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 Nonlinear Waves,
Solitons and Chaos

Erγk lnfeld
Institute for Nuclear Studies, Warsaw

George Rowlands
Department of Physics, University of Warwick

2nd edition
 PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridg巴， United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk
40 West 20th Stre仗， New York, NY 10011-42 日， USA http://www.cup.org
10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcon 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain

First edition© Cambridge University Press 1990

Second edition© Infcld and Rowlands 2000

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory 巴xc巴ption

and to the provisions of relevant collectiv巴 licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the writ!巴n permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 1990

Reprinted (with corrections) 1992
Second edition 2000

Printed in the Unit巴d Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typeset in Tim巴s 9.5/13pt [ VN]

A catalogue record.for this book is available ρ。111 the British Library

Library o.fCongress Cataloguing in Publication data

Infeld, E. (Eryk)
Nonlinear waves, solitons, and chaos/ E. Infe泊， G. Rowlands 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical r巳ferences and index.
ISBN O 521632129 (hb)
1. Solitons. 2. Chaotic behavior in systems. 3. Nonlinear waves. I. Rowlands, G. (George) II. Title.
QC174.26.W28.155 2000 530.14-dc2199-045441

的BN O 521 63212 9 hardback

ISBN O 521 63557 8 paperback
 Co畸重＠甜重$

’, ex

月廿
α
7L-1

、，’，
Foreword to the first edition ZA

.---.I
Foreword to the second edition
1 Introduction 1

1.1 Occurrence of nonlinear waves and instabilities in Nature

1.1.1 Nonlinear phenomena in our everyday experience
1.1.2 Nonlinear phenomena in the laboratory 3
1.2 Universal wave equations 5
1.2.1 The Korteweg de Vries and Kadomtsev Petviashvili equations
and a first look at solitons 5
1.2.2 The nonlinear Schrodinger equation 8
1.2.3 Nonlinear optics 9
1.3 What is a plasma? 9
1.4 Wave modes on a water surface 12
1.4.1 Mathematical theory 12
titis
1.4.2 Comments A『 OOOO

1.5 Linear stability analysis and its limitations

－可

1.6 Nonlinear structures

勻，』弓
JM 弓JM 勻，“勻

1.6.1 Coherent structures and pattern formation

Jnb

1.7 Contents of Chapters 2-11

2 Linear waves and instabilities in infinite media

有JqJAU
L

2.1 Introduction
而／但令J

2.2 Plasma waves

2.3 CMA diagrams
弓J
句J

2.4 Instabilities
月／可以句
勻3A

2.5 The Vlasov equation

峙aA 『

2.6 Weak instabilities

Exercises
f

3 Convective and non” convective instabilities; group velocity in unstable media 48

3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 Kinematics of unstable wavepackets 50

v
VI Contents

3.3 Moving coordinate systems 54

3.4 Higher dimensional systems 56
3.5 Summary 57
Exercise 57

4 A first look at surface waves and instabilities 59

4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Simple surface waves 61
4.3 The Rayleigh Taylor instability 66
4.4 Th巳 Kelvin Helmholtz instability 68
4.5 Solid liquid interface instabilities 71
4.6 A fir前 look at gravity wave instabiliti巳S 72
4.6.1 The small amplitude onset of wave instability 73
4.6.2 Further numerical results 75
4.7 Summary 81
Exercises 81

5 Model equations for small amplitude waves and solitons; weakly

nonlinear theory 82

5.1 Introduction 82
5.1.1 Some physical equations ask for surgery 82
5.1.2 Examples 83
5.2 A few model 巴quations as derived by introducing a small
parameter 85
5.2.1 Shallow water, weak amplitude gravity waves 85
5.2.2 Weak amplitud巳 ion acoustic waves in an
unmagnetized plasma 89
5.2.3 Weak amplitude ion acoustic waves in a magnetized
plasma 91
5.3 Weakly nonlinear waves 92
5.3.1 Spreading, splitting and instabilities 92
5.3.2 The story of deep water waves 98
5.3.3 Mystery of the missing term 100
5.3.4 Dynamics of a wavepacket 102
5.3.5 Some generalizations 104
5.4 A general look at two families of model equations 107
5.5 A natural extension to finite amplitude waves due to Hayes 111
5.6 Temporal development of instabilities and wave wave
coupling 114
5.7 Concluding remarks 119
Exercises 119

