INTRODUCTION TO IRRIGATION

(AMI 303)

2 Credits Course
(BSC. AGRIC TECH)
Dr. Thomas Apusiga Adongo (2022)

Department of Agricultural Mechanisation and Irrigation Technology

Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Consumer Sciences
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Course Outline
 1.
Overview of irrigation development in
Ghana.

 2. Factors of consideration in planning of an

irrigation system.

 3.
Water resources for irrigation ( earth
dams).
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4. Water flow in canals

- Water flow measuring

devices.
- Flow continuity equation.

5. Methods of irrigation

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Background of Course

Agriculture plays a key role in the

Ghana’s economy.

 However, the structure of the sector is

vulnerable.

Because it relies heavily on rainfed

during a roughly 6-month rainy season.
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Droughts, erratic rainfall and other types

of unseasonable weather pose risks for
the agricultural sector.

Under these conditions, IRRIGATION

DEVELOPMENT is a critical option.

 As it ensures a year long crop

production.
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Definition of Irrigation
IRRIGATION is a controlled
artificial application of water to
the soil, arable lands for crop
production.

Itsprimary objective is to create

an optimal soil moisture regime
for maximizing crop production
and quality.
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Types of Irrigation
Supplementary Irrigation: It is
practiced when there is a
shortage of rainfall for a part of
the season; wet season.

Total Irrigation: In a season

of no rainfall ; dry season.
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DISCIPLINES OF IRRIGATION
 Irrigation development contains a large
number of disciplines. They includes:

 Agronomy: How to grow crops effectively

and profitably.

 Agrohydrology: The collection of

hydrological data, aimed at increasing the
efficiency of crop production. Study of water
for agricultural purposes.
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Agrometeorology: Study of
weather and use of weather and
climate information to enhance or
expand agricultural crops and/or
to increase crop production.

Hydraulics: Flow of water canal

system.
Economic and financial analyses
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OBJECTIVES OF IRRIGATION
To supply water partially or totally for
crop need.
To cool both the soil and the plant.
To leach excess salts.
To improve groundwater storage.
To facilitate continuous cropping.
To enhance fertilizer application-
Fertigation.
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BRIEF HISTORY OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN GHANA

 Although cultivation of vegetables using

hand dug wells dates as far back as pre
independence era,

 Modern irrigated agriculture started in

Ghana under the Land Planning Unit (LPU)
of the Ministry of Agriculture in 1960.

 The function of LPU was mainly land

planning for future development and
successful agricultural use.
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 In 1974, the Irrigation Department was

established.

 This department had the broad

responsibilities for promoting irrigation,
including technical studies and
infrastructure development.

 The Ghana Government recognized the

need to integrate the agricultural and
engineering functions to achieve the
irrigation development in the country, and
thus established, in April 1977, an institution
named the Irrigation Dev’t Authority (IDA).
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Function of GIDA
Formulate, develop and
implement irrigation plans for
all year round crop production
in Ghana.
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RESPONSIBILITIES OF GIDA
Develop and design standards for
irrigation infrastructure.

Designing irrigation infrastructure and

related facilities e.g. dams, ponds,
conveyance structures.

Carryingout land-use planning in

areas earmarked for irrigation
development.
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Provide public irrigation facilities.

Providing technical and managerial

services for effective use of irrigation
facilities/schemes.

Developing and disseminating

adaptive irrigation technology.
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Benefits/Importance of Irrigation
 Irrigation has increased the amount of land
under cultivation, and the yields on existing
croplands.

 It has also allowed double cropping, and has

decreased the uncertainty of water supplied
by rainfall.

 Provides employment and income. There is

evidence in many regions that employment
opportunities have increased after the
development of irrigation systems.
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Demerits/Problems Associated with the Construction

of Irrigation Water Resources

Waterborne Diseases.

There have been a number of large

dams whose construction was the
cause of local public health
problems.

Increases have occurred in diseases

such as malaria, diarrhea, cholera,
typhoid, and river blindness.
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 Waterlogging and salinization of land.

Waterlogging and salinization are two
problems related to the productivity of
land that often occur together.
Salinization of the soil occurs when the
salt content of the soil increases, which
affects the productivity of the land.

 Habitatdestruction. The construction of a

large dam causes changes in a river
ecosystem. There are changes in stream
flow and water quality. Blocking migration
of native species. Many river systems are
used by species of migratory fish, such as
salmon.
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Classification of Irrigation System

 Irrigation systems observed in Ghana may be
classified into two types:

 Conventional systems:- which are mainly initiated

and developed by the Ghanaian government or
various nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),
and

 Emerging systems:- which are initiated and

developed by private entrepreneurs and farmers.

 - Little is officially known about emerging systems,

but they are expanding at a rapid rate, mainly
fuelled by access to relatively affordable pumping
technologies. Along White/Black volta
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e
 22 Public Irrigation Schemes in Ghana
Name of irrigation
Scheme Region Equipped Area (ha)
Ashaiman Greater Accra Region 155
Weija Greater Accra Region 200
Dawhenya Greater Accra Region 400
Kpong (Right bank) Greater Accra Region 2, 700
Aveyime Volta Region 280
Afife Volta Region 880
Kpando Torkor Volta Region 80
Amate Eastern Region 60
Dedeso Eastern Region 40
Okyereko Central Region 40
Mankessim Central Region 40
Kikam Western Region 27
Akomadan Ashanti Region 60
Anum valley Ashanti Region 100
Tanoso Ashanti Region 60
Sata Ashanti Region 40
Subinja Brong-Ahafo Region 60
Bontanga Northern Region 450
Golinga Northern Region 45
Libga Northern Region 40
Tono Upper East Region 2, 490
Vea Upper East Region 859
TOTAL 9,106
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COMPONENTS OF AN IRRIGATION SCHEME

1. Dam
2. Reservoir 10. Night storage reservoirs
3. Spillway
4. Offtake valves
5. Canals
6. Laterals 11. Irrigable lands or areas
7. Project offices
8. Road network
9. Machinery 12. Catchment area
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WATER RESOURCES FOR IRRIGATION

 Surface Water Resources:
 Dams
 Dugouts
 Rivers
 Streams
 Ponds

 Ground Water Resources:

 Boreholes
 Wells
 Bhungroo
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SITE SELECTION FOR IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT

 Soil & Topographic Surveys

 Selecting a land for irrigation development involves

soil and topographic surveys in order to collect the
facts required for successful planning.

 Soil survey is an inventory of the properties of the

soil such as
 texture,
 structure,
 degree of erosion,
 stoniness,
 pH,
 Salinity,
 Sodicity, etc
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SITE SELECTION FOR IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT

Soil determines which crops can be

grown, where, and how much they will
yield.

