to m(g) = R(cos25 − 0.4sin25)
keep vehicle travelling in a circle v2
m( 150 ) = R(0.4cos25 + sin25)
​

Form a relationship by dividing these equations:

Sample Question: v2 0.4cos25+sin25
A car is travelling round a curve of radius 150m banked at 150g ​ = cos25−0.4sin25 ​

25° to the horizontal. The coefficient of friction between the Part (c):
wheels and the road is 0.4 At min speed, car about to slip downwards ∴ frictional force
a) What is the ideal speed of the car round the curve: that is, would act away from the centre of the circle
no lateral frictional force?
b) What is the maximum safe speed of the car?
c) What is the minimum safe speed of the car?
Solution:
Part (a):
Draw diagram of scenario:

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

Resolve forces vertically (direction of gravity):

mg = Rcos25 + 0.4Rsin25
Resolve forces horizontally (direction of centripetal):
mv 2
r ​ = Rsin25 − 0.4Rcos25
Pull out common factors from both sides:
m(g) = R(cos25 + 0.4sin25)
v2
m( 150 ) = R(sin25 − 0.4Rcos25)
​

Form a relationship by dividing these equations:

v2
150g= sin25−0.4cos25
cos25+0.4sin25
​ ​

v = 9.06ms−1

3.4. Motion in a Vertical Circle

When moving in a vertical circle a body is in circular
motion with non-uniform speed
If the tension or reaction force is 0 during the motion, then
the object has left the circular path and is now a projectile
The condition for a particle to complete vertical circles
4. Hooke’s Law
with radius r , starting from the lowest point, its initial
speed must satisfy: Springs can be compressed and stretched
Elastic strings can only stretch; they go slack
u≥ 5gr ​

Although it is not mandatory to memorize the above,

another way to deduce if a particle completes vertical 4.2. Hooke’s Law
circles is that its reaction force must not be 0 at the
highest point of the circle, that is: The tension in an elastic string or spring is directly
R≥0 proportional to the extension of the string/spring
Apply the conservation of energy on solving vertical T = λxl ​

circles questions: T is the magnitude of tension

1 2
+ P EA = 12 mv 2 + P EB x is the extension or compression
2 mu ​ ​ ​ ​

Where A is usually the starting point, and B is the λ is the modulus of elasticity
general point of the motion l is the string/spring’s natural length
Apply ΣF = ma towards the centre of the circle When a system is resting in equilibrium, the tension is
Once the two equations have been found, it can be constant and proportional to the extension
simultaneously solved
For motion on hemispheres 4.3. Scenarios
Using ΣF = ma towards the centre gives:
mv 2 If a mass is hanging at one end of a spring with the other
mgcosθ − R = r ​

When a particle is projected from the top of a attached to a fixed point, the tension in the spring must be
hemisphere, provided the initial speed 0 < θ < equal to the weight of the object
cos−1 23 ​

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

λx2
= 2l ​

Used in conjunction with kinetic and potential energy

(work-energy principle)

If two springs are attached between two fixed points and

both are extended, the tension in both must be the same
in order for there to be no net force overall

If two springs are attached to fixed points and an object in

the middle, tensions and frictional force must act in such
way that overall force on mass = 0

If a spring is attached to an object on a rough surface, the

frictional force acts in the direction opposing tension in
the spring (preventing it to return to its original shape)
If a mass is on an incline and held at rest by a spring, the
tension in the spring must be equal to the component of
the weight parallel to the slope

4.4. Elastic Potential Energy

Work done in stretching a string/spring is given by:
λx2
W = 2l ​

Also gives work done in compressing a spring.

Derivation:

The case when and is arbitrary

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

Then apply boundary conditions (usually called initial

conditions)

5. Linear Motion under a

Variable Force
In this chapter, we denote:
x as displacement
v as velocity
a as acceleration
t as time
5.4. Acceleration with respect to
5.2. Terminology displacement
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect Not all the time we can solve differential equations with
to time. respect to t
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect If the question gives an acceleration function in terms of x
to time. or v , then we need to use an alternative form of
acceleration:
dv
5.3. Acceleration with respect to time a = v dx ​

Derivation:
We can denote velocity and acceleration as a derivative dv
dx dv 2
d x a=
v= a= = dt ​

dt dt dt 2 By the chain rule:

​ ​ ​

If given velocity, we can find its displacement function by dv dv dx

= dx ×
integrating the velocity function dt dt
​ ​ ​

But v = dx
x = ∫ vdt dt ​

Same goes for finding velocity if given acceleration

∴ a = v dx
dv

v = ∫ adt

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5.5. Variable Forces

Bodies undergo variable acceleration due to the effect of
variable forces e.g., gravitational fields.
Important to put negative sign if decelerating e.g., when a
body falls in resistive medium.
Deriving an expression for force in terms of velocity and
displacement:
dv
F = ma a = v dx ​

dv
F = mv dx ​

Deriving an expression for force in terms of work done:

For an object moving from x 1 to x 2 the change in kinetic

energy or work done can be defined as:
x
W = ∫x12 F dx
​

6. Momentum
​

∴ dW
dx = F
​

Deriving an expression of power in terms of roce and

velocity 6.1. Momentum
dW dW dx
P = dt ​ = dx ​ × dt ​ = Fv
M omentum = mv
Conservation of linear momentum: The total momentum
of a system in a particular direction remains constant
unless an external force is applied.

Momentum Before Collision = Momentum After Collision

Momentum before = (6 × 4) + (−4 × 2) = 16

Momentum after = 6 × v = 6v
16 = 6v
v = 2.67ms−1

6.3. Newton’s Law of Restitution

When two objects collide directly,
Separation Speed v2 −v1
e= Approach Speed ​ = u1 −u2
​

Separation speed = The positive difference in speed of the

two bodies after they collide
Approach speed = the positive different in speed of the
bodies before they collide
The constant e is called the coefficient of restitution for
the objects and takes a value between 0 and 1
e = 0 ; totally inelastic impact, no rebounding
e = 1 ; perfectly elastic impact, speeds unchanged

In realty, perfectly elastcitiy does not occur hence, 0 ≤e≤1

6.4. Oblique Impacts

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Impact between a smooth sphere and a fixed surface: The law of conservation of momentum applies along line
of impact

Solution:
Sketch a diagram of what is happening:

The impulse on the sphere acts perpendicular to the

surface, along line of impact
Newton’s law of restitution applied to the component of
the velocity of the sphere along line of impact
The component of the velocity of the sphere along plane
of impact is unchanged

Impact between two spheres:

Impulse affecting each sphere also acts along line of

impact
Components of velocities of spheres along plane of
impact unchanged
Newton’s law of restitution applied to components of the
velocities of the spheres along line of impact

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CAIE A2 LEVEL
Further Maths (9231)

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