6 Exact methods for fully nonlinear waves and solitons 123

6.1 Introduction 123

6.2 Phase plane analysis and oth巴r methods 124
 Contents vii

6.2.1 One stationary wave in a dissipationless medium 124

6.2.2 A two-fluid layer soliton pair 129
6.2.3 Weak ion acoustic shock waves in a collisional plasma 132
6.2.4 Solitons generated by laser fields 134
6.2.5 Solitons and domains in dipole chains 136
6.2.6 Discrete equations 139
6.3 Bernstein一Green巳一Kruskal waves 143
6.3.1 Statistical description of a plasma and BGK waves 144
6.3.2 No trapped particles 145
6.3.3 Various limits 146
6.3.4 Trapped particle equilibria 147
6.3.5 Stability; subsequent developments 150
6.4 Lagrangian methods 152
6.5 Lagrangian interpolation 159
Exercises 164

7 Cartesian solitons in one and two space dimensions 166

7.1 Introduction 166

7.2 The direct method 168
7.3 Constants of motion 171
7.4 Inverse scattering m巳thod 173
7.5 Backlund transformations 175
7.6 Entr’acte 177
7.7 Breath巴rs and boundary effects 178
7.8 Experimental evidence 180
7.9 Plane soliton interaction in two space dimensions 181
7.9.1 Introducing the trace method 181
7.9.2 One and two soliton solutions 183
7.9.3 Some other developments and summary 188
7.10 Integrable equations in two space dimensions as treated by the
Zakharov-Shabat method 192
7.10.1 Lax pairs and the PD Es they represent 193
7.10.2 Extension to x,y,t 194
7.10.3 How to proceed from the Lax pair to the general solution 195
7.10.4 An example: the Kadomtsev P巴tviashvili equation 196
7.11 Summary 199
Ex巳rcises 200

8 Evolution and stability of initially one-dimensional waves and

soIi tons 202

8.1 A brief historical survey of large amplitude nonlinear wave

studies 202
8.1.1 Solitons 204
8.1.2 Water waves are unstable 206
8.1.3 The geometrical optics limit 207
VIII Contents

8.1.4 More recent results 211

8.1.5 What the remainder of Chapter 8 is about 212
8.2 Four methods as illustr叫巴d by the nonlinear Klein-Gordon equation 213
8.2.1 Whitham I 214
8.2.2 Whitham II 219
8.2.3 K expansion 220
8.2.4 日 ayes 223
8.3 Higher dimensional dynamics 224
8.3.1 Kadomtsev Petviashvili as analysed by Whitham II 224
8.3.2 Various limits 230
8.3.3 Common featur巴s of the weak amplitude and soliton limits for
l戶＝ 0 231
8.3.4 Group velocity 233
8.3.5 Zakharov Kuzn巴tsov as analysed by K expansion 236
8.3.6 The variational method 244
8.4 A more physical approach leading to an assessment of models 245
8.4.1 Form of the waves considered 245
8.4.2 Unmagnetized plasmas, Qc = 0 246
8.4.3 Magnetized plasmas, Qc > 0 249
8 回5 Dynamics of nonlinear wave, shock and soliton solutions to the cubic
nonlinear Schrodinger equation 252
8.5.1 Results of a general stability calculation 253
8.5.2 One-dimensional dynamics ：收＝ 0 254
8.5.3 Oblique and perpendicular propagation of perturbations 257
8.6 The direct K m巴thod 258
8.6.1 Transverse instability of Zakharov Kuznetsov solitons 259
8.6.2 The Cahn Hilliard equation 263
8.7 Some general conclusions and possible future lines of investigation 264
Exercises 265

9 Cylindrical and spherical solitons in plasmas and other media 268

9.1 Interest in higher dimensional plasma solitons 268

9.2 Unidirectional cylindrical and spherical ion acoustic solitons 269
9.2.1 Model equations in non-Cartesian g巴ometry 269
9.2.2 Cylindrical soliton equations CI and CII 269
9.2.3 Spherical solitons 271
9.2.4 Summary 272
9.3 Properties of unidirectional soliton equations 272
9 回 3.1 Int巴grability by inverse scattering 272
9.3.2 Conservation laws 273
9.4 Soliton solutions as compared with numerics and experiments 275
9.4.1 Exact solutions to Cl 277
9.4.2 Initial value problem and experiments 277
9.4.3 Reflection from the axis (centre) 280
9.4.4 Models 284
 Contents ix

