Q1.

Explain single-phase transformer construction and working principle along with a

well-labelled diagram?
• A single-phase transformer is a type of transformer which operates on single-phase
power. It is most commonly used to increase (‘step up’) or decrease (‘step down’)
voltage levels between circuits.
• A transformer is a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one
circuit to another through the process of electromagnetic induction.
• A transformer is a device which converts magnetic energy into electrical energy. It
consists of two electrical coils called as a primary winding and secondary winding. The
primary winding of a transformer receives power, while the secondary winding delivers
power. A magnetic iron circuit called “core” is commonly used to wrap around these
coils.

Principle of Single-Phase Transformer:

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and
mutual induction. There are usually two coils – primary coil and secondary coil – on the
transformer core. When an alternating current passes through the primary coil, it creates a
varying magnetic flux. As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change in
magnetic flux induces an EMF (electromotive force) in the secondary coil, which is linked to
the core having a primary coil. This is mutual induction.
Overall, a transformer carries out the following operations:
• Transfer of electrical energy from one circuit to another
• Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
• Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
• Two circuits are linked with mutual induction
Parts of a Single-phase Transformer:
• Core:
1) The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a
low reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux. The winding is wound on the
core.
2) It is made up of a laminated soft iron core in order to reduce the losses in a
transformer. The factors, such as operating voltage, current, power, etc., decide
core composition.
• Windings:
1) Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer core. Copper
wires are used because high conductivity of copper minimises the loss in a
transformer.
2) There are mainly two types of windings: primary windings and secondary
windings.
Primary winding: The set of turns of windings to which the supply current
is fed.
Secondary winding: The set of turns of winding from which output is taken.
3) The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other using
insulation coating agents.
• Insulation Agents
1) Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from each other
and to avoid short circuits.
2) The following are used as insulation mediums in a transformer:
Insulating oil
Insulating tape
Insulating paper
Wood-based lamination
Q2. What is transformation ratio?
Ans- Transformation ratio is denoted by “k”
K= N2/N1=V2/V1= I1/I2 (1- for primary and 2- for secondary)
Case 1: If N2 > N1, K>1, it is called a step-up transformer.
Case 2: If N2< N1, K<1, it is called a step-down transformer.
Q3. What are the different types of transformers?
1) Based on Voltage Levels
Commonly used transformer types, depending on the voltage, are classified as follows:
Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power generator and the power grid. The
secondary output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
Step-down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high-voltage primary supply
to low-voltage secondary output.
2) Based on the Winding Arrangement
 Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a laminated core. The primary
and secondary share the same coil
3) Based on Core construction
The transformers are broadly classified into following two types:
Core Type Transformer: Core type transformer consists of a single magnetic circuit.
Shell type transformer: A shell type transformer consists of two magnetic circuits.
Q4. What is the main difference between Core-type and Shell-type transformers?

S.NO. CORE TYPE SHELL TYPE

1. In a core type transformer, the windings In a shell type transformer, the magnetic
surround the core of transformer. core surrounds the windings of the
transformer.
2. Core type transformer consists of a single A shell type transformer consists of two
magnetic circuit. magnetic circuits.

3. A core type transformer has cylindrical A shell type transformer has sandwich
winding). winding.

4. Core transformer has more copper loss. The copper loss in a shell type
transformer is comparatively less.
5. The losses are more in core type The losses are less in shell type
transformer. transformer.
6. Maintenance is easy Maintenance is difficult.
7. Easy in design and construction Complex in design and construction.
8. Used for high voltage application like Used for low voltage application like
power transformers, autotransformers transformers in an electronic circuit.
Q5. What is the difference between autotransformer and Two winding/ Conventional
transformer?
S.NO. AUTOTRANSFORMER CONVENTIONAL
TRANSFORMER
1 A type of electrical transformer which A static electric machine which consists
consists of only one winding, a part of of two magnetically coupled windings,
which acts as primary and the other which are electrically insulated from one
part as the secondary is called the another for the transfer of electrical
autotransformer. energy from one circuit to another at the
same frequency but at different voltage
is known as two winding transformers.
2 Auto-transformer has only one It has two separate winding, i.e., primary
winding wound on a laminated core and secondary winding.
3

