Q.2. Explain ANY FOUR.

(20)
(i) Cache Memory (ii) Static & Dynamic RAM (iii) Instruction Cycle
(iv) Buses & their types (v) Segment Registers (vi) Instruction Pipelining
Answers:
Cache Memory:

Cache memory is a small-sized type of volatile computer memory that provides high-speed data
access to a processor and stores frequently used computer programs, applications and data.

A temporary storage of memory, cache makes data retrieving easier and more efficient. It is the
fastest memory in a computer, and is typically integrated onto the motherboard and directly
embedded in the processor or main random access memory (RAM).

Static RAM:
Data is stored in transistors and requires a constant power flow. Because of the continuous power,
SRAM doesn’t need to be refreshed to remember the data being stored. SRAM is called static as no
change or action i.e. refreshing is not needed to keep the data intact. It is used in cache memories.

Dynamic RAM:
Data is stored in capacitors. Capacitors that store data in DRAM gradually discharge energy, no energy
means the data has been lost. So, a periodic refresh of power is required in order to function. DRAM is
called dynamic as constant change or action (change is continuously happening) i.e. refreshing is needed
to keep the data intact. It is used to implement main memory.

Instruction Cycle:

A program consisting of the memory unit of the computer includes a series of instructions. The
program is implemented on the computer by going through a cycle for each instruction.

In the basic computer, each instruction cycle includes the following procedures −

 It can fetch instruction from memory.

 It is used to decode the instruction.
 It can read the effective address from memory if the instruction has an indirect address.
 It can execute the instruction.

After the following four procedures are done, the control switches back to the first step and
repeats the similar process for the next instruction. Therefore, the cycle continues until a Halt
condition is met. The figure shows the phases contained in the instruction cycle.
Bus and its types:

Bus

A bus is a high-speed internal connection. Buses are used to send control signals and data
between the processor and other components.

Three types of bus are used.

 Address bus - carries memory addresses from the processor to other components such as
primary storage and input/output devices. The address bus is unidirectional.
 Data bus - carries the data between the processor and other components. The data bus is
bidirectional.
 Control bus - carries control signals from the processor to other components. The control
bus also carries the clock's pulses. The control bus is unidirectional.

Segment Registers
Segments are specific areas defined in a program for containing data, code and stack. There are
three main segments −

 Code Segment − It contains all the instructions to be executed. A 16-bit Code Segment
register or CS register stores the starting address of the code segment.
 Data Segment − It contains data, constants and work areas. A 16-bit Data Segment
register or DS register stores the starting address of the data segment.
 Stack Segment − It contains data and return addresses of procedures or subroutines. It is
implemented as a 'stack' data structure. The Stack Segment register or SS register stores
the starting address of the stack.
Instruction Pipeline
Pipeline processing can occur not only in the data stream but in the instruction stream as well.

Most of the digital computers with complex instructions require instruction pipeline to carry out
operations like fetch, decode and execute instructions.

In general, the computer needs to process each instruction with the following sequence of steps.

1. Fetch instruction from memory.

2. Decode the instruction.
3. Calculate the effective address.
4. Fetch the operands from memory.
5. Execute the instruction.
6. Store the result in the proper place.

Q.3. (a) Describe briefly five state process lifecycle (6)

(b) Explain multi level feedback queue scheduling algorithm. (6)
(c) Describe briefly different communication channels

Five-State Process Model

In five- state model the states have been split into two non-running states: ready and blocked,
and along with this, two more states are added for the purpose: New and Exit/Terminate. These
two states are used because, in the previous models, the main memory is capable to store all
programs but that is not true because the programs are now very large, and loading those
processes in the main memory is very tough/ or even not possible and also if there’s a
requirement for using the previous resources that are released by the process, then that is not
possible here.

The five states that are being used in this process model are:

1. Running: It means a process that is currently being executed. Assuming that there is only
a single processor in the below execution process, so there will be at most one processor
at a time that can be running in the state.
2. Ready: It means a process that is prepared to execute when given the opportunity by the
OS.
3. Blocked/Waiting: It means that a process cannot continue executing until some event
occurs like for example, the completion of an input-output operation.
4. New: It means a new process that has been created but has not yet been admitted by the
OS for its execution. A new process is not loaded into the main memory, but its process
control block (PCB) has been created.
5. Exit/Terminate: A process or job that has been released by the OS, either because it is
completed or is aborted for some issue.
(b) Explain multi level feedback queue scheduling algorithm.
Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling (MLFQ) CPU Scheduling is like Multilevel
Queue(MLQ) Scheduling but in this processes can move between the queues. And thus, much
more efficient than multilevel queue scheduling.