9.4.5 Stability of cylindrical solitons 287

9.5 Langmuir solitons 287
9.5.1 Integrability 288
9.5.2 Stability of Langmuir solitons 288
9.6 Interacting solitons and some conclusions 291
9回7 Epilogue. Some other examples of spherical and cylindrical solitons 292
Exercises 294

10 Soliton metamorphosis 296

10.1 The next step in investigating soliton behaviour 296

10.2 Decay of line KPI solitons in two dimensions 297
10.3 Decay of 2D solitons in three dimensions 301
10.3.1 2D solitons perturbed perpendicular to the motion 301
10.3.2 2D solitons perturbed parallel to the velocity 302
10.4 Conclusions 303
Exercises 303

11 Non-coherent phenomena 304

11.1 Introduction 304

11.2 Bifurcation sequences and chaos 311
11.3 Flows and maps 326
11.4 Strange attractors 329
11.5 Effect of external noise 340
11.6 Experimental evidence for strange attractors 341
11.7 Other theories of turbulence 343
11.8 Conclusions 344
Ex巳rcises 345

Appendices 346

Al Parameter stretching as suggest巴d by the linear dispersion relations 346

Al.l Ion acoustic waves in an unmagnetized plasma’。c
。 346
Al.2 Magnetized plasmas’。c>O 347
A2 Relation between the trac巴 method and the inverse scattering method 349
A3 Some formulae for perturb巳d nonlinear ion acoustic waves and solitons 351
A3.l No magnetic field 351
A3.2 QC> 0 352
A4 Colliding soliton theory 354
A5 A model equation for spherical solitons 356
A6 Stability calculation for 2D KPI soliton in 3D 358

References 360
Author index 379
Subject index 387

Colour plates between pages 300-301

 Fa時 W甜甜甜臨 e fi『討
會dition

The last few decades have seen three important developm巳nts in nonlinear classical physics, all of
which extend across the board of physical disciplines. They have, however, received unev巳n
cov巳rage in the literature.
Perhaps the b巳st known outburst of activity is associated with the soliton, and the most
famous development here is the inverse scatt巳ring method which has been with us now for over
twenty years. There ar巴， however, several other, less known methods for treating solitons. Indeed
these compact, single hump wave entities have been known to scientists for over a century and a
half (it might be interesting to look through som巴 old ships’ log books!). 1、」巴vert
th巴 subject t巳nd to conc巴ntrat巴 on th巴 invers巳 scatt巴ringm巳t﹜1od.
Th巴 second much publicized development is a new understanding of some deterministic
aspects of chaos as well as the various roads a physical system can take to reach a chaotic state.
Established views are being revised and new concepts and indeed even universal constants are
being found. These important new developments der切e from a realization that complex chaotic
behaviour can be described by simple equations. The field has now reached the stage where a
summary of basic theory can be given, though applications to specific physical problems ar巴
largely at the research stage.
The third developm巴nt is som巳what less well publicized. Over the last three decades or so,
scientists working on fluid dynamics and plasma and solid state theory have dev巴loped a
multitude of new methods to deal with nonlinear waves. Some of these people were aware of the
shortcomings of our linear physics education even before the abov巴”mentioned two d巴 velop­
ments brought them to the attention of the scientific community.
We believe that, although there are now a number of books on all three topics, the time has
come to try to bring them together in one volume. Thus the pres巳 nt book documents the three
important d巴velopments in classical physics jointly, and, when possible, points out the similari-
ties of approach.
The authors’ research interest over the past twenty years has been in fluid dynamics and
plasma theory and this is reflected in th巳 book. However, the main aim is to cover a wider range of
nonlinear wave phenom巴na than hitherto. A few examples of what is don巳 are: treatment of both
surface and volume wave phenomena, including recent results (e.g. instabilities and their pictorial
r巴presentation, wavelength doubling, wave dynamics in three dimensions, splitting of signals
observed experimentally, the univ巴rsal theory of wave envelope dynamics ); new developments in