Topography refers to the

characteristics of the land surface.
These characteristics include slope,
natural features (rivers, streams &
trees), and artificial (or man-made)
features (buildings, highways).
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CALCULATIONS ON IRRIGABLE LAND SURVEY

Q1. An Irrigation Engineer at the Ghana Irrigation
Development Authority (GIDA) in Tamale conducted
a reconnaissance type of survey to plan and
execute irrigation projects on the national scale to
curb the frequent importation of rice, tomatoes and
onions. He used the appropriate scale 1:5 × 105 for
the projects. In the above case:

(i) Compute systematically the equivalency in terms

of acres and hectares respectively on the ground,
given that 120cm by 150mm is on the map.

(ii) What would be the approximate acreage and ha

on the ground if 2025cm2 is on the map?
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CALCULATIONS ON IRRIGABLE LAND SURVEY

Q2. A farmer intends to practice small scale irrigation

at the Golinga Irrigation Scheme in the Tolon District
of Northern region. He is expected to use the scale
1: 2500, which is an intensive type of survey suitable
for small scale farm planning purposes.

(i) Calculate in terms of hectares, the representation

of sixty thousand square centimetres on the map to
ground? acres?

(ii) What would 3.2 × 106 mm2 on the map represent

on the ground in acres & ha?
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QUANTIFICATION OF SURFACE RUNOFF FOR IRRIGATION

WATER RESOURCES (DAMS)

 Hydrologically, RUNOFF is the water

discharged in streams, rivers, lakes, sea etc.

 It includes not only the water that travels

over the land surface and through channels
to reach a stream or river but also interflows
(the water that infiltrates the soil surface and
travels by means of gravity towards a
stream or river).
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QUANTIFICATION OF SURFACE RUNOFF FOR IRRIGATION

WATER RESOURCES (DAMS)

 SurfaceRunoff is the flow of water over the

earth’s surface in response to gravity into
channels, streams, and rivers when there is
excess rainfall than the soil can absorb.

 Surface runoff is also known as overland

flow.

 Water balance equation: P = I + R + E

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Factors that Affect Surface Runoff

 The factors that affects surface runoff are broadly
classified into:

 Climatic factors (CFs)

&
 Physiographical Factors (PFs)
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Climatic Factors

Type of Precipitation:
It has great effect on surface runoff.

E.g. A precipitation which occurs in the form

of rainfall starts immediately as surface runoff
depending upon rainfall intensity,

While precipitation in the form of snow (ice)

does not result in surface runoff immediately.
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Climatic Factors
Rainfall Intensity:

If the rainfall intensity is greater than the

infiltration rate of the soil, then runoff
starts immediately.

While in case of low rainfall intensity

runoff starts later.

Thus, high intensities of rainfall yield

higher runoff.
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Climatic Factors
Duration of Rainfall:

It is directly related to the volume of

runoff be cause infiltration rate of soil
decreases with duration of rainfall.

Therefore, medium intensity rainfall

even results in considerable amount
of runoff if duration is longer.
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Physiographical Factors
 Size/shapeof Catchment area:
A large watershed takes longer time for
draining the runoff to outlet than smaller
watershed.

 Slope of Catchment
It has complex effect. It controls the time
of overland flow and time of
concentration of rainfall. E.g. sloppy
watershed results in greater runoff due to
greater runoff velocity and vice-versa.
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Physiographical Factors
 Size/shapeof Catchment area:
A large watershed takes longer time for
draining the runoff to outlet than smaller
watershed.

 Slope of Catchment
It has complex effect. It controls the time
of overland flow and time of
concentration of rainfall. E.g. sloppy
watershed results in greater runoff due to
greater runoff velocity and vice-versa.
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Physiographical Factors
 Landuse:
Landuse and land management practices
have great effect on the runoff yield.

E.g. an area with forest cover or thick layer of

mulch of leaves and grasses contribute less
runoff because water is absorbed more into
soil.

Cultivated land: Cereals & legumes (cover

crops).
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Physiographical Factors
 Soil moisture: Magnitude of runoff yield
depends upon the initial moisture present in
soil at the time of rainfall.

 If the rain occurs after along dry spell then

infiltration rate is more, hence it contributes
less runoff.

 Soil type:
 In filtration rate vary with type of soil.
 Surface runoff is greatly affected by soil
type. Clay soil & sandy soil.
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Methods for Quantifying Surface Runoff

 Two simple methods have been
developed for the estimation of runoff:

1. The Rational method

&
2. Cook’s method

 Runoff is normally expressed in volume per

unit time.

 Derived quantity: measured in [m3/s]

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Methods for Quantification of Surface Runoff

Q=CxIxA [m3/s]
360
I = rainfall intensity, i.e. rate of rainfall, [mm/hr]
A = catchment area [ha]
C = runoff co-efficient (factor). No unit

A is measured by surveying, from the maps or aerial photographs.

To get the value of I it is necessary to estimate the gathering time of

the catchment, with details for most small catchments indicated
in the Table below (next slide).

The constant C is a measure of the proportion of the rain

that becomes runoff.
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Gathering Time for Small Catchments

Avg. Gradient (slope) of catchment (%)
0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 2 5.0
Max. gathering time[min]
length of
flow [m]
100 12 9 5 4 3 2

200 20 16 8 7 5 4

500 44 34 17 14 10 8

1000 75 58 30 24 18 13

2000 130 100 50 40 31 22

3000 175 134 67 55 42 30

4000 216 165 92 70 54 38

5000 250 195 95 82 65 45

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Calculations on Quantification of Surface

Runoff
Q1. Given that the catchment area of
Bongo Irrigation dam in Upper East
Region is 12.5km2 while the rainfall
intensity in the area and runoff factor
are 2.5 x 10-5m/s and 1/4 respectively.

Compute the runoff from the

catchment in litres per second, L/hr,
L/day respectively.
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Calculations on Quantification of Surface

Runoff
Q2. Given that the catchment area
of Libga Irrigation dam in Savelugu
District is 275 ha while the rainfall
intensity in the area and runoff
factor are 0.075 cm/min and 2/5
respectively.

Compute the water yield from the

catchment in litres per day.
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The Cook’s Method

 This method was developed for tropical and
subtropical conditions and results are presented
in Table 1.

 First,
an assessment of the conditions of the
catchment is made, including the vegetation,
type of soils/drainage and the slope.

 The description that most nearly fits the

catchment is noted from the Table 3.