Characteristics of Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling:

 In a multilevel queue-scheduling algorithm, processes are permanently assigned to a

queue on entry to the system and processes are not allowed to move between queues.
 As the processes are permanently assigned to the queue, this setup has the advantage of
low scheduling overhead,
 But on the other hand disadvantage of being inflexible

Advantages of Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling:

 It is more flexible.
 It allows different processes to move between different queues.
 It prevents starvation by moving a process that waits too long for the lower priority queue
to the higher priority queue.

Disadvantages of Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling:

 For the selection of the best scheduler, it requires some other means to select the values.
 It produces more CPU overheads.

 It is the most complex algorithm

(c) Describe briefly different communication channels

Types of Communication Channels-

In computer networking, there are 3 types of communication channels-

1. Simplex channel
2. Half duplex channel
3. Full duplex channel

1. Simplex Channel-

 A simplex communication channel can send the signals only in one direction.
 Thus, entire bandwidth of the channel can be used during the transmission.

Example-

Radio station

 Radio station is a good example of a simplex communication channel.

 A radio station always sends signals to its audience.
 It never receives signals from the audience.
2. Half Duplex Channel-

 A half duplex communication channel can send signals in both the directions but in only
one direction at a time.
 It may be considered as a simplex communication channel whose transmission direction
can be switched.

Example-

Walkie-Talkie

 Walkie-Talkie is a good example of a half duplex channel.

 Walkie-talkie has a push-to-talk button.
 This button is used to turn on the transmitter but turn off the receiver.
 When the button is pressed, transmitter can not hear the receiver but receiver can hear the
transmitter.

3. Full Duplex Channel-

 A full duplex communication channel can send signals in both the directions at the same
time.
 Full duplex communication channels greatly increases the efficiency of communication.

Example-

Telephone

 Telephone is a good example of a full duplex channel.

 Both the persons can speak as well as hear each other at the same time.
Channel Capacity-

The total number of bits a channel can hold is called as its capacity.

Capacity of a half duplex channel

= Bandwidth x Propagation delay

Capacity of a full duplex channel

= 2 x Capacity of a half duplex channel

= 2 x Bandwidth x Propagation delay

SECTION - II
Q.4. (a) What are Virtual Functions? And how they can be utilized for
polymorphism?
Use C++ for writing example program. (10)
(b) Explain with examples ANY TWO: (10)
(i) Inheritance & Aggregation (ii) Data Hiding & Encapsulation
(iii) Constructors & Destructors (iv) Class, Object and Abstraction

What are Virtual Functions? And how they can be utilized for
polymorphism?

A virtual function is a member function of the base class, that is overridden in derived class. The
classes that have virtual functions are called polymorphic classes.

The compiler binds virtual function at runtime, hence called runtime polymorphism. Use of
virtual function allows the program to decide at runtime which function is to be called based on
the type of the object pointed by the pointer.

In C++, the member function of a class is selected at runtime using virtual function. The function
in the base class is overridden by the function with the same name of the derived class.
C++ virtual function : Syntax
The keyword virtual is used for defining virtual function.

Class class_name
{
public:
virtual return func_name( args.. )
{
//function definition
}
}
// C++ program to demonstrate how we will calculate

// the area of shapes USING VIRTUAL FUNCTION

#include <fstream>

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// Declaration of Base class

class Shape {

public:

// Usage of virtual constructor

virtual void calculate()

cout << "Area of your Shape ";

// usage of virtual Destuctor to avoid memory leak

virtual ~Shape()

cout << "Shape Destuctor Call\n";

};

// Declaration of Derived class

class Rectangle : public Shape {

public:

int width, height, area;

void calculate()

cout << "Enter Width of Rectangle: ";

cin >> width;

cout << "Enter Height of Rectangle: ";

cin >> height;

area = height * width;

cout << "Area of Rectangle: " << area << "\n";

// Virtual Destuctor for every Derived class

virtual ~Rectangle()

cout << "Rectangle Destuctor Call\n";

};

// Declaration of 2nd derived class

class Square : public Shape {

public:

int side, area;

void calculate()
 {

cout << "Enter one side your of Square: ";

cin >> side;

area = side * side;

cout << "Area of Square: " << area << "\n";

// Virtual Destuctor for every Derived class

virtual ~Square()

cout << "Square Destuctor Call\n";

};

int main()

// base class pointer

Shape* S;

Rectangle r;

// initialization of reference variable

S = &r;

// calling of Rectangle function

S->calculate();

Square sq;
 // initialization of reference variable

S = &sq;

// calling of Square function

S->calculate();

// return 0 to tell the program executed

// successfully

return 0;

(b) Explain with examples ANY TWO

(i) Inheritance & Aggregation

 Inheritance: extend the functionality of a class by creating a subclass. Override superclass

members in the subclasses to provide new functionality. Make methods abstract/virtual to force
subclasses to "fill-in-the-blanks" when the superclass wants a particular interface but is agnostic
about its implementation.