xi
xii Foreword

soliton studies (e.g. many soliton experiments in rectangular, cylindrical and spherical devic巴s
and their theory ); and a bringing together of theoretical and numerical results on various
scenarios for reaching chaos. An example of what is not attempted is a coverage (or 巴ven mention)
。 f the 100 or so instabilities found in plasmas and fluids. Instead we present the basic physics of a
few of them, each representing a whole cat巴gory in some sense. Thus, all in all, the ambition of the
book could be summarized by the adage ‘not many but much'. Some unsolved problems are
indicated. References are extensiv巳 and exercises are given at the end of each chapter. Thus the
more ambitious reader should be able to get into the field. On the other hand, little knowledge is
assumed, thus also giving the gener叫 science graduate (or senior undergraduate), who would like
to learn what these new developments are about, a chance to do so.
As one of us is based in Warsaw, an attempt has been made to do some jt叫ice tor巳search
performed in Poland and the Soviet Union.
The authors would like to thank Drs P. Frycz, P. Goldstein, T. Lenkowska, K. Mur‘ awski
and L. Starkman for critical reading of the manuscript, and Professors P.N. Butcher 弋 J.P.
Dougher句， A. Kuszel戶， E. Kuznetsov, R. Raczka 弋 A.A. Skorupski, K.N. Stepanov and R.
Zelazny for remarks on parts of the text. Additional thanks are due to Dr Frycz for preparation
th巳 material used in Sections 7.10 and A.1 and Figs. 9.2 and 9.3. 叭Te would also like to
acknowledge a huge d巳bt to Ms H. Gilder for typing the manuscr句t sever叫 times over. Finally,
Cambridge University Press in the person of Dr S. Capelin has been both helpful and patient.

E. lnfeld and G. Rowlands

Warwick

* Now deceased.
 Fo時間ord to the seco甜甜
editio蹄

When this book was first published in 1990, it b巳came more popular than we expected. A book
club chose it as its Book of the Month. It was reprinted in 1992. Eight years have now gone by and
we feel it is time for a proper revision. New results and references have been added. On the other
hand, some chapters remain largely as they wer巴， since we feel that the presentation of the basic
ideas to b巴 found there remains valid. Chapter 11 (Chapter 10 in the first edition) on chaotic
phenomena is an example of this.
The only criticism anyone made to our faces was that we leaned too heavily on plasma
physics and hydrodynamics for examples, whereas most ph巳nomena and methods we consid巴r
have wider applications. These include optics, biology, solid state physics and other fields. This
shortcoming has now been rectified to a certain ext巳nt. Also, a new chapter on soliton metamor-
phosis, including some colour plates, has been added (Chapter 10).
However, much of the text has be巳n left as it was. Thus 'r巳cent’ should b巳 read as recent in
1990. Some printing errors have been corrected. Once again, Dr Simon Capelin ofth巴 Cambridge
University Press has been patient and helpful. Ms Lenkowska-Czerwi11Ska spent a large portion
of h巴r time in Warwick helping us organize our material.

E. lnfeld and G. Rowlands

Warwick

xiii
 lE官 trod，目ction

1.1 Occurrence of nonlinear waves and

instabilities in Nature
This book is cone巴rned with the propagation of waves and instabilities both linear and nonlinear,
but concentrating on the latter.
The main advances in this subject have quite naturally come from studies involving fluids
and mo閃閃閃ntly plasmas. The latter primarily because of the possibility of ‘cheap, unlimited’
(and hopefully safe) power from thermonuclear reactions. Everyone is of course familiar with
waves on water if only being aware of the many instances where they provid巴巴xamples of natural
beauty. It is not so obvious that very similar waves can exist in a plasma which, to a good
approximation, is usually a very dilute assembly of ions and electrons. We shall see later in this
cha pt巳r that this is indeed so and fluids and plasmas have much in common. However, plasmas
also show a much wider range of phenomena basically because they are composed of two or more
components and also can be made strongly anisotropic by the introduction of magnetic fields,
something that is not possible for simple fluids. This richer variety of phenomena has also been a
reason why plasmas have had more than their share of attention.
The abov巳 remarks notwithstanding, there are numerous media other than plasmas and
fluids which can support waves and/or propagate instabilities. As we will s巴巴， some of these are
more intriguing than others.

1.1.1 Nonlinear phenomena in our everyday experience

As most ofus are aware, waves generated by the wind can propagate across a field of corn. In this
case the microscopic model is that of the ears moving, due to the stalk bending, in an harmonic
manner, and ear interacting with adjacent ear only when in contact (a hard sphere potential）自 On
a macroscopic level the corn can be considered as a dense fluid and now with the moving air flow
over it one has the classic situation of a Kelvin-Helmholtz instability (Chapter 4).
The wind drives the instability and the stalks of corn bend in an analogous mann巴r to how
water waves are formed on lakes by the wind. The nonlinear requirement is differe則， in that if the
bending of the stalk is too great it will br巳ak and produce a permanent record of the wave.
Kelvin Helmholtz type instabilities occur in plasma physics and they have been controlled to a
2 Introduction

