Enhancing Structural Integrity: Anticorrosive Coatings for Effective Corrosion Prevention

Anjali Sharma*& Deepti Shikha**

*Student M.Sc. Sem IV

**Professor
Department of Chemistry
Brahmanand College, Kanpur
Email: shikha.deepti12@gmail.com

Abstract
Corrosion poses a significant threat to the integrity and longevity of various metallic
structures, leading to costly repairs and maintenance. Anticorrosive coatings serve as a
primary defense mechanism against corrosion, providing a protective barrier between the
metal substrate and corrosive environments. This paper explores classification, rate of
corrosion, factors affecting corrosion, economic aspects, the mechanisms behind corrosion
and the role of anticorrosive coatings in preventing it. Furthermore, emerging trends in
coating technologies such as nanotechnology and self-healing coatings are highlighted for
their potential to enhance corrosion protection. By understanding the principles of corrosion
and leveraging advanced coating technologies, industries can effectively mitigate corrosion-
related risks, prolonging the lifespan of critical infrastructure and reducing maintenance
costs.
Key words: corrosion, anticorrosive coatings, corrosion inhibitor, metal degradation

** To whom all correspondence can be made

Introduction
Corrosion is derived from the Latin word “Corrodere” meaning “gnawed away”. It is a natural
process where metals react with substances like water and air, causing them to transform into
undesirable substances. This reaction leads to damage or disintegration of the metal as it interacts
with the environment. It occurs when refined metal changes into a more stable form, such as
oxide, hydrides, or sulphide. Corrosion is a costly and severe material science problem. It
manifests itself in multifarious forms in our daily lives. The term corrosion is defined as the
destruction or deterioration of metals and other materials by chemical or electrochemical reaction
with their environments. In practice, it is on insidious process, which is often difficult to
recognize until deterioration is well advanced.
In the early stages of human civilization, man preserved himself in a hostile environment by
functioning as a bio electro chemical machine, converting the solar energy stored in food via
electrochemical reactions into muscle power. But recently man has linked himself more and
more with machines that harness nuclear energy and the solar energy stored in coal and oil and
has thereby satisfied his needs with increasing efficiency. Thus the machines that do man’s
bidding and become the basis of the material aspects of civilization must be able to function
without decay over years in the terrestrial atmosphere. Materials mainly metals, used be stable. If
the metals become unstable, then the machines fabricated partly from these metals undergo an
undesired obsolescence1, an industrial civilization depends in a crucial way upon the stability of
metals in its moist (and often the impurity-containing) atmosphere. But metals become unstable
(corroded) in normal terrestrial environment. Thus corrosion in a major industry and efforts
should be taken to minimize or eliminate it in so far as possible. The well recognized example of
metallic corrosion is the rusting of iron and steel. Materials other than metals, such as ceramics,
Plastics etc. may also corrode. But generally the term corrosion refers to metallic corrosion 2-5.
Even though corrosion is an unfavourable process, it has also some beneficial characters like
electrochemical milling, anodizing of aluminium and batteries.
Economic Aspect

Corrosion, as such, is basically an economic problem associated closely with the loss of capital
assets and business profits. Corrosion control should, therefore, provide the most advantageous
course of avoiding such losses in the first case, whilst not neglecting the most important implications
of personal and process safety, health, pollution of environment and contamination of
products, which have a very close affinity with corrosion damage. While almost any corrosion
problem can be solved or avoided, it is vitally important from a commercial point of view that
the economics of corrosion control are taken into account. An overall costing is, therefore,
essential when alternative protection schemes are feasible, and this will often reveal that an initial
cheap scheme can in reality prove to be very expensive. Corrosion has significant economic
implications across various industries. Here are some economic aspects related to corrosion:

1. Maintenance Costs: Corrosion leads to the degradation of materials, increasing the need for
maintenance, repair, and replacement of infrastructure, equipment, and facilities, resulting in
substantial costs for industries.
2. Loss of Productivity: Corrosion-related downtime can disrupt production processes, leading to
lost productivity and revenue for businesses.

3. Health and Safety Costs: Corrosion can compromise the structural integrity of equipment and
infrastructure, posing safety risks to workers and the public. Addressing these risks often
requires additional safety measures and investments.

4. Environmental Impact: Corrosion can result in leaks, spills, and environmental contamination,
leading to cleanup costs, fines, and damage to a company's reputation.

5. Energy Consumption: Corrosion can increase energy consumption by causing inefficiencies in

equipment and systems, leading to higher operating costs for industries.

6. Asset Lifespan: Corrosion reduces the lifespan of assets, requiring premature replacement and
capital investment, which can strain budgets and affect long-term financial planning.