 Aggregation: create new functionality by taking other classes and combining them into a new
class. Attach an common interface to this new class for interoperability with other code

(ii) Data Hiding & Encapsulation

Data hiding
 It is associated with data security.
 It also helps conceal the complexities of the application.
 It focuses on hiding/restricting the data usage.
 It is considered as a process and a technique.
 This data is always private and inaccessible.

Encapsulation
 It can be defined as the wrapping up of data into a single module.
 This will hide the complicated and confidential information about the application.
 This encapsulated data can be private or public, depending on the requirement.
 It is considered as a sub-process in the bigger process of data hiding.
(iv) Class, Object and Abstraction
Class:
The building block of C++ that leads to Object-Oriented programming is a Class. It is a user-defined data
type, which holds its own data members and member functions, which can be accessed and used by
creating an instance of that class. A class is like a blueprint for an object.

Object:
This is the basic unit of object oriented programming. That is both data and function that operate on
data are bundled as a unit called as object.

Abstraction:
Abstraction is the concept of object-oriented programming that “shows” only essential attributes and
“hides” unnecessary information. The main purpose of abstraction is hiding the unnecessary details
from the users. Abstraction is selecting data from a larger pool to show only relevant details of the
object to the user. It helps in reducing programming complexity and efforts. It is one of the most
important concepts of OOPs.

Q.5. (a) Write and explain algorithm for Binary Search. (8)
(b) Explain ANY TRHEE: (12)
(i) Stack & Queue (ii) Tree & Graph (iii) Linked List & Array
(iv) Algorithm & Program (v) Complexity of Algorithm
. (a) Write and explain algorithm for Binary Search

Binary Search Algorithm

Binary search algorithm finds a given element in a list of elements with O(log n) time
complexity where n is total number of elements in the list. the binary search is used only with a
list of elements that are already arranged in an order.

Binary search is implemented using following steps...

 Step 1 - Read the search element from the user.

 Step 2 - Find the middle element in the sorted list.
 Step 3 - Compare the search element with the middle element in the sorted list.
 Step 4 - If both are matched, then display "Given element is found!!!" and terminate the
function.
 Step 5 - If both are not matched, then check whether the search element is smaller or
larger than the middle element.
 Step 6 - If the search element is smaller than middle element, repeat steps 2, 3, 4 and 5
for the left sublist of the middle element.
 Step 7 - If the search element is larger than middle element, repeat steps 2, 3, 4 and 5 for
the right sublist of the middle element.
 Step 8 - Repeat the same process until we find the search element in the list or until
sublist contains only one element.
 Step 9 - If that element also doesn't match with the search element, then display "Element
is not found in the list!!!" and terminate the function.
(b) Explain ANY TRHEE:

i) Stack & Queue

A stack is a linear data structure in which elements can be inserted and deleted only from one
side of the list, called the top. A stack follows the LIFO (Last In First Out) principle, i.e., the
element inserted at the last is the first element to come out. The insertion of an element into the
stack is called push operation, and the deletion of an element from the stack is called pop
operation. In stack, we always keep track of the last element present in the list with a pointer
called top.

The diagrammatic representation of the stack is given below:

Queue is a linear data structure in which elements can be inserted only from one side of the list
called rear, and the elements can be deleted only from the other side called the front. The queue
data structure follows the FIFO (First In First Out) principle, i.e. the element inserted at first in
the list, is the first element to be removed from the list. The insertion of an element in a queue is
called an enqueue operation and the deletion of an element is called a dequeue operation. In
queue, we always maintain two pointers, one pointing to the element which was inserted at the
first and still present in the list with the front pointer and the second pointer pointing to the
element inserted at the last with the rear pointer

(ii) Tree & Graph

Graph :

A graph is a collection of two sets V and E where V is a finite non-empty set of vertices and E is
a finite non-empty set of edges.

 Vertices are nothing but the nodes in the graph.

 Two adjacent vertices are joined by edges.
 Any graph is denoted as G = {V, E}.

For Example:

G = {{V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6}, {E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7}}

Tree :

A tree is a finite set of one or more nodes such that –

1. There is a specially designated node called root.

2. The remaining nodes are partitioned into n>=0 disjoint sets T1, T2, T3, …, Tn
where T1, T2, T3, …, Tn are called the subtrees of the root.

The concept of a tree is represented by following Fig.

Graph vs Tree
The basis of
Graph Tree
Comparison

Definition Graph is a non-linear data structure. Tree is a non-linear data structure.

It is a collection of vertices/nodes and

Structure It is a collection of nodes and edges.
edges.

If there is n nodes then there would be

Edges Each node can have any number of edges.
n-1 number of edges

Types of Edges They can be directed or undirected They are always directed

There is no unique node called root in There is a unique node called

Root node
graph. root(parent) node in trees.

Loop Formation A cycle can be formed. There will not be any cycle.