Figure 1.1 Two examples of herring-bone cloud formation. (After R. Scorer, Clouds of
the world, Lothian, Melbourne (1972).)
 1. 1 Occurrence of nonlinear waves and instabilities 3

certain extent by introducing perpendicular periodicities. The intriguing question naturally arises
if similar conditions would stabilize the motion of corn heads and stop the breaking of the stalks.
By analogy this could be done by planting trees periodically spaced in a line (or lines) perpendicu-
lar to the usual direction of the wind. Another example where Nature leaves a permanent record
of a surface wave instability (at least until diffusion processes slowly remove it) is the so 開called
herring-bone cloud formation. H巳re the sky is broken up into alternate bands of cloud (high
density of moisture regions) and apparently clear regions (low density regions）自 The moistur一巳 in
this case is responsible for the permanent record, two layers of air moving relative to each other
giving rise to the Kelvin Helmholtz instability (Chapter 4) and subsequent nonlinear effects
(Fig. 1.1).
Television coverage of soccer matches usually shows, incidentally, the swaying of the crowd.
This is seen as a wave moving through the stadium. Unfortunately, in some circumstances this
wave can build up and thos巴 near the barriers can get crushed.
Lighthill and Whitham (1955) and Richards (1956) have considered the flow of cars (discrete
objects) in a fluid context and explained phenomena such as thee能cts of tra伍c lights in terms of
the propagation of waves and, in particular, shocks.
The conclusion to be reached from these quite disparate examples is that they can be
effectively studied in terms of the propagation of waves and instabilities, leading to nonlinear
巳ffects, in continuous media. If the natural wavelength is large compared to the underlying
microscopic length, the above picture should be applicable.

1 . 1 .2 Nonlinear phenomena in the laboratory

Waves in solids have received considerable att巳ntion both at the microscopic (atomic) and the
macroscopic (continuous) level. The most interesting phenomenon concerning the propagation
of disturbances in solids at a microscopic level is thee 何ect of anisotropies and non-homogeneities
in the media. Until recently, nonlinear e仔巳cts in solids have received little attention, as the energy
needed to produce them is very large. However, with the advent of intense power sources such as
lasers it has been possible to show that the flow of heat in solids is closely related to the flow of
solitons. The basic relationships between soliton amplitud巴， width and velocity have b巴巴n verified
in this context (Section 1.2 and, in some detail, Chapters 5 and 7).
At the microscopic level it is usually necessary to quantize the system and instead of talking
about sound waves one talks about phonons. However, because of the lattice p巳riodicity the
phonons hav巴 a dispersive nature. Most interesting phenomena, such as thermal conductivity,
depend on phonon phonon interaction. Until recently, such interaction has been studied in what
could be called weakly nonlinear theories. However, a major breakthrough was made when it was
realized that a number of phenomena could b巳st be explained by introducing solitons as
elementary 巴xcitations. Then it was found that a statistical mechanics based on weakly interact-
ing solitons and phonons gave better results than previous theories which attempted to consider
phonon phonon interaction outside the control of a weak interaction.
Many years ago, F巴rmi, Ulam and Pasta (1965), though th巳 actual work was p巳rfon
much 巳arli巴rand published in a Los Alamos report in 1955, studied numerically the problem of
the strong interaction of phonons. They found, somewhat perplexingly at that tim巴， that the
4 lntroductio ’,

3
“.. t ＝。
一－一一 t = t8
一一叫一 t = 3 回 6 t8
2

。
1
nu 、
0.5 1.5 2 x

Figure 1.2 Evolution of an initially periodic profile, cos呵，弋 as given by the

Kortcwcg d巴 Vries equation (1.2.8). The br巴aking tim巳 for‘ the wav巴 profile (wh巳nth巴
third t巴n
roughly r巳p巴at thems巴lv巴s