SYMBOL SYMBOL
4. . Less costly More costly
5. An autotransformer has more
Efficiency of a two winding transformer
efficiency. is less.
6. The leakage flux is low in an Two-winding transformer has high
autotransformer. leakage flux.
7. Autotransformer is less costly than two
The cost of two winding transformer is
winding transformers. more.
8. Autotransformers are relatively
Two-winding transformers are larger in
smaller in size. size.
9. Windings are not electrically insulated.
Windings are electrically insulated from
each other.
10 Autotransformer is used as laboratory Two-winding transformer are employed
transformer, starter for induction for step-up and step-down the voltage
motor, voltage regulator, traction for transmission and distribution
transformer, etc. purposes.
Q6. What are the different types of losses in transformer?

1. Iron or core Losses/ constant losses:

• Iron loss occurs in the magnetic core of the transformer due to flow of alternating
magnetic flux through it. For this reason, the iron loss is also called core loss.
• The symbol Pi to represent the iron loss. The iron loss consists of hysteresis loss (Ph)
and eddy current loss (Pe). Thus, the iron loss is given by the sum of the hysteresis
loss and eddy current loss,
i.e., Iron loss, Pi=Hysteresis loss (Ph) + Eddy current loss (Pe).
Ph = khfBm1.6 ⋅⋅⋅(1)

Pe= keBm2f2t2 ⋅⋅⋅(2)

• kh is a proportionality constant whose value depends upon the volume and quality of
the material of core.
• ke is a proportionality constant which depend on the volume and resistivity of material
of the core.
• f is the frequency of the alternating flux in the core.
• Bm is the maximum flux density in the core.
• ‘t’ is the thickness of each core lamination.
(A) Hysteresis Loss:
• Loss of energy due to continuous magnetization and demagnetization of the transformer
is called hysteresis loss.
• Hysteresis loss in a transformer can be minimized by using soft magnetic materials
for the core like permalloy or silicon iron.
(B) Eddy current Loss:
• Energy loss in a metallic plate when kept in a time-varying magnetic field causes eddy
current loss.
• It can be minimized by using a laminated iron core in the transformer.
2. Copper Loss/ variable losses:
• These losses occur due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. If I1
and I2 are the primary and the secondary current. R1 and R2 are the resistance of
 primary and secondary winding then the copper losses occurring in the primary
and secondary winding will be I12R1 and I22R2 respectively. Therefore, the total
copper losses will be

• Copper loss occurs in the form of heat energy lost due to the resistance of the
copper coils used in the windings of a transformer.
• Copper loss can be minimized by using wire with a large cross-sectional area in
the coils.
3. Stray Loss:
• The occurrence of stray losses is due to the presence of leakage field.
• The percentage of these losses are very small as compared to the iron and
copper losses so they can be neglected.

4. Stray Loss:
• The power loss occurs in insulating materials like oil, solid insulation of the
transformer, etc. is known as dielectric loss.
• The dielectric loss is significant only in transformers working on high voltages.
• Although, in practice, the stray loss and dielectric loss are very small, constant
and may be neglected.

Total losses in transformer = Constant losses + Variable losses

Q7. Transformer Efficiency:
• The ratio of the output power to the input power in a transformer is known as
efficiency of transformer. The transformer efficiency is represented by Greek letter Eta
(η).
Efficiency, η=Output Power /Input Power
For a practical transformer, the input power is given by,
Input power = Output power + Losses
η=V2I2cosϕ2 / V2I2cosϕ2+ Pi+ Pc
Condition for Maximum Efficiency:
For a given transformer, we have,
Output power = V2I2cosϕ2
The total copper loss is given by,
Pcu=I22R2
Therefore, the transformer efficiency is given by,
η=V2I2cosϕ2 / V2I2cosϕ2+ Pi+ I22Ro2
On rearranging the expression, we get,
η =V2cosϕ2 / V2cosϕ2+ (Pi / I2) +I2Ro2 = V2cosϕ2 / D ⋅⋅⋅ (1)
In practice, the secondary voltage V2 is approximately constant. Hence, for a load of
given power factor, the transformer efficiency depends upon the load current (I2). From
the equation (1), we can see that the numerator is constant and for the efficiency to be
maximum, the denominator (D) should be minimum, i.e.
d(D) / dI2 = 0
= d / dI2[V2cosϕ2+(Pi / I2) + I2R02] = 0
= 0− (Pi / I2) +Ro2 = 0
= Pi = I22Ro2
⇒Iron loss=Copper loss
Therefore, the transformer efficiency for a given power factor will be maximum
when the constant iron loss is equal to the variable copper loss.
Q8. Emf equation of transformer:
 Q8. Explain the construction and working of dc motor with diagram?