7. Insurance Costs: Businesses may face higher insurance premiums due to increased risk
associated with corrosion-related damage and liabilities.

It is estimated that the costs for metallic corrosion, including measures for its control, amount to
about 35 dollars per year per inhabitant in the most highly industrialized countries of the world, but it
is sufficiently hidden so that rarely is one conscious of it. India spends over 150 crores of rupees
every year on corrosion control measures. Besides, due to tropical climate corrosion damage
is more serious in India than in colder countries. According to the available data, about 10 per
cent of the world annual metal output is completely lost due to the destructive action of
corrosion. The estimated annual loss due to corrosion in Britain is 14 million pounds (1975), that in
the USA 70 billion dollars (1982), and in our country it is now estimated to be of the order of 1000
crores of rupees.

According to the National Association of Corrosion Engineers International India Section

(NACE), the annual direct cost of corrosion in India [23^ may be 4% GNP (Gross Domestic
Product), which is estimated to be around Rs.350 billion per year. The solution to reduce this
phenomenal loss is to ensure that industries take up corrosion prevention as an important issue
even at the design state. The economic breakdown for the five countries is shown in Fig.1. The
United States, United Kingdom, and Japan, with advanced industrial and service economies, are
very similar; whereas India, with a significant agricultural economy, and Kuwait, with a
significant oil industry, has different profiles.
 Fig.1: Economic Sectors for the five countries used in the Global Cost of Corrosion Study