phonons did not come to thermal equilibrium, but rather they underwent nearly periodic
var臼tions. See Weissert (1998).
Much later Zabusky and Kruskal (1965) showed that this was the correct behaviour and
could b巴巴xplained in terms of solitons in a space periodic medium, Fig. 1.2. (A name given to
reflect their quanta! nature.) Nowadays p巳ople realize that solitons are not necessary to explain
this phenomenon (Thyagar吋 a (1983)) Chapter 5. A theory that relies on the interaction of a small
number of periodic modes also exists, see Infeld (1981c). Solitons are special wave pulses which
interact with one another so as to keep their basic identity and so that they act as particles. Now
the soliton has come of age in its mother subject, th。可h in the meantime promisi時 to be a useful
concept in many other branches of physics, most of th巴m being well out of the range of quantum
巴ffects. One of the first detailed experimental verifications of soliton type b巳haviour was in the
study of nonlinear ion acoustic waves.
Davydov (1978), (1985) has apphed some of the rules of solid state physics to the transport of
energy down protein chains. He assumed that the idea of soliton propagation is relevant to a
study of chemical changes taking place in long protein molecules. This leads to the transfer of
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and could be the basis for an understanding of muscle contraction.
However, Davydov’s theory is one-dimensional, whereas proteins are three-dimensional. Also,
his mechanism for en巴rgy transport has been criticized. Zorski and Infeld (1997) approach
protein dynamics by using a quadrilateral chip model. The dynamics were described by continu ”
um equations in three dimensions. They obtain巳d a helical structure and demonstrated stability.
Solitons do appear in special cases, but have limited importance in their theory. Thus, the role of
soliton dynamics in understanding protein chains still seems to be an open question.
The motion of electrons in solids is surprisingly well understood in terms of a simple Drude
picture where the current J is linearly related to the electric field Eby J = (ne2τ／1﹜1)E. Here 11 is the
electron density, e its charge, andτth巳 mean free time. Th巳 effective mass 'm' takes into account
the pr巴sence of the periodic nature of atomic structure. Normally all the quantities are constants
and we simply.have Ohm’s law. However, it can happen, particularly in semiconductors, that if E
is large enough the electron can be excited to a higher band which can have a different value ofm.
Thus the conductivity σ（二 ne2τ／m) is dependent on E and Ohm’s law is no longer linear. If the
 1.2 Universal wave equations 5

mass is larger in the higher band, then an increase in E causes a decrease in J and thus we have a
negative differential resistance. Obviously this is an instability mechanism and such a mechanism
is observed in GaAs (gallium arsenide). The instability itselfleads to the propagation of nonlinear
stable pulses called Gunn domains, analogues to a soliton. These have been observed and are in
fact the bases of many mod巴rn day oscillators. See Butcher (1967) for a review of Gunn domains;
and Butcher and Rowlands (1968) for a study of the stability of the domain.
Another instability, leading to the propagation of nonlinear pulses that are also kinsmen of
solitons and have been studied in the general ar巳a of solid state physics, is that associated with the
acousto-electric e缸ect. Here the instability mechanism arises because of a piez。”electric coupling
between the propagation of sound waves and the flow of electrons. A nonlinear pulse can
propagate down a crystal, for example of CdS or ZnO, but reach such an amplitude as to cause
permanent distortion to the crystal. For a bt前f account of the general theory and for a discussion
ofth巴 instability and nonlinear effects see Pawlik and Rowlands (1975).
It took a long time for it to be accepted that a homogeneous mixtur巳 of chemicals could lead
to a periodic time variation in the concentration of a particular chemical or to an inhomogeneous
spatial separation of the chemicals. Turing demonstrated that nonlinear chemical reactions
together with diffusion could lead to a spatial separation of the chemicals and explored the idea in
connection with the theory of morphogenesis, the formation of life. Zhabotinsky (1964) and later
Zhabotinsky and Belousov found experimentally that a homogeneous mixture of certain chemi-
cals could lead to a time periodic variation of the colour of the mixtur巴. Later experiments
showed that the same mechanism could lead to spatial colour patterns. All these phenomena can
be explained in terms of nonlinear waves in time and space that hav巳 the inherent stability of a
soliton.
In this revised version of the book we will look at nonlinear phenomena in new contexts,
such as laser theory and biology. Waves following from discrete equations are also a novelty, as
are illustrations of soliton metamorphosis (solitons are a kind of compact wave, about which
more in Subsection 1.2).