A DC motor is defined as the motors that convert direct current electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
Principle of DC motor:
The basic working principle of a DC motor is: "whenever a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force". The direction of this force is given by
Fleming's left-hand rule and its magnitude is given by F = BIL. Where, B = magnetic flux
density, I = current and L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
Parts of DC motor:
1. Rotor: Rotor is the moving parts of a dc motor. It dynamically moves when the voltage
is applied to the armature winding. This will produce mechanical movement for a dc
motor. This one is the important parts of a dc motor.
 Rotor is built from:
• Shaft
• Armature core
• Brush
• Commutator
• Armature windings
2. Stator: It is the stationary parts of a dc motor. Stator does not move and only produces
a magnetic field around the rotor to make the rotor rotating when the voltage is applied
to it.
Stator is built from:
• Yoke or frame
• Field windings
• Poles
3. Brush: Brushes are attached to the commutator as a bridge to deliver the electrical
energy from the supply circuit to the rotor. Brushes are usually made from Carbon or
Graphite material.
4. Commutator:
• Commutator has the form of a split ring. The ring is made from copper and split
in 2 or more depending on the number of armature windings.
• The main purpose of the commutator is to deliver the electric current to the
armature windings and the constant torque produced by this rotor movement in
one direction is called commutation.
5. Armature winding:
Armature winding is used to energize the static magnetic field in the rotor.
Armature windings can be made with:
• Lap winding construction
• Wave winding construction
Q9. Describe different techniques for regulating the speed of (1) a DC shunt motor and
(2) a DC series motor
ANS- The speed of a DC motor (N) is equal to

Therefore, speed of DC motors – shunt and series can be controlled by changing the quantities
on the right-hand side of the equation above.
Hence the speed can be varied by changing:
• The terminal voltage of the armature, V.
• The external resistance in armature circuit, Ra.
• The flux per pole, φ.
Therefore, speed control of DC motor can be classified into:
• Armature Control Methods
 • Field Control Methods

1. Speed Control of DC Shunt Motor

a) Armature Resistance Control Method

In this method, additional resistance is added in series with the armature winding by using a
rheostat. The current through armature is controlled with the rheostat and thus called an
armature control method.

The speed can be reduced to any desired value depending on the amount of resistance added.
The voltage across the armature drops as the current passes through the rheostat. This method
of speed control is most economical for constant torque. This method of speed control is
employed for DC series motor driving cranes, hoists, trains etc.

B) Armature Voltage Control

This method of speed control needs a variable source of voltage separated from the source
supplying the field current. This method avoids disadvantages of poor speed regulation and
low efficiency of armature-resistance control methods.

2. Speed Control of DC Series Motor

a) Armature Terminal Voltage Control: The speed control of DC series motor can be
accomplished by supplying the power to the motor from a separate variable voltage
supply. This method involves high cost so it rarely used.
b) Field diverter method:
A variable resistance (Rheostat) called field diverter is connected across the series
field winding. A portion of the current flowing through the series field winding is
diverted into the field diverter by varying its resistance.
 By diverting the current, the flux produced is reduced. Hence the speed can be
increased above the normal speed.

c) Armature resistance control

It is similar to the method adopted for DC shunt motor. But in DC series motor, the control
resistance may be connected directly in series with the supply. The circuit is shown below.

This method is more economical for constant torque drives. Such a method of controlling the
speed is employed for motor driving cranes, hoists, trains, etc.