For graph traversal, we use Breadth-First We traverse a tree using in-order, pre-
Traversal
Search (BFS), and Depth-First Search (DFS). order, or post-order traversal methods.

For finding shortest path in networking For game trees, decision trees, the tree
Applications
graph is used. is used.

Array: Arrays store elements in contiguous memory locations, resulting in easily calculable
addresses for the elements stored and this allows faster access to an element at a specific index.

Linked List: Linked lists are less rigid in their storage structure and elements are usually not
stored in contiguous locations, hence they need to be stored with additional tags giving a
reference to the next element.

This difference in the data storage scheme decides which data structure would be more suitable
for a given situation.

Data storage scheme of an array

Linked-List representation

(iv) Algorithm & Program

Difference between Algorithm, Pseudo code and Program

Algorithm: Systematic logical approach which is a well-defined, step-by-step procedure that allows a
computer to solve a problem.
Pseudo code: It is a simpler version of a programming code in plain English which uses short phrases
to write code for a program before it is implemented in a specific programming language.
Program: It is exact code written for problem following all the rules of the programming language.
(v) Complexity of Algorithm

Complexities of an Algorithm
The complexity of an algorithm computes the amount of time and spaces required by an
algorithm for an input of size (n). The complexity of an algorithm can be divided into two types.
The time complexity and the space complexity.

Time Complexity of an Algorithm

The time complexity is defined as the process of determining a formula for total time required
towards the execution of that algorithm. This calculation is totally independent of
implementation and programming language.

Space Complexity of an Algorithm

Space complexity is defining as the process of defining a formula for prediction of how much
memory space is required for the successful execution of the algorithm. The memory space is
generally considered as the primary memory.

Asymptotic notation is a mathematical tool that calculates the required time in terms of input size and
does not require the execution of the code.

The following 3 asymptotic notations are mostly used to represent the time complexity of
algorithms:

 Big-O Notation (Ο) – Big-O notation specifically describes the worst-case scenario.
 Omega Notation (Ω) – Omega(Ω) notation specifically describes the best-case scenario.
 Theta Notation (θ) – This notation represents the average complexity of an algorithm.

 The process encompasses the entire range of activities, from initial customer inception to
software production and maintenance. It's also known as the Software Development Life
Cycle (SDLC). Let's take a look at each of the steps involved in a typical software
engineering process.
 Step 1: Understanding Customer Requirements

 This step is also known as the ''requirements collection'' step. It's all about
communicating with the customer before building a software, so you get to know their
requirements thoroughly. It's usually conducted by a business analyst or product analyst.
A Customer Requirement Specification (CRS) document is written from a customer's
perspective and describes, in a simple way, what the software is going to do.
 Step 2: Requirement Analysis: Is the Project Feasible?

 This stage involves exploring issues related to the financial, technical, operational, and
time management aspects of software development. It's an essential step towards creating
functional specifications and design. It's usually done by a team of product managers,
business analysts, software architects, developers, HR, and finance managers.
  Step 3: Creating a Design

 Once the analysis stage is over, it's time to create a blueprint for the software. Architects
and senior developers create a high-level design of the software architecture, along with a
low-level design describing how each and every component in the software should work.
 Step 4: Coding, Testing, and Installation

 Next, software developers implement the design by writing code. After all the code
developed by different teams is integrated, test engineers check if the software meets the
required specifications, so that developers can debug code. The release engineer then
deploys the software on a server.
 Step 5: Keeping it Going: Maintenance

 Maintenance is the application of each of the previous steps to the existing modules in the
software in order to modify or add new features, depending on what the customer needs.
 The following figure illustrates all the stages of the software engineering process:

A Typical Software Engineering Process

(b) What is Software Process Model? Explain Spiral Process Model.

A software process model is an abstraction of the software development process. The models specify
the stages and order of a process. So, think of this as a representation of the order of activities of the
process and the sequence in which they are performed.

A model will define the following:

 The tasks to be performed

 The input and output of each task
 The pre and post conditions for each task
 The flow and sequence of each task
There are many kinds of process models for meeting different requirements. We refer to these as
SDLC models (Software Development Life Cycle models). The most popular and important
SDLC models are as follows:

 Waterfall model
 V model
 Incremental model
 RAD model

 Agile model
 Iterative model
 Prototype model
 Spiral model

Spiral Model

The spiral model is a risk driven iterative software process model. The spiral model delivers
projects in loops. Unlike other process models, its steps aren’t activities but phases for
addressing whatever problem has the greatest risk of causing a failure.

It was designed to include the best features from the waterfall and introduces risk-assessment.

You have the following phases for each cycle:

 1. Address the highest-risk problem and determine the objective and alternate solutions
2. Evaluate the alternatives and identify the risks involved and possible solutions
3. Develop a solution and verify if it’s acceptable
4. Plan for the next cycle

You develop the concept in the first few cycles, and then it evolves into an implementation.
Though this model is great for managing uncertainty, it can be difficult to have stable
documentation. The spiral model can be used for projects with unclear needs or projects still in
research and development.