司 .2 Universal wave equations

It has now been realized that the study of many di叮巳rent types of waves in numerous media can
often be based on a few universal nonlinear equations. These replace the usual linear wave
equations, such as
/ 2 \
而
U

III
φ

- wv iiI
nυ
呵a

一一
玄的

-\ 2
/

1.2.1 The Korteweg-de Vries and Kadomtsev-Petviashvili equations and a first

look at solitons

Most classical media propagate longitudinal plane waves at or near a characteristic velocity c
(acoustic-type waves). These waves ar巴， for very small amplitude, given by
6 Introduction

11 = a cos(k · x wt), (1.2.1)

where w is taken to be a function of k, the form of which is dictated by th巳 111巳dium. When this
medium is isotrop此， we expect w to dep巳nd on the modulus k only. All acoustic waves are such
that, for small k,

w2 = c21c2 十．．．， (1.2.2)

wher巴 c is the velocity of sound or another velocity specific to the medium. Thus long-wave
acoustic modes propagate with little or no dispersion and the signal (group) velocity 8w/8k is
almost equal to the phase velocity c:

。ω 而 a
一－ c:,:wk-zk=ck 'k (1.2.3)
8k

However, dispersion will come in for k other than very small and it is p巴rhaps more natural for
the signal to lag behind the phase. This stipulation and symmetry suggest that the simplest
possible corr巴ction to (1.2.2) is a negative quartic term ink:
w2 = c2k2 戶21c4 回 (1.2.4)

w巳 have arrived at a very general small k dispersion relation. It covers all isotropic media that
propagate acoustic modes such that the signal lags behind the phase. For the moment we will
consider one space dimension, returning to general k later on. If we follow a wave propagating
from left to right (admittedly thus losing some generality) we have

w = ck （戶2/2c)k3 + .. ·. (1.2.5)

We can look at the wave behaviour in a coordinate system moving with velocity c and
renormalize lengths so as to get rid of the [32 /2c coefficient. Thus, in the new syst巴111,

w* = - k3, (1.2.6)

corresponding to the following di 叮erential equation for u:

au 83u
一＋一τz 0. (1.2.7)
at ax'
This equation has s巴veral drawbacks. For on巴， it is not Galilean-invariant (this is partly due to
our choice of coordinate system). It also leads to spreading of all finite extent initial profiles u仰， 0)
(dispersion). However, if we replace the first term by the mor巴 general convective derivative, we
remove both these shortcomings. Thus we suggest

。!I au a3u
+u 十一一τ ＝ 0 (1.2.8)
at ax ax'
as a more adequate equation. This is known as the Korteweg de Vries (KdV) equation (1895) and
will be derived rigorously in two physical contexts in Chapter 5 (water surface gravity waves and
ion acoustic waves in a plasma). Some subsequent developments are reviewed by Miura (1976)
and Miles (1981). However, it is already seen here to be the simplest possible unidirectional wave
equation including dispersion and nonlinearity, but not dissipation. This allows us to hope for a
stationary, pulse-like solution to exist if the nonlinearity, leading to wav巳 steepening, can just
 1.2 Universal wave equations 7

counteract the dispersion (this wave steepening can easily be seen graphically by noticing that a
solution to (1.2.8) without the third term is u(x’。＝ u(x - i呵， 0), taking any pulse shaped u(x, 0),
and drawing II for later times, Fig. 8.l(d); but the initial stages can b巳 seen fron;i the first two
profiles of Fig. 1.2). Indeed,

u=3月sech2 ﹝1月去（x - 11t汀， (1.2.9)

where 17 is a constant, can be seen to be a solution just by inspection. This entity is called a soliton
and evidently propagates at a uniform sp巴巴d proportional to the amplitude. It transpires that
many soliton solutions exist and n solitons with di汀erent amplitudes 1/; will sooner or later line up
with the tallest in the front and the shortest at the rear, rather as one might imagine a jungle
queue! These solitons are v巴ry durable in an infinite medium.
A generalization of (1.2.8) to two space dimensions is very simple on intuitive grounds if we
assume a potential flow，的 W巴 indeed will do in much of this book. Thus

U 口 V¢ (1.2.10)

and we wish to treat x and y dynamics on an unequal footing,just adding a y dependent term to
(l.2.8), which has b巳en seen to be a good model so far and thus worthy of some protection. Thus
we go back to (1.2.4) in two dim巴nsions, taking c = 1 ，戶2 = 2 for convenienc巴，

w2 = k; + k; - 2(k~ + k;)2, (1.2.11)

extract the positive root and assume kx small but ky/k, < 1 (y variation weaker than x variation):

w=kx k!+!k;k-;1+ (1.2.12)

When multiplied through by kx this suggests, as a generalization of (1.2.8 );( 1.2.10) and

。2¢ 仰。2¢ D4<P 1 82¢ A

一一＋一一一可＋一一了十 一一可＝ U (1.2.13)