 The arithmetic total of the most approximate

conditions that fit the catchment is called the
catchment characteristics(CC).
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The Cook’s Method

 The area of the catchment is then measured, and
using the area A and the catchment characteristic
CC, the maximum runoff can be read from Table 2.

 Another factor with the significant role is the shape

of the catchment.

 The Table 2 gives runoffs for catchments which are

roughly square or round.

 Ifcatchment is another shape, the following

conversion factors should be applied:

Square or round: 1.0 Long and narrow: 0.8 Broad and

short: 1.25
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The Cook’s Method

 The area of the catchment is then measured, and
using the area A and the catchment characteristic
CC, the maximum runoff can be read from Table 2.

 Another factor with the significant role is the shape

of the catchment.

 The Table 2 gives runoffs for catchments which are

roughly square or round.

 Ifcatchment is another shape, the following

conversion factors should be applied:

Square or round: 1.0 Long and narrow: 0.8 Broad and

short: 1.25
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The Cook’s Method
Table 1. Catchment Characteristics (CC)

Cover Soil type and drainage Slope

Heavy grass 10 Deep well drained 10 Flat to gentle 5

Shrub, med. 15 Deep mod. pervious 20 Moderate 10
grass
Cultivated 20 Fairly permeable 25 Rolling 15
Lands
Bare or 25 Shallow soils with 30 Hilly or steep 20
Eroded impeded drainage
Medium heavy clays 40 Mountains 25

Rocky surfaces 40
Impervious, waterlogged 50
 Table 2:Run-off from small catchments(m3/s)
47 17/03/2022
CC > 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
A
5 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1
10 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.7
15 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.4 4.0 4.6 5.2
20 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.8 4.4 5.1 5.8 6.5
30 0.8 1.3 1.8 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.4 5.3 6.3 7.3 8.4 9.5
40 1.1 1.5 2.1 2.8 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.6 7.8 9.1 10.5 12.3
50 1.2 1.8 2.5 3.5 4.6 5.8 7.1 8.5 10.0 11.6 13.3 15.1
75 1.6 2.4 3.6 4.9 6.3 8.0 9.9 11.9 14.0 16.4 18.9 21.7
100 1.8 3.2 4.7 6.4 8.3 10.4 12.7 15.4 18.2 21.2 24.5 28.0
150 2.1 4.1 6.3 8.8 11.6 14.7 18.2 21.4 25.6 29.9 35.0 40.6
200 2.8 5.5 8.4 11.7 15.3 19.1 23.3 28.0 33.1 38.5 45.0 52.5
250 3.5 6.5 9.7 13.2 17.2 21.7 27.0 32.9 39.6 46.9 55.0 63.7
300 4.2 7.0 10.5 14.7 19.6 25.2 31.5 38.5 46.2 54.6 63.7 73.5
350 4.9 8.4 12.6 17.2 23.2 30.2 37.8 46.3 53.8 62.5 71.5 81.0
400 5.6 10.0 14.4 19.4 25.6 33.6 42.2 51.0 60.0 69.3 79.5 90.0
450 6.3 10.5 15.5 21.5 28.5 36.5 45.5 55.5 65.5 76.0 86.5 97.5
500 7.0 11.0 17.0 23.5 31.0 40.5 51.0 62.0 73.0 84.0 95.0 106.5
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Catchment Shape Conversion Factors

Square or Round Catchment = 1.0

Long and Narrow Catchment = 0.8

Broad and Short Catchment = 1.25

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Computations on Cook’s Method

Q1. Given that a catchment covers
an area of 0.45km2 with heavy
grass on deep well drained soil and
very flat to gentle slope land.

What would be the runoff in

litres/min if the catchment is long
and narrow?
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Computations on Cook’s Method

Q2. Calculate water yield in

litres/hr from a broad and short
catchment if the catchment
covers approximately 187.5acres
with cultivated land on a medium
heavy clay soil and moderate
slope land.
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Assignment
 2021 AGT students have been
tasked to determine the volume
of runoff which went into the
reservoir of Golinga dam in the
month of July 2019. Given that
the average rainfall intensity in
the month under consideration is
66.960m, catchment area is 375
ha and the runoff factor is
quarter, compute the surface
runoff in litres per second.
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CONSTRUCTION OF IRRIGATION WATER STORAGE STRUCTURES

(DAMS)

 A dam is an impervious artificial barrier constructed across a river(s) or

stream(s) so that an artificial reservoir is formed on its upstream side to
store water.

 It is a man-made structure.

 An earth dam is a dam in which the principal barrier is an embankment

of earth or rock fill or a combination of earth and rock fill.

 Earth Dams are important, especially in the northern regions of Ghana, as

a major source for irrigation, fish farming and watering of livestock. In
some communities the water in the reservoir is also used for domestic
purposes.

 A dam is constructed by excavating, hauling and compacting suitable

materials in layers and compacting the material at optimum water
contents so that the dam wall can impound water for the required use.
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DAM & RESERVOIR

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DAM & RESERVOIR

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VEA DAM
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VEA DAM
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VEA DAM
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VEA DAM
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VEA DAM
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VEA DAM
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Components of a Dam
1. Downstream face or slope
o Vegetatively protected against erosion.

2. Upstream face or slope

o Riprapped against the erosive effect of reservoir water
waves.

3. Crest: The top of the dam; the motorable portion

4. Spillway: A spillway to carry away excess water

especially during floods.

o Side channel.
o Drop outlet/mechanical.
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Components of a Dam

5. Rip-rap: These are

stones/boulders placed on the
upstream slope of the dam wall and
spillway for protecting the integrity
of the dam wall.
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Construction of Dams

 Small dams and reservoirs are

cheaper to construct than large
developments and sited much nearer
to the irrigation site.

 Less engineering skills are required in

building of small dams (any
establishment of the dam lower than
5m is considered small).
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Dam Location and Mode of Water

Delivery of Dam
 In dam location it is to be considered
whether the irrigated area will be served by
gravity

 In which case, irrigated land will be below

the level of water in the dam, example is
Bontanga Irrigation Project, or

 By pumping water to the scheme (water

level in the lake may be lower than irrigated
lands, example is Dawhenya Irrigation.
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Capacity of Dam
 Capacity of the dam will depend on
how many purposes the dam serve
(example: seasonal or permanent water
supply for purposes of irrigation,
watering cattle, fish, industry, etc).

 Care must be taken to incorporate all

losses from the dam (example is from
evaporation from the lake, deep
percolation below the dam, and
seepage losses through the dam wall) in
the capacity calculations.
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Soils for Earthen Dam construction

 The site must have suitable soil
conditions for constructing an earth dam
 Clay soils are often used.