Q.7. (a) What is a Database? Explain and differentiate Relational Database

Model from the other Database Models. (10)
(b) Explain with example Entity Relationship Diagram.
 (a) What is a Database? Explain and differentiate Relational
Database Model from the other Database Models. (10)
Database:
A database is a collection of data that is organized, which is also called structured
data. It can be accessed or stored in a computer system. It can be managed through a
Database Management System (DBMS), a software used to manage data. Database
refers to related data in a structured form

E-R model and Relational model are two types of data models present in DBMS. Let’s have a
brief look of them:

1. E-R Model : E-R model stands for Entity-Relationship model. ER Model is used to model the
logical view of the system from data perspective which consists of these components: Entity,
Entity Type, Entity Set. An Entity may be an object with a physical existence – a particular
person, car, house, or employee – or it may be an object with a conceptual existence – a
company, a job, or a university course. An Entity is an object of Entity Type and set of all
entities is called an entity set. e.g.; E1 is an entity having Entity Type Student and set of all
students is called Entity Set. An Entity Type defines a collection of similar entities and set of all
entities is called an entity set.

2. Relational model : Relational Model was proposed by E.F. Codd to model data in the form of
relations or tables. After designing the conceptual model of Database using ER diagram, we
need to convert the conceptual model in the relational model which can be implemented using
any RDBMS languages like Oracle SQL, MySQL etc. Consider a relation STUDENT with
attributes ROLL_NO, NAME, ADDRESS, PHONE and AGE shown in Table 1.STUDENT

ROLL_NO NAME ADDRESS PHONE AGE

1 RAM DELHI 9455123451 18
2 RAMESH GURGAON 9652431543 18
3 SUJIT ROHTAK 9156253131 20
4 SURESH DELHI 18

(b)Explain with example Entity Relationship Diagram.

Q.8. Explain ANY FOUR: (20)
(i) Computer Graphics (ii) Pixel Art (iii) Vector Graphics
(iv) Computer Animation (v) Rendering (vi) 2D & 3D Graphics

i) Computer Graphics
Graphics are defined as any sketch or a drawing or a special network that pictorially represents
some meaningful information. Computer Graphics is used where a set of images needs to be
manipulated or the creation of the image in the form of pixels and is drawn on the computer.
Computer Graphics can be used in digital photography, film, entertainment, electronic gadgets,
and all other core technologies which are required. It is a vast subject and area in the field of
computer science. Computer Graphics can be used in UI design, rendering, geometric objects,
animation, and many more. In most areas, computer graphics is an abbreviation of CG. There are
several tools used for the implementation of Computer Graphics. The basic is the <graphics.h>
header file in Turbo-C, Unity for advanced and even OpenGL can be used for its
Implementation. It was invented in 1960 by great researchers Verne Hudson and William Fetter
from Boeing.

Computer Graphics refers to several things:

 The manipulation and the representation of the image or the data in a graphical manner.
 Various technology is required for the creation and manipulation.
 Digital synthesis and its manipulation.

Types of Computer Graphics

 Raster Graphics: In raster, graphics pixels are used for an image to be drawn. It is also known as
a bitmap image in which a sequence of images is into smaller pixels. Basically, a bitmap indicates
a large number of pixels together.
 Vector Graphics: In vector graphics, mathematical formulae are used to draw different types of
shapes, lines, objects, and so on.

Applications
 Computer Graphics are used for an aided design for engineering and architectural system-
These are used in electrical automobiles, electro-mechanical, mechanical, electronic devices. For
example gears and bolts.
 Computer Art – MS Paint.
 Presentation Graphics – It is used to summarize financial statistical scientific or economic data.
For example- Bar chart, Line chart.
 Entertainment- It is used in motion pictures, music videos, television gaming.
 Education and training- It is used to understand the operations of complex systems. It is also
used for specialized system such for framing for captains, pilots and so on.
 Visualization- To study trends and patterns.For example- Analyzing satellite photo of earth.

What Does Pixel Art Mean?

Pixel art is a form of digital art wherein images are created and edited at the pixel level using a
graphics editing software. What defines pixel art is its unique visual style, where individual
pixels serve as the building blocks that make up the image. The effect is a visual style very
similar to that of mosaic art, cross-stitch and other types of embroidery techniques.