8x8t ax 8x2 8x吟 2 8y2

known as the Kadomtsev Petviashvili equation (1970) (KP). Soliton solutions to (1.2.13) arc all
of infinite extent in on巳 direction and n巳ver propagate along they axis. When they intersect at an
angle they either just go through on巳 anoth巳r, or there is a region of interaction at the int巴rsection
known as a virtual soliton (Figs. 1.4（α）， 7.1 and 7.5）自 At two critical angles the solitons merge lo
produce one. This ph巴nomenon is known as soliton resonance. 「fhe solitons as defined here are
stable (Chapter 8). They are by now familiar not only on water surfac肘， but also in plasmas, see
Tran (1979).
A variant of (1.2.1 月 with a minus sign in front of the last term also appears in classical
physics (hydrodynamics, solid state, Chapters 5, 7, 8, 9 and 10). The same type of soliton is found,
but soliton interaction is now simpler, there being no merging (Fig. 7.3). However, the solitons are
unstable (Chapter 8). Inter巴sting so Ii tons of finit巴巴xt巳nt are also found (Chapter 10).
We have seen how the equations governing wave behaviour in many classical media are the
simplest possible unidirectional, nonlinear, dispersive equations. To ‘derive’ them w巴 neglected
dissi pa ti ve e叮ects and, in the two dimensional cas巴， assum巴d y variation to be weaker than x
variation. Solitons emerged as the simplest stationary solutions to these equations.
Having established two equations that claim to d巴scrib巳 wave motions in a reasonably
complete manner, we now move on to an equation that concentrates on the wave amplitude. This
is the ubiquitous nonlinear Schr位dinger 巴quation (NLS). We will in fact see in Chapter 5 how it
8 Introduction

can bed巴rived for the amplitude of a wave satisfying the KdV or KP equation, among other
possible provenances.

1.2.2 The nonlinear Schrodinger equation

To study linear waves and instabilities in homogeneous media one expresses a disturbanceφ抖，。
in Fourier modes and for one of these modes writes

φ（x, t) = Aei(kx 叫）， (1.2.14)

wh巳re the amplitude A is a constant. The requir巴ment that solutions of this form exist is found to
be given in the form of the dispersion r巴lation D(w，九 p) = 0. A simple example of such a relation
is given by (1.2.2). Here we have introduced the id巴a of a control parameter p which ‘controls’ the
system externally. For exampl巴， when one studies the propagation of waves in a fluid the pressure
or density could be considered the control parameter. Usually the dispersion relation has more
than one branch and we can choose a particular branch and then the condition D(w, k, /!) = 0
reduces to ω 口 w(k, fl) where w is now to be consider巴d as a known single valued function. For
weakly nonlinear systems one can imagine that the e叮ect of the nonlinearity, apart from
generating harmonics, is simply to a叮ect the disp巴rsion relation in a parametric mann巳r. This w巳
formally do by assuming that the dispersion relation is of the form w = w(k, fl, Iφ12).
It is sometimes convenient to express the disturbance in terms of a fundamental linear
frequency w。 and wave number k0 and relegate the remaining variation into the amplitude factor:

φ（x, t) ＝ α（几 t）巴 i(k0x <001) (1.2.15)

For example w0, k0 may specify a marginally stable mode. (Throughout the book, lower case a will
accompany w0 and k0 when considering weakly nonlinear waves.)
Comparing (1.2.14) and (1.2.1 月 we obtain
。＝ A .. ei ﹝（k-k0)X 一（ω恤，11,!a!2﹞一 co.)t﹞． (1.2.16)

For ks near k0 we may expand win a Taylor series and for weakly nonlinear situations

w(k, fl, I a I 2) = w(k0, fl0, 0) + wk(k - k。）

+kw以（k 一九)2 + wµ(Jl fl0) + WIα12 I 叫 2 + ... , (l.2.17)

where the suffix denotes partial differentiation with respect to the particular variable. We now
choose w。 such that w。＝ w(k0, fl0, 0) and then from the above we find from a naive reasoning
analogous to that of Subsection 1.2.1:

i （~十九三）＋：ω品一軒州＋ Wla121α12﹞α ＝ 0, (1.2.18)

wh巴re we have identified wk with the group velocity vg .

The term proportional to 'a' is identified in the above with a change of fl. This procedure is
relevant for example when a change in 11 causes the onset of instability and the subsequent build
up of th巴 amplitude (for a detailed analysis of such a problem see for example Pawlik and
Rowlands (1975)). However, such a term can arise in a different context. If a wave is impressed on
the system in some external manner such that the amplitudeγtakes the constant value 仇， say,as
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