 The soil of the basin should not be

porous, and the site for the wall should
be free from boulders and termites.

 Suitable soil for constructing the

wall should be available nearby.
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Settlement of Dam wall

 No matter how carefully the earth is

placed and compacted, there will be
settlement over the years, and an
allowance must be made for this.

 For average soils with reasonable

compaction 10% should be added to
the finally required height.
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Settlement of Dam wall

 This means that the newly built wall will
be convex along the top as the
allowance for settlement will be greater
in the middle than at the ends.

 Embankments built without

consolidation, for example those built
by bulldozers are not recommended
but if this method of construction is
unavoidable the allowance for
settlement should be 20%.
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CREST OF DAM
 CREST: This is the top of the dam wall.

 The top of the dam wall must be wide enough for

both the construction equipment and for any
traffic if the wall is going to be used as a bridge.

 Unnecessary width will add to the volume of

earth-work required.

 If the wall will only carry foot traffic and bicycles,

3m will be enough but for vehicles a minimum of
5m should be allowed.
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Estimating Quantities
 Prior to construction of the dam it is
necessary to estimate:

1. The quantity of earthworks/soil

required

2. storage capacity of the future

lake,
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QUANTITY OF EARTHWORKS/SOIL OF DAM CONSTRUCTION

 The approximate quantity of the earth required in

dam wall construction (building) is expressed as:

 V = 0.216HL (2C + HS)

 Where:
 V = Volume of soil required/needed (m3)
 H = Maximum height of dam wall (m)
 L = Length of dam wall along the crest (m)
 C = Crest width (m) [the top of the dam wall or
embankment]
 S = the sum of upstream and downstream slopes
of embankment [dam wall]
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QUANTITY OF EARTHWORKS/SOIL OF DAM CONSTRUCTION

Q1. The following are the hydraulic

specifications of Bontanga Irrigation
dam:
H = 15m,
C = 8m,
L = 1900m and
Upstream slope = 4:1 and
downstream slope 5:1.
Calculate the volume of earthworks
needed for a proper and complete
dam wall construction.
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Capacity of the Reservoir of Dam

 Storage capacity of the reservoir of a dam can

be estimated by:
Q=LxTxD (m3)
6
Where;
Q – Capacity of reservoir [m3]
L – Length of dam wall at full supply level [m]
T – Throwback [m],
D – Maximum height of the dam wall [m]
(This assumes that the basin is a pyramid whose
base is the dam wall)
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Capacity of the Reservoir of Dam

Q1. Given that the throwback, length of

dam wall at full supply level and height
of dam (depth of water at full supply
level) of the Doba Irrigation dam in
Navrongo are 1550m, 620m, and 5m
respectively.
Compute the storage capacity of the
dam.
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SPILLWAYS OF DAMS
o Few dams are built big enough to store all
runoff and provision is generally required to
pass on surplus flood water after the dam has
filled.

o The spillway is designed to allow flood waters

to pass without damaging the dam. It is a
safety device and the level is set at the full
supply. Freeboard.

 Every dam must have a spillway.

 There are several different kinds of spillways in

use.
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Types of Spillways
1. Cut Spillways
 For small dams built for conservation purposes there could be
constructed open channel spillway cut into the bank at the
side of the dam wall.

 These types of structure are cheaper and effective, but they

suffer from risk of erosion if water flows too quickly through the
spillway.

 The most vulnerable point in this type of structure is the point

where water joins the stream. At this point, the stream bank
must be cut back to gently slope and planted with grass for
protection (as well as the rest of the spillway).

 Alternatively, a concrete or masonry drop structure must be

provided. If it is not practical to protect the spillway with grass,
it should be protected at most vulnerable points with stone
pitching or concrete.
 77 17/03/2022

Types of Spillways
1. Cut Spillways
 78 17/03/2022

Types of Spillways
2. Mechanical or Drop outlet spillways
 This type of spillway uses pipe to pass the flood
through the embankment.

 The pipe is normally buried below the dam

wall.

 While the flood passes through the temporary

storage is provided above the pipe outlet.

 An emergency spillway is also provided for the

exceptional floods.
 79 17/03/2022

Types of Spillways
 80 17/03/2022

SPILLWAY DESIGN: Width of Spillway

 The following design procedure is used for
small-scale dams:

W = F x R x T (m)

Where:

W- Width of spillway,
F – Flood discharge factor (from Table 1),
R – Rainfall intensity factor (Table 2),
T- Topographical factor (Table 3)
 81 17/03/2022

Table 1:- Flood discharge factor (F) for spillway design

Freeboard
Surface Area of Reservoir (ha)
(mm)
50 100 150 200 250 300 400 500

750 28 56 85 113 140 170 225 280

1000 18 35 53 70 88 105 140 175

1250 13 25 38 50 63 75 100 125

1500 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100
 82 17/03/2022

Table 2:-Rainfall intensity factor (R) for spillway design

Length of
Mean Annual Rainfall (mm)
Catchment (km)
400 800 1200
1 0.83 0.90 0.93
2 0.62 0.66 0.68
3 0.49 0.52 0.54
4 0.40 0.43 0.45
5 0.34 0.37 0.38
6 0.29 0.32 0.33
 83 17/03/2022

Table 3:-Topographical factor (T) for spillway design = a+ b + c

 84 17/03/2022

PROBLEM
Q1. A dam for irrigation purpose is to be
constructed at Bognaayili for UDS by
Planners & Engineers. It is estimated that the
length of the catchment and surface area
of the reservoir are 4 x 106 mm and 3km2
respectively. The freeboard of the dam is
estimated to be 4.10105ft whilst the mean
annual rainfall in the catchment is 120cm.
What is the width of the dam’s spillway
given that the catchment is very flat to
gentle with medium-heavy clay soil which is
always under cultivation.
 85 17/03/2022

pasquo, obj) 6.5m

Q2. What would be the required width
of spillway for the following situation:
Surface area of the reservoir 150ha,
freeboard 1250mm, length of
catchment 4km, rainfall 800mm/annum,
vegetation scrub/medium grass, deep
well-drained soil and rolling
topography? Use attached tables as
needed.
free board 86 17/03/2022

FREEBOARD OF DAM
FREEBOARD: This is the distance between
the full supply level(the top of spillway) and
the crest.

The term freeboard indicates a buffer

needed to accommodate fluctuations in
water levels in canals.

The freeboard is defined as a difference

between the water level and the level of
the crest of the embankment.
 87 17/03/2022

NIGHT STORAGE RESERVOIRS

 These are reservoirs constructed at

strategic locations at the downstream
portion of the schemes to store water
at night for irrigation.
 88 17/03/2022

WATER FLOW IN CANALS &

FLOW CONTINUITY EQUATION
 Irrigation canals are structures that
transport water from the water source
(reservoir of a dam) to the irrigable area.