A common characteristic in pixel art is the low overall colour count in the image. Pixel art as a medium
mimics a lot of traits found in older video game graphics, rendered by machines which were capable of
only outputting a limited number of colours at once. Additionally, many pixel artists are of the opinion
that in most cases, using a large number of colours, especially when very similar to each other in value,
is unnecessary, and detracts from the overall cleanliness of the image, making it look messier. Many
experienced pixel artists recommend not using more colours than necessary.
Vector Graphics:
Vector graphics is a form of computer graphics in which visual images are created directly from
geometric shapes defined on a Cartesian plane, such as points, lines, curves and polygons. The
associated mechanisms may include vector display and printing hardware, vector data models
and file formats, as well as the software based on these data models (especially graphic design
software, computer-aided design, and geographic information systems). Vector graphics is an
alternative to raster or bitmap graphics, with each having advantages and disadvantages in
specific situations.[1]

While vector hardware has largely disappeared in favor of raster-based monitors and printers, [2]
vector data and software continues to be widely used, especially when a high degree of
geometric precision is required, and when complex information can be decomposed into simple
geometric primitives. Thus, it is the preferred model for domains such as engineering,
architecture, surveying, 3D rendering, and typography, but is entirely inappropriate for
applications such as photography and remote sensing, where raster is more effective and
efficient. Some application domains, such as geographic information systems (GIS) and graphic
design, use both vector and raster graphics at times, depending on purpose.

Vector graphics are based on the mathematics of analytic or coordinate geometry, and is not
related to other mathematical uses of the term vector. This can lead to some confusion in
disciplines in which both meanings are used.

Computer Animation:
Generally, Computer animation is a visual digital display technology that processes the moving
images on screen. In simple words, it can be put or defined as the art or power of giving life,
energy and emotions etc. to any non-living or inanimate object via computers. It can be
presented in form of any video or movie. Computer animation has the ability to make any dead
image alive. The key/main concept behind computer animation is to play the defined images at a
faster rate to fool the viewer so that the viewer should interpret those images as a continuous
motion of images.

Computer Animation is a sub-part or say small part of computer graphics and animation.
Nowadays, animation can be seen in many area around us. It is used in a lot of movies, films and
games, education, e-commerce, computer art, training etc. It is a big part of entertainment area as
most of the sets and background is all build up through VFX and animation.
Rendering:
Rendering or image synthesis is the process of generating a photorealistic or non-photorealistic
image from a 2D or 3D model by means of a computer program. The resulting image is referred
to as the render. Multiple models can be defined in a scene file containing objects in a strictly
defined language or data structure. The scene file contains geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting,
and shading information describing the virtual scene. The data contained in the scene file is then
passed to a rendering program to be processed and output to a digital image or raster graphics
image file. The term "rendering" is analogous to the concept of an artist's impression of a scene.
The term "rendering" is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing
program to produce the final video output.

Rendering is one of the major sub-topics of 3D computer graphics, and in practice it is always
connected to the others. It is the last major step in the graphics pipeline, giving models and
animation their final appearance. With the increasing sophistication of computer graphics since
the 1970s, it has become a more distinct subject.

Rendering has uses in architecture, video games, simulators, movie and TV visual effects, and
design visualization, each employing a different balance of features and techniques. A wide
variety of renderers are available for use. Some are integrated into larger modeling and
animation packages, some are stand-alone, and some are free open-source projects. On the
inside, a renderer is a carefully engineered program based on multiple disciplines, including light
physics, visual perception, mathematics, and software development.

SECTION – I
Q.2. (a) List OSI Seven Layers in order and briefly describe functions of each layer (10+6+4)
(b) What is difference between IPv4 and IPv6. Why IPv6 was developed when there
IPv4 was already available and implemented?
(c) What is difference between physical address, logical address, domain and port number?
 (a) List OSI Seven Layers in order and briefly describe functions of each layer

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization for Standardization‘, in the year 1984.

Layers of OSI Model

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of
bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving
data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the
Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

The functions of the physical layer are as follows:

1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of
bits sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are
simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
Layers or Hardware Layers.
2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2):

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the
physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it
to the Host using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:

1. Logical Link Control (LLC)

2. Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC
address in the header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)

request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with
its MAC address.

The functions of the Data Link layer are :

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a
set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit
patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
address) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving
acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC
sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at
a given time.

* Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device
drivers of host machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses
are placed in the header by the network layer.

The functions of the Network layer are

1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are
placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device
uniquely and universally.

* Segment in Network layer is referred to as Packet.

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network
layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to
End Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement
of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.

At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs
Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission.
It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data
to the Network Layer.

Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.

Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port number
80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default
ports assigned.

At receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data
which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling
of the segmented data.

The functions of the transport layer are as follows:

 1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated
with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to the correct process, the transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.

The services provided by the transport layer :

A. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes

– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection

In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement, back to the source
after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.

B. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for
much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.

* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.

** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates
with the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,

authentication, and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :

1. Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered
synchronization points into the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so
that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and
data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other
in half-duplex or full-duplex.

**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP
model as “Application Layer”.
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also
known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which
is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to
be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services
to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.

Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

**Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

(b) What is difference between IPv4 and IPv6. Why IPv6 was developed
when there IPv4 was already available and implemented?
The creation of IPv6, and its slow replacement of IPv4, has been a huge and critical innovation
for the future of internet communications. (We go into more detail about that in What Is IPv6?:
An Overview.)

The primary function of IPv6 is to allow for more unique TCP/IP address identifiers to be
created, now that we’ve run out of the 4.3 billion created with IPv4. This is one of the main
reasons why IPv6 is such an important innovation for the Internet of Things (IoT). Internet-
connected products are becoming increasingly popular, and while IPv4 addresses couldn’t meet
the demand for IoT products, IPv6 gives IoT products a platform to operate on for a very long
time.

There are dozens of reasons why IPv6 is superior to IPv4 (and why this new internet protocol is
important for companies to understand), but we’re zeroing in on IPv6 for IoT. Let’s take a look
at three of the distinct advantages it offers.

3 Reasons Why IPv6 Is Important For the Internet Of

Things
1. Security

With billions of new smart products being created every day, security is an important thought in
the back of all IoT engineers’ minds. Organizations and individuals have learned of the real and
imminent threat that hackers pose in past years, but the IoT brings up a whole new line of
security intricacies. Hacking a secure network and harvesting millions of credit card numbers is
terrible—but if someone with ill intentions was to hack into a smart city, or a neighborhood of
smart houses, the outcome could be far more catastrophic. You can tell why IoT security is very
important—and the good news is that IPv6 offers better security solutions than its predecessor,
largely due to IPSec.

For one thing, IPv6 can run end-to-end encryption. While this technology was retrofitted into
IPv4, it remains an extra option that is not universally used. The encryption and integrity-
checking used in current virtual private networks (VPNs) are a standard component in IPv6,
available for all connections and supported by all compatible devices and systems. Widespread
adoption of IPv6 will therefore make “man-in-the-middle” attacks—i.e., thinking that you’re
signing into a secure bank log in when you’re actually walking into a cyber “trap”—significantly
more difficult.

IPv6 also supports more-secure name resolution. The Secure Neighbor Discovery (SEND)
protocol is capable of enabling cryptographic confirmation that a host is who it claims to be at
the time of the connection. This renders Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) poisoning and other
naming-based attacks more difficult. And while IPv6 isn’t a replacement for application- or
service-layer verification, it still offers an improved level of trust in connections. With IPv4, it’s
fairly easy for an attacker to redirect traffic between two legitimate hosts and manipulate the
conversation or at least observe it—but IPv6 makes this very difficult.
These added security features depend entirely on proper design and implementation of IPv6, and
the more complex, flexible infrastructure of IPv6 makes this process more difficult.
Nevertheless, if properly configured, IPv6 networking will be significantly more secure than
IPv4 by a longshot.

2. Scalability

According to a report put out by Gartner, 25 billion “things” will be connected to the internet by
the year 2020. That’s a pretty incredible estimation, considering the same report notes that 4.9
billion devices will be connected in 2015. This purported 400% increase in growth in only five
years sheds some light on how much exponential IoT growth we can expect to see in the next 10,
20, or even 50 years.

Given these numbers, it’s easy to understand why IPv6 (and its trillions upon trillions of new
addresses) are important for IoT devices. Creators of IoT products that are connected over
TCP/IP can rest assured that there will be a unique identifier available for their devices for a
long, long time.

3. Connectability

With billions of new IoT devices entering the market each year, connectibility—i.e., allowing
network-connected devices to “speak” to each other—is vital.

With IPv4, there were quite a few issues with allowing IoT products to speak with one another.
Network Address Translation (NAT) posed one of these major issues. NAT was created as a
workaround for organizations that needed multiple people and devices to be able to work off of
the same IPv4 address. Not only does this pose a security issue (which we’ll talk about in a
moment), but it also poses a difficult issue for IoT products. IPv6 allows IoT products to be
uniquely addressable without having to work around all of the traditional NAT and firewall
issues. Larger and more advanced host devices have all sorts of tools to make working with
firewalls and NAT routers easier, but small IoT endpoints do not. By using IPv6, many of these
issues become easier for TCP/IP enabled IoT devices to handle.

c) What is difference between physical address, logical address, domain and

port number?

Logical Address: An IP address of the system is called logical address. This address is the
combnation of Net ID and Host ID. This address is used by network layer to identify a particular
network (source to destination) among the networks. This address can be changed by changing
the host position on the network. So it is called logical address.

Physical address: Each system having a NIC(Network Interface Card) through which two
systems physically connected with each other with cables. The address of the NIC is called
Physical address or mac address. This is specified by the mmanufacturer company of the
card. This address is used by data link layer.
Port Address: There are many application running on the computer. Each application run with a
port no.(logically) on the computer. This port no. for application is decided by the Kernal of the
OS. This port no. is called port address.