Q10. Explain drive circuits used with stepper motors, and discuss their performance
characteristics?
ANS- A stepper motor driver (or stepper motor drive) is a circuit used to drive or run a
stepper motor. A stepper motor driver usually consists of a controller, a driver, and the stepper
motor’s connections.
Essential Components of Stepper Motor Drive
• Controller (essentially a microcontroller or a microprocessor)
• A driver IC to handle the motor current
• A power supply unit
Controller: The selection of a controller is the first step to building a driver. Additionally, it
must contain timers, ADC etc. depending on the application in which the driver will be used.

Stepper Motor Driver: The driver IC’s need to be chosen in order to match with ratings of
the motor corresponding to voltages and current values. The most suitable type of driver is the
ULN2003 type for stepper motor drivers.

Power Supply Unit: The stepper motor driver can operate at voltages which are in the range
between 5V to 12V and in the same way, the output current lies in the range between 100 Amps
to 400 Amps.

Stepper motor Characteristics:

a) Pull in torque
b) Pull out torque charcteristics.
Q11. Highlight the distinctions among stepper motors, BLDC (Brushless DC) motors?
ANS-
Difference between Stepper Motor and Servo Motor
Stepper motor Servomotor
A type of brushless DC motor which divides A type of electric motor whose operation is
the full rotation of shaft into a number of controlled with the help of servo mechanism
equal discrete steps is known as stepper is known as servo motor.
motor.
The operation of stepper motor is divided The operation of servo motor is continuous.
into discrete steps.
There is no feedback mechanism in case of The feedback mechanism exists in a servo
stepper motor. motor
Stepper motors produce high torque at low Servo motor produces high torque at high
speeds speeds.
The stepper motors are simpler in design. Servo motors have relatively complex
design.
Stepper motors consume comparatively Servo motors need relatively less power.
more power.
The stepper motors are relatively less The efficiency of servo motor is
efficient. comparatively high.
The life span of stepper motors is longer. Servo motors have short life span.
The cost of stepper motors is comparatively The cost of servo motors is high.
less.
Servo motors are extensively used in remote Servo motors are extensively used in remote
controlled equipment, robots, antenna controlled equipment, robots, antenna
positioning systems, industrial automation, positioning systems, industrial automation,
cameras, etc. cameras, etc.

Stepper motor:
• A step motor or stepping motor is called a stepper motor in which the single rotation is
divided into a number of steps. Each step is being calculated by an angle. The step angle
can be varied as per the design of the motor.
• It has a permanent magnetic rotating shaft called the rotor and stationary electromagnets
surrounding the rotor called the stator.
Comparison between BLDC, BRUSHED DC AND INDUCTION MOTOR:

Single phase induction motor:

• A Single-Phase Induction Motor consists of a single phase winding which is
mounted on the stator of the motor and a cage winding placed on the rotor.
• A pulsating magnetic field is produced, when the stator winding of the single-
phase induction motor is energised by a single phase supply.
• When we apply a single phase AC supply to the stator winding,
the magnetic field gets produced, and the motor rotates at speed
slightly less than the synchronous speed Ns. Synchronous speed

Ns is given by
 Where,
f = supply voltage frequency,
P = No. of poles of the motor.
Construction of Single Phase Induction Motor:
Stator:
As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A single-phase AC supply
is given to the stator of single phase induction motor.

Rotor:
The rotor is a rotating part of an induction motor. The rotor connects the mechanical load
through the shaft. The rotor in the single-phase induction motor is of squirrel cage rotor type.

Comparison between Single Phase and Three Phase

Induction Motors
1. Single phase induction motors are simple in construction,
reliable and economical for small power rating as compared to
three phase induction motors.
2. The electrical power factor of single phase induction motors is
low as compared to three phase induction motors.
3. For the same size, the single-phase induction motors develop
about 50% of the output as that of three phase induction
motors.
4. The starting torque is also low for asynchronous motors/single
phase induction motor.
5. The efficiency of single phase induction motors is less
compared to that of three phase induction motors.
Single phase induction motors are simple, robust, reliable and cheaper for
small ratings. They are available up to 1 KW rating.