 The rate at which water is transported by a

canal is called discharge (Q).

 The maximum discharge any canal can

carry is termed canal capacity.

 The discharge is therefore the volume of

water that is transported each second.
 89 17/03/2022

DISCHARGE OF CANAL
 The discharge can be calculated by the following
formula:

Q =VxA

 Where;
Q is the discharge in m3/s,
 V is the average velocity of flow [m/s], and
 A is the area of wetted cross-section area of canal [m2]

 Thisequation is often referred to as Flow Continuity

Equation
 90 17/03/2022

WATER FLOW IN CANALS

 91 17/03/2022

WATER FLOW IN CANALS

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Weir as a check structure in Canals

 Weir: A barrier constructed across the horizontal
width of a canal that alters the flow
characteristics of the water and usually results in a
rise in the height of the water level to flow into a
lateral.

 In most cases it is possible to control the flow by

manipulating the water level in the canal.

 This is done by using check structures (weirs). A

check structure obstructs the flow in the canal,
and therefore the level of water in canal will rise.
 The check structures can be permanent or
temporary.
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 104 17/03/2022

WEIR IN A RIVER
 105 17/03/2022

ESTIMATION OF VELOCITY OF WATER FLOW IN IRIGATION

CANAL

 Two methods are used:

1. Field method (Float method)

Empirical method
2.
(Manning Equation)
 106 17/03/2022

FIELD METHOD FOR ESTIMATION OF VELOCITY OF WATER

FLOW IN IRIGATION CANAL
 To estimate the average flow velocity, the flow
velocity of the water at the surface, is first
determined.

 This is done by determining the time required

for a floating object to travel through
previously determined distance along the canal.

 The stretch of the canal used for measurement

should be straight and uniform, and the
process should be repeated several times.
 107 17/03/2022

FIELD METHOD FOR ESTIMATION OF VELOCITY OF WATER

FLOW IN IRIGATION CANAL

 Surface velocity is expressed as: Vs = L/t

 Where Vs is surface velocity [m/s]

 L is the distance between two measuring

points, and

 t is the travel time in seconds between two

observational points.
 108 17/03/2022

FIELD METHOD FOR ESTIMATION OF VELOCITY OF WATER

FLOW IN IRIGATION CANAL
 109 17/03/2022

FIELD METHOD FOR ESTIMATION OF VELOCITY OF WATER

FLOW IN IRIGATION CANAL
 110 17/03/2022

FIELD METHOD FOR ESTIMATION OF VELOCITY OF WATER

FLOW IN IRIGATION CANAL
 111 17/03/2022

FIELD METHOD FOR ESTIMATION OF VELOCITY OF WATER

FLOW IN IRIGATION CANAL
 The surface velocity must be reduced
in order to obtain the average velocity,
since surface water travels faster than
subsurface water.

 For most irrigation canals this reduction

factor is about 0.75 the average
velocity (Va)is therefore found from the
field measurements as;

 Va = 0.75 x Vs
 112 17/03/2022

EMPIRICAL METHOD FOR ESTIMATING VELOCITY OF WATER FLOW IN

IRIGATION CANAL
 THEVELOCITY OF WATER FLOW IN A CANAL
can computed using an empirical equation called the
Manning formula.

V = (R2/3 x S1/2)/n (m/s)

 Where: V = velocity in metres per second (m/s)
 R = hydraulic radius (m)
 S = slope/gradient of canal in metre per metre (m/m)
 n = roughness coefficient or manning coefficient

 R, S & n are the factors/variables which affect velocity

of flow in canal
 113 17/03/2022

Area of the wetted cross section

 Mostcommonly used shapes for the
wetted cross-section include:

1. rectangular,
2. triangular and
3. trapezoidal cross-section.

 These shapes can be used for every type

of canal – main, distribution or tertiary
canals and equally for earthen or canals
lined with concrete.
 114 17/03/2022

FREEBOARD OF A CANAL
 Thefreeboard is defined as a difference between
the water level and the level of the crest of the
embankment of the canal.

 Theterm freeboard indicates a buffer needed to

accommodate fluctuations in water levels in
canals.

 Theheight of the minimum required freeboard

depends on the water depth in the canal and the
material used for the construction of the
embankment.
 115 17/03/2022

Freeboard (fb) of a canal

Thefollowing empirical rules should be

used for small and medium canals:

 fb = 0.2m for water depths of 0.4m

or less.

 fb = 0.5m x water depths for water

depths of 0.4m
 116 17/03/2022

METHODS OF IRRIGATION
 There are various methods that can be
used to supply irrigation water to the
plants.

 Each method has its advantages and

disadvantages.

 These should be taken into account

when choosing the method which is best
suited to the local circumstances.
 117 17/03/2022

METHODS OF IRRIGATION
A simple irrigation method is to bring water
from the source of supply, e.g. a well, to each
plant with a bucket or a watering can.

can be a very time-consuming method

 This
and involves very heavy work.

 However, it can be used successfully to

irrigate very small plots of land, such as
vegetable gardens, that are close to the
water source.
 118 17/03/2022

Choice of Irrigation Methods

 The following criteria should be
considered:

(a) Water supply available

(b) Topography of area to be irrigated
(c) Climate of the area
(d) Soils of the area
(e) Crops to be grown
(f) Economics
(g) Local traditions and skills
 119 17/03/2022

INFORMATION TO BE COLLECTED ON A VISIT TO A

PROPOSED IRRIGATION SITE
a) Soil Properties: Texture and structure, moisture
equilibrium points, water holding capacity,
agricultural potential, land classification, kinds of
crops that the soil can support.

b) Water Source: Water source availability eg.

surface water, boreholes etc., hydrologic data
of the area, water quantity, water quality, eg.
sodium adsorption ratio, salt content, boron
etc.; possible engineering works necessary to
obtain water.

c) Weather data: Temperature, relative humidity,

sunshine hours and rainfall.
 120 17/03/2022

INFORMATION TO BE COLLECTED ON A VISIT TO A

PROPOSED IRRIGATION SITE
d) Topography e.g. slope: This helps to determine
the layout of the irrigation system and method of
irrigation water application suited for the area.

e) History of People and Irrigation in the area:

Check past exposure of people to irrigation and
land tenure and level of possible re-settlement or
otherwise.

f) Information about crops grown in the area:

Check preference by people, market potential,
adaptability to area, water demand, growth
schedules and planting periods.
 121 17/03/2022

METHODS OF IRRIGATION
 There are four main methods of irigation:

1. Surface irrigation;
- Furrow irrigation
- Basin irrigation
- Border irrigation

2. Sprinkler irrigation

3. Drip irrigation

4. Sub-surface irrigation (Sub-irrigation)

 122 17/03/2022

Surface Irrigation
 Surfaceirrigation is the application of
water by gravity flow to the surface of the
field.