Domain Name:
When referring to an Internet address or name, a domain or domain name is the location of a website.
For example, the domain name "google.com" points to the IP address "216.58.216.164". Generally, it's
easier to remember a name rather than a long string of numbers. A domain name contains a maximum
of sixty three characters, with one character minimum, and is entered after the protocol in the URL, as
shown in the following example.

Q. 5. (a) Define following terms: (16+4)

(i) Class (ii) Encapsulation (iii) Abstraction
(iv) Shadowing (v) Inheritance (vi) Polymorphism
(vii) Copy Constructor (viii) Serialization

What is Shadowing
Shadowing is a concept of OOP (Object Oriented Programming) paradigm. Using Shadowing,
we can provide a new implementation to base class member without overriding it, which means
that the original implementation of base class member gets shadowed (hidden) with the new
implementation of base class member provided in derived class.

Polymorphism: The word polymorphism means having many forms. In simple words, we can
define polymorphism as the ability of a message to be displayed in more than one form.

A person at the same time can have different characteristic. Like a man at the same time is a
father, a husband, an employee. So the same person posses different behaviour in different
situations. This is called polymorphism.

An operation may exhibit different behaviours in different instances. The behaviour depends
upon the types of data used in the operation.

C++ supports operator overloading and function overloading.

 Operator Overloading: The process of making an operator to exhibit different behaviours in

different instances is known as operator overloading.
 Function Overloading: Function overloading is using a single function name to perform different
types of tasks.
Polymorphism is extensively used in implementing inheritance.

Example: Suppose we have to write a function to add some integers, some times there are 2
integers, some times there are 3 integers. We can write the Addition Method with the same name
having different parameters, the concerned method will be called according to parameters.
Copy Constructor:
A copy constructor is a member function that initializes an object using another object of the same class.
In simple terms, a constructor which creates an object by initializing it with an object of the same class,
which has been created previously is known as a copy constructor.

Characteristics of Copy Constructor

1. The copy constructor is used to initialize the members of a newly created object by copying
the members of an already existing object.

2. Copy constructor takes a reference to an object of the same class as an argument.

Sample(Sample &t)
{
id=t.id;
}

3. The process of initializing members of an object through a copy constructor is known as copy
initialization.

4. It is also called member-wise initialization because the copy constructor initializes one object with the
existing object, both belonging to the same class on a member-by-member copy basis.
5. The copy constructor can be defined explicitly by the programmer. If the programmer does not define
the copy constructor, the compiler does it for us.

Example:
// C++ program to demonstrate the working
// of a COPY CONSTRUCTOR

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Point {
private:
int x, y;

public:
Point(int x1, int y1)
{
x = x1;
y = y1;
}

// Copy constructor
Point(const Point& p1)
 {
x = p1.x;
y = p1.y;
}

int getX() { return x; }

int getY() { return y; }
};

int main()
{
Point p1(10, 15); // Normal constructor is called here
Point p2 = p1; // Copy constructor is called here

// Let us access values assigned by constructors

cout << "p1.x = " << p1.getX()
<< ", p1.y = " << p1.getY();
cout << "\np2.x = " << p2.getX()
<< ", p2.y = " << p2.getY();
return 0;
}

Serialization and Deserialization

Serialization is a mechanism of converting the state of an object into a byte stream.
Deserialization is the reverse process where the byte stream is used to recreate the actual Java
object in memory. This mechanism is used to persist the object.
The byte stream created is platform independent. So, the object serialized on one platform can be
deserialized on a different platform

Database Normalization Explained

Normalization is a technique for organizing data in a database. It is important that a database is
normalized to minimize redundancy (duplicate data) and to ensure only related data is stored in each
table. It also prevents any issues stemming from database modifications such as insertions, deletions,
and updates.

First Normal Form (1NF):

 Data is stored in tables with rows uniquely identified by a primary key
 Data within each table is stored in individual columns in its most reduced form
 There are no repeating groups

Second Normal Form (2NF):

 Everything from 1NF
 Only data that relates to a table’s primary key is stored in each table

Third Normal Form (3NF):

 Everything from 2NF
 There are no in-table dependencies between the columns in each table
Primary Key:
A primary key is a field in a table which uniquely identifies each row/record in a database table.
Primary keys must contain unique values. A primary key column cannot have NULL values.

A table can have only one primary key, which may consist of single or multiple fields. When
multiple fields are used as a primary key, they are called a composite key.

If a table has a primary key defined on any field(s), then you cannot have two records having the
same value of that field(s).

Create Primary Key

Here is the syntax to define the ID attribute as a primary key in a CUSTOMERS table.

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

Alternate Key:
Alternate Key or Secondary Key is the key that has not been selected to be the primary key, but are
candidate keys. However, it is considered a candidate key for the primary key. A candidate key not
selected as a primary key is called alternate or secondary key.