 Either the entire field is flooded (basin

irrigation) or

 The water is fed into small channels

(furrows irrigation) or

 Strips of land (border irrigation).

 123 17/03/2022

Furrow Irrigation
 Furrows are small, parallel channels,
made to carry water in order to irrigate
the crop.

 Furrow irrigation is an irrigation where

farmers flow water down small trenches
running between their crops.

 Thecrop is usually grown on the ridges

between the furrows.
 124 17/03/2022

Images of furrow irrigation

 125 17/03/2022

Images of furrow irrigation

 126 17/03/2022

Images of furrow irrigation

 127 17/03/2022

Images of furrow irrigation

 128 17/03/2022

Images of furrow irrigation

 129 17/03/2022

Furrow Irrigation
Suitable crops:
 Furrow irrigation is suitable for many crops,
especially row crops, tree crops.

 Crops that would be damaged if water covered

their stem or crown should be irrigated by furrows.

 Examples:
 Row crops such as maize, millet, sorghum,
sugarcane, soybean;
 Tomatoes, okro, vegetables, potatoes, sweet
potatoes, cassava, carrot, beans;
 Fruit trees such as citrus and mango
 130 17/03/2022

Furrow Irrigation
 Suitable soils for furrow irrigation

 Furrowscan be used on most soil types.

 However, as with all surface irrigation methods,
very coarse sands are not recommended as
percolation losses can be high.

 Furrowsare best suited in soils with low

permeability. NB

 Soilsthat crust easily are especially suited to

furrow irrigation because the water does not
flow over the ridge, and so the soil in which the
plants grow remains friable.
 131 17/03/2022

Advantages of Furrow Irrigation

1. Easily adjustable flow
2. Efficient application
3. Low capital investments
4. Low pumping costs
 132 17/03/2022

Disadvantages/Limitations of Furrow Irrigation

1. An increased level of tail water losses.

2. The difficulty of moving farm equipment

across the furrows.

3. An increase in the erosive potential of the

flow.

4. Land leveling required for uniform furrows.

 133 17/03/2022

BASIN IRRIGATION
Basin Irrigation: Irrigation of land by
surrounding it with embankments to
form a basin and flooding it with water.

A form of irrigation where the water is

trapped in basins surrounded by low
mud walls (bunds/ridges).

The basin may be square, rectangular

or circular shape.
 134 17/03/2022

BASIN IRRIGATION
 135 17/03/2022

BASIN IRRIGATION
 136 17/03/2022

BASIN IRRIGATION
 137 17/03/2022

BASIN IRRIGATION
Suitable crops for basin irrigation

Paddy rice grows best when its roots

are submerged in water and so basin
irrigation is the best method to use for
this crop.
Banana, Plantain
Citrus
Pastures- vertiva grass, alfalfa
 138 17/03/2022

BASIN IRRIGATION
Basin irrigation is generally not suited
to crops which cannot stand in wet or
waterlogged conditions for periods
longer than 24 hours.

These are usually root and tuber

crops such as potatoes, cassava, and
carrots which require loose, well-
drained soils.
 139 17/03/2022

BASIN IRRIGATION
Suitable land slopes
The flatter the land surface, the
easier it is to construct basins.

On flat land only minor levelling

may be required to obtain level
basins.
 140 17/03/2022

Suitable Soils for Basin Irrigation

Paddy rice is best grown on clayey soils which are
almost impermeable as percolation losses are low.

Rice could also be grown on sandy soils but

percolation losses will be high unless a high water
table can be maintained.

Although most other crops can be grown on clays,

loamy soils are preferred for basin irrigation so that
waterlogging (permanent saturation of the soil) can
be avoided.

Coarse sands are not recommended for basin

irrigation as, due to the high infiltration rate,
percolation losses can be high.
 141 17/03/2022

Estimation of Basin Sizes

BASINS SHOULD BE SMALL IF THE:
1. Slope of the land is steep.
2. Soil is sandy.
3. Required depth of the irrigation application is
small.
4. Field preparation is done by hand or animal
traction.

BASINS CAN BE LARGE IF THE:

1. Slope of the land is gentle or flat.
2. Soil is clay.
3. Required depth of the irrigation application is
large.
4. Field preparation is mechanized.
 142 17/03/2022

Advantages of Basin Irrigation

1) Varying supply of water

2) No water loss by runoff

3) Rapid irrigation

4) No loss of fertilizers and organic

manures

5) Efficient in the use of water

 143 17/03/2022

Disadvantages of Basin Irrigation

1)If land is not leveled initial cost
may be high.

2) Suitable mainly for only few

crops.

3) Not suitable for all types of soil.

 144 17/03/2022

BORDER STRIP IRRIGATION

 Borders are usually long, uniformly graded strips of
land, separated by earth bunds.

Construction procedure:
 The land is divided into a number of long parallel strips
called borders
 These borders are separated by low ridges (bunds)
 The border strip has a uniform gentle slope in the
direction of irrigation
 145 17/03/2022

BORDER STRIP IRRIGATION

Each strip is irrigated independently by turning
the water in the upper end.

The water spreads and flows down the strip in a

sheet confined by the border ridges.

In Contrast to basin irrigation these bunds are

not to contain the water for ponding but to guide
it as it flows down the field.
 146 17/03/2022

BORDER STRIP IRRIGATION

Suitable crops:

Suitable for close growing crops

such as fodder crops, legumes
(beans, soyabeans, groundnuts)
 147 17/03/2022

Image of Border Strip Irrigation

 148 17/03/2022

Suitable soils for Border Irrigation

Loam or sandy loam, clay loam soils

are preferred.

 Heavy clay soils are difficult to

irrigate with border irrigation because
of the time needed to infiltrate
sufficient water into the soil.
 149 17/03/2022

Advantages of Border Strip Irrigation

1. Border ridges can be constructed with
simple farm implements like bullock
drawn ridgers.

2. Labour requirement in irrigation is

reduced as compared to basin method.

3. Uniform distribution of water and

high water application are possible.
 150 17/03/2022

Disadvantages of Border Strip Irrigation

1. Not suitable for paddy rice

cultivation.

2. Not suitable for heavy clay soils.

3. High initial cost if intensive land

leveling is required.
 151 17/03/2022

SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
 Sprinkler irrigation is a method of
applying irrigation water which is
similar to natural rainfall.

 Water is distributed through a system of

pipes usually by pumping.

 It is then sprayed into the air through

sprinklers so that it breaks up into small
water drops which fall to the ground.
 152 17/03/2022

Image of sprinkler irrigation

 153 17/03/2022

Image of sprinkler irrigation

 154 17/03/2022

Suitable Crops for Sprinkler Irrigation

 Sprinkler irrigation is suited for
 Maize, millet, sorghum, sugarcane, soybean.

 Tomatoes, okro, vegetables, potatoes, sweet potatoes,

cassava, carrot, beans.

 The water can be sprayed over or under the crop canopy.

 However, large sprinklers are not recommended for

irrigation of delicate crops such as lettuce because the
large water drops produced by the sprinklers may damage
the crop.
 155 17/03/2022

Suitable Soils for Sprinkler Irrigation

 Sprinklers are best suited to sandy soils
with high infiltration rates although they
are adaptable to most soils.

 The average application rate from the

sprinklers (mm/hour) is always chosen to be
less than the basic infiltration rate of the
soil so that surface ponding and runoff can
be avoided.
 156 17/03/2022

Suitable Water for Sprinkler Irrigation Water

 A good clean supply of water,

 free of suspended sediments,

 is
required to avoid problems of
sprinkler nozzle blockage and
spoiling the crop by coating it
with sediment
 157 17/03/2022

Sprinkler System Layout

A typical sprinkler irrigation
system consists of the following
components:

1. Pump unit
2. Mainlines/submainlines
3. Laterals
4. Sprinklers
 158 17/03/2022

Sprinkler System Layout

 The pump unit is usually a centrifugal pump
which takes water from the source and provides
adequate pressure for delivery into the pipe
system.

 The mainlines/submainlines are pipes which

deliver water from the pump to the laterals. The
main pipe materials include plastics (PVC and
HPDE pipes).

 The laterals deliver water from the mainlines to

the sprinklers. The lateral materials include
plastics (PVC and HPDE pipes).
 159 17/03/2022

Application Rate of Sprinkler

 This is the average rate at which water is sprayed
onto the crops and is measured in mm/hour.

 The application rate depends on the size of

sprinkler nozzles, the operating pressure and the
distance between sprinklers.

 When selecting a sprinkler system it is important to

make sure that the average application rate is less
than the basic infiltration rate of the soil.

 In this way all the water applied will be readily

absorbed by the soil and there should be no runoff.
 160 17/03/2022

Advantages of Sprinkler Irrigation

1. The amount of water can be controlled to meet the needs of
young seedling or mature crops.

2. High irrigation efficiency due to uniform distribution of water.

3. Accurate and easy measurement of water applied.

4. Land leveling is not necessary.

5. Soluble fertilizer, herbicides and fungicides can be applied in

the irrigation water economically and with little extra equipment.

6. More land is available for cropping.

 161 17/03/2022

DRIP IRRIGATION
 Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle
irrigation and involves dripping water onto
the soil at very low rates (2-20 litres/hour)
from a system of small diameter plastic
pipes fitted with outlets called emitters or
drippers.

 Water is applied close to plants so that only

part of the soil in which the roots grow is
wetted, unlike surface and sprinkler
irrigation, which involves wetting the whole
soil profile.
 162 17/03/2022

DRIP IRRIGATION
 With drip irrigation, water is conveyed
under pressure through a pipe system to
the fields, where it drips slowly onto the
soil through emitters or drippers which are
located close to the plants.

 Compared to other types of irrigation

(sprinkler irrigation or surface irrigation),
only the immediate root zone of each plant
is wetted.
 163 17/03/2022

DRIP IRRIGATION
 With drip irrigation, water is conveyed
under pressure through a pipe system to the
fields, where it drips slowly onto the soil
through emitters or drippers which are
located close to the plants.

 Compared to other types of irrigation

(sprinkler irrigation or surface irrigation),
only the immediate root zone of each plant
is wetted.
 164 17/03/2022

Setup of Drip Irrigation System

A typical drip irrigation system is
shown below and consists of the
following components:

1. Pump unit
2. Control head
3. Main /submain lines
4. Laterals
5. Emitters or drippers.
 165 17/03/2022

Setup of Drip Irrigation System

 166 17/03/2022

Setup of Drip Irrigation System

 The PUMP UNIT takes water from the source and
provides the right pressure for delivery into the pipe
system.

 The CONTROL HEAD consists of valves to control the

discharge and pressure in the entire system.

 -It may also have filters to clear the water.

 167 17/03/2022

Setup of Drip Irrigation System

 Mainlines, submains and laterals supply
water from the control head into the fields.

 Theyare usually made from PVC or HPDE

pipes.

 Lateralpipes are usually 13-32 mm

diameter.
 168 17/03/2022

Setup of Drip Irrigation System

Emittersor drippers:
They are devices used to
control the discharge of
water from the lateral to the
plants.
 169 17/03/2022

Suitable crops for Drip Irrigation

Drip irrigation is most suitable for row
crops (vegetables, soft fruit), tree crops
where one or more emitters can be
provided for each plant.

Generally only high value crops are

considered because of the high capital
costs of installing a drip system.

Drip irrigation is adaptable to any

farmable slope.
 170 17/03/2022

Suitable Soils for Drip Irrigation

Drip irrigation is suitable for most soils.

On clay soils water must be applied

slowly to avoid surface water ponding
and runoff.

On sandy soils higher emitter discharge

rates will be needed to ensure
adequate lateral wetting of the soil.
 171 17/03/2022

Suitable Irrigation Water for Drip Irrigation

 The irrigation water must be free of sediments.

 If
this is not so then filtration of the irrigation
water will be needed.

 One of the main problems with drip irrigation is

blockage of the emitters.

 Allemitters have very small waterways ranging

from 0.2-2.0 mm in diameter and these can
become blocked if the water is not clean.
 172 17/03/2022

Advantages of Drip Irrigation

1. High water application efficiency and lower labour costs.

2. Minimised fertiliser/nutrient loss due to localised application

and reduced leaching.

3. Ability to irrigate irregular shaped fields. Levelling of the field

not necessary

4. Allows safe use of recycled (waste) water

5. Moisture within the root zone can be maintained at field

capacity and minimised soil erosion

6. Highly uniform distribution of water i.e., controlled by output

of each nozzle.
 173 17/03/2022

Disadvant/Limitation of Drip Irrigation

1. Expensive initial cost can be more than overhead
systems (commercial system)

2. The sun can affect the laterals/drip lines used for

drip irrigation, shortening their usable life

3. If the water is not properly filtered and the

equipment not properly maintained, it can result in
clogging

4. Waste of water, time & harvest, if not installed

properly.

5. Without sufficient leaching, salts applied with the

irrigation water may build up in the root zone.
 174 17/03/2022

Some Terminologies You need to know

 Field Capacity (FC),

 Permanent Wilting Point (PWP)
 Readily Available Moisture (RAM)
 Crop Water Requirements (ETc)
 Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR)
 Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR)
 Irrigation Frequency (IF)
 Irrigation Period (IP)
 Offtake
 175 17/03/2022

FIELD CAPACITY (FC)

 The term is used to describe the

maximum water content that the
soil will hold following free
drainage.

 Itis a condition of soil after the

large pores have drained freely
under gravity.
 176 17/03/2022

Permanent Wilting Point (PWP)

 It is soil water content beyond which plants
cannot recover from water stress . Here,
there is still some water in the soil but not
enough to be of use to plants.

 It is the soil moisture content at which the

leaves of the plant wilt permanently i.e., do
not recover, if subsequently placed in
saturated atmosphere.
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AVAILABLE WATER CAPACITY (AWC)

 It is defined as the volume of water retained
between FC and PWP.

 It water held in the soil between field

capacity and permanent wilting point.

 Mathematically, AWC = FC - PWP

 AWC is also called Drainable Water-

holding Capacity.
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READILY AVAILABLE WATER CAPACITY

 This is the proportion of the

water held between FC and
PWP that is considered
easily available to plants.
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CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

 Crop water requirement (ETC):-

This is defined as the depth of
water to meet evapotranspiration
of a disease-free crop growing in
large fields without restricting
conditions on soil profile, soil
moisture and fertility, thus
achieving full production
potential.
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Factors that affect ETC

The various factors which affect ETc are:

1. Weather parameters (temperature,

relative humidity and sunshine hours).

2. Crop characteristics (crop type, crop

growth stage);

3.Environmental factors (soil conditions).

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NET IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENT

 This is the depth of irrigation water
(excluding precipitation or other
gains of soil moisture, such as
capillary rise) that is required for
successful crop production.

 This amount of water is required to

bring the soil moisture to the field
capacity level.
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GROSS IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT

 This is the total amount of water

applied through irrigation to a field,
farm or the irrigation project.


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IRRIGATION FREQUENCY

 It is commonly described as number of

days between the two irrigations, where
it is assumed that there is no rainfall.

 In general, irrigation should start when

about 50% of the available soil moisture
has been used by the crop from the zone
in which most of the roots are
concentrated.
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IRRIGATION PERIOD

 It is the number of hours that can be

allowed for irrigation of a given area
during the peak consumptive use
period.

 The irrigation is normally designed in

such a way that irrigation period
does not exceed irrigation frequency.
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OFFTAKE
 The offtake is the place where
water is tapped to discharge into
the main canal leadings to farm
plots.

 Theoff take is at a higher point of

the relief than farms, which
should receive water from it.
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OFFTAKE
 The offtake is the place where
water is tapped to discharge into
the main canal leadings to farm
plots.

 Theoff take is at a higher point of

the relief than farms, which
should receive water from it.
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Concept of Water Infiltration

 INFILTRATION- This the vertical flow
(movement) of water into unsaturated
zone of soil.

 INFILTRATION RATE- This the

vertical flow (movement) of water into
unsaturated zone of soil with respect to
time. Measured: mm/hr, cm/min,
mm/min.
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DETERMINATION OF INFILTRATION RATE

 Infiltration
rate is determined by
measuring the time it takes for
water sitting on a soil to drop a
fixed distance (depth).

 This rate changes with time as the

soil pore spaces fill with water.
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Importance of Infiltration Test

(i)It helps us to select sprinkler nozzles.

(ii) It helps us to select the right crop for the

right soil.

(iii) It helps us to determine irrigation period.

(iv) It helps us to determine irrigation

frequency.

(v) It helps in the determination of soil texture.

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Infiltration Test Methods

 Two common methods for
conducting infiltration test at the
field:

1. Mini disk infiltrometer method

2. Double-ring infiltrometer
method
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Mini Disk Infiltrometer

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Double Ring Infiltrometer

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Double Ring Infiltrometer

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Double Ring Infiltrometer

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Double Ring Infiltrometer

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Double Ring Infiltrometer

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Cumulative Depth of Infiltration

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Infiltration Rate
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Flow Rates of Water Infiltration

 There are three(3) flow rates of water infiltration:

1.UNSATURATED FLOW: This is the initial flow rate and

is high as the dry soil.

2. SATURATED FLOW: This is a steady flow rate that

occurs as water moves into the soil at a rate
determined by soil texture and structure.

3. PONDING FLOW: This is the flow rate that occurs

when the ground becomes totally saturated and is
no longer able to conduct water through its pores.
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Factors that affect infiltration rate

1. Soil texture:-Heavy soils such as clay soils
normally low infiltration rate whereas light soils
such as sandy soils have high infiltration rate.

2. Soil structure: Soils with hard pan

(compacted soils) have low infiltration. The
terminal infiltration point can easily be
reached. When the structure of a soil is
deteriorated, water is not able to move freely
into the soil and hence runoff.
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Factors that affect infiltration rate

3. Antecedent moisture content or condition
of the soil. This is the initial soil water content.
Dry soils or moderately dry soils have high
infiltration rate than saturated soils.

4. Presence of vegetation: Soils with

vegetative cover have high infiltration than
bare soils. The vegetation creates
impediments to runoff and hence enhance
more infiltration.
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Factors that affect infiltration rate

5. Topography: Steep slope land
enhances runoff unless
conservation measures are
undertaken. Flat or relatively flat
land field land allow more
infiltration.

6. Soil cracking
 203 17/03/2022

Cumulative Infiltration Depth vs. Time

for Different Soil Textures
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Infiltration Rate vs. Time for Different Soil Textures

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Problem 1
Q1. The ff. infiltration data were taken from a double-ring
infiltrometer test:

i. Compute the coefficients for the Kostiakov equation for the

soil tested.
ii. Compute the predicted cumulative depth of infiltration in
cm.
iii. Compute the infiltration rate in mm/hr at a time of 0.95
hour.
 206 17/03/2022

Problem 2
Q1. The ff. infiltration data were taken from a double-ring
infiltrometer test:

i. Compute the coefficients for the Kostiakov equation for the soil
tested
ii. Compute the predicted cumulative depth of infiltration in cm.
iii. Compute the infiltration rate in cm/hr at a time of 340 minutes.