The global cost of corrosion was assessed by mapping the five available studies to the nine
economic regions using following Table. As additional cost of corrosion studies become
available, or studies are updated, more detailed and accurate global costs can be assessed.
Cost of Corrosion Studies to Economic Regions
Literature Review on Corrosion and Its Prevention
Corrosion is destructive and silent, operating all the time, at all levels and in all establishments. It
poses problems to big as well as small industries. Since corrosion is impracticable to eliminate,
the effective corrosion science and engineering lies in controlling rather than preventing it.
Katundi et.al7. characterized the corrosion resistance in the steel sheets (Hot dip galvanizing of
steel sheets) used in automotive industry. They carried out simulated corrosion tests,
wet/humidity test and hot dust/dry cycle talk test in laboratory conditions. They tested dynamic
behaviour of the corroded specimens dynamically to simulate under the crash test conditions.
They exposed the samples to changing climatic conditions in terms of humidity. It was also
observed that the pitting corrosion damage and crack initiation sites were developed and
propagated.
Fang et. al8. carried out an investigation to study the effect of elemental sulfur on the corrosion of
mild steel. They observed that sulphur reacted with water at temperatures more than 800C. They
also observed that sulphur can cause localized corrosion when it comes in direct contact. They
also observed that pitting corrosion rates were significantly higher than the general corrosion
rates. Rani and Basu discussed9 green inhibitors for corrosion protection of metals and alloys.
According to them corrosion control is important from technical, economical, environmental,
and aesthetical point of view. Use of inhibitors is one way to reduce the corrosion. According to
these studies sol-gel coatings doped with inhibitors have shown real promise. Green corrosion
inhibitors are biodegradable and they do not contain any heavy metals.
Malik et. al.10 reviewed research related to anticorrosive properties of surfactants. They also
discussed effect of surfactant concentration, temperature, the mechanism of corrosion inhibition
and mode of adsorption. The corrosion inhibition of the metal is by virtue of adsorption of the
surfactant molecules onto metal surface. According to them, addition of surfactants to acidic
media was an efficient and quite cheap method for rust protection of metal surfaces. They
discussed the critical micelle concentration (CMC) as key indicator in determining the
effectiveness of surfactants as corrosion inhibitors. According to them, an excellent surfactant
inhibitor was one that aggregates or adsorbs at low concentrations.
Muslim et.al.11 carried out research on effect of pH level on corrosion of metals. They
investigated the corrosion of aluminium and copper. They carried out experiments at two
temperatures 25 and 50 0C and pH values of 4.8, 7and 8.2.They observed that the corrosion
decreased with increasing pH. It increased with increase in temperature. Johnson et. al. 12 carried
out studies on corrosion by deionized water. They discussed the corrosion of copper, cadmium,
tungsten, and Mallory-1000. During investigation, they observed that titanium, 1100 aluminium,
304 stainless steel, boron steel, silver, and tantalum showed no corrosion in deionized water but
cadmium, mallory-1000, tungsten, and copper exhibited corrosion at this temperature.
Oladele and Okoro investigated13 corrosion effect of mild steel on orange juice. They observed
that the corrosiveness of sweet orange juice on mild steel was mainly a function of its acidity.
According to this research packed orange juice with preservative was most corrosive followed by
natural juice. Babutsky et.al.14 carried out an investigation on two kinds of structural metals
initially treated by a pulsed electric current (PEC) of high density. According to these studies the
treatment influenced the corrosion rates of metals. The PEC treatment decelerated the corrosion
process.
Iyasara and Ovri 15 carried out an investigation on corrosion inhibition of stainless steel using
molasses. They observed that the solution of the molasses inhibited the corrosion of the stainless
steel samples to an extent depending on the concentration of the molasses and the type of
medium. According to them, the physical adsorption of the inhibitor (molasses) on the surface of
the stainless steel was a reason for corrosion inhibition.
Nurnberge investigated16 corrosion of metals in contact with mineral building materials. The
presence of free water in the capillary, pore, or canal-like cavities, that exist in each building
material leads to corrosion. Baldissera and Ferreira 17 used coatings based on electronic
conducting polymers for corrosion control. In their work, studied corrosion protection of mild
steel by a novel epoxy resin (EP)-based coating system containing polyaniline (PAni) as an
anticorrosive agent. They observed that the addition of three forms of PAni-undoped, sulfonated
and fibers-to the EP resin increased its corrosion protection efficiency. They chose epoxy resin,
as paints formulated with this resin are widely used in marine and industrial maintenance. They
concluded that The coating containing sulphonated polyaniline, SPAN had the best performance
in the protection of the metal among all the other samples containing PAni and the coating
containing zinc phosphate (a commercial pigment widely used for this purpose). Mark 18 carried
out studies on the corrosion of steel, aluminium and copper in electrical equipments. According
to him corrosion is the tendency of the metals to revert to their original ore state from the
metallic state. According to him, corrosion is essentially an electrical circuit wherein electrons
flown from the anode to the cathode. He emphasized that each metal used is subject to its own
unique corrosion process.
Sharma et. al.19 studied the effect of mineral acids on corrosion properties of metals. They carried
out experimentation on the corrosive propensity of mild steel, aluminium and copper in various
concentrations of mineral acids viz. Hal and H2SO4. They studied effect of acid strength on the
metal loss by weight loss methods. The observed that in H 2SO4 media, the corrosion rate of mild
steel was higher than that of aluminium and copper. Aluminium corroded faster in HCL.
Correa et.al. 20 investigated the effect of clad metal composition on stress corrosion cracking
(SCC) behaviour of three types of SMAW filler metals (E308L-16, E309-16 and E316L-16).
They carried out the experimentation in 43% MgCl2 solution. They evaluated the susceptibility
to stress corrosion cracking in terms of the time-to fracture. According to the results obtained by
them, the E309-16 clad metal presented the best SCC resistance. Landolfo et.al. 21 prepared a
state of the art report on modeling of metal structure corrosion damage. According to them the
durability of the metal is strong function of the atmospheric conditions. They modeled the
corrosion as a function of time in power form. According to them, the initial corrosion rate
usually decreases over a long term period. A large scattering of predicted corrosion depth was
observed by them. Malik22 presented the results of an investigation related to the effect of heavy
metal ions. They took into account the aspects such as the nature of aqueous medium, metal ion
concentration, temperature, pH and flow condition .They observed that there was decrease in the
corrosion rates of carbon steel in distillate water containing higher concentration of Cu and Ni
under both static and dynamic conditions. They also observed that there was an increase in
corrosion rates with increasing metal ion concentrations. Rahmanto et.al. 23 carried out
investigation on corrosion rate of copper and iron in seawater. They carried out investigation in
three corrosion systems, in the (i) closed bath, (ii) opened or air exposed bath, and (iii) aerated
bath. They determined the effect of oxygen contained in the air to the metals’ corrosivity. They
observed that air oxygen give strong effect on the corrosion of copper and iron metal. It was seen
that oxygen or carbon contained in the aerating air speed up the corrosion rates of copper as well
as iron.
According to the report presented by Koch et. al.24-25 corrosion affects our society on daily basis.
They considered direct cost of corrosion as incurred by owners and operators of structures,
manufacturers of products, and suppliers of services and indirect cost as cost due to lost
productivity because of outages, delays, failures, and litigation; taxes and overhead on the cost of
corrosion portion of goods and services; and indirect costs of no owner/operator activities. They
found that direct cost is approximately equal to indirect cost. In estimates based 2001 data the
total corrosion cost in USA was $552 billion.

Reaction Mechanism of Corrosion

As metals are exposed to the elements, they react with the air or water in the atmosphere to
produce unwanted compounds. Corrosion is the term for this operation. The atmosphere attacks
the least active metals, such as gold, platinum, and palladium.
The nature of the corrosion reactions that occur on the metal (Fig.1) surfaces in the presence of
moisture and oxygen may be written as:
(i) At anode: Fe(s)→Fe2+(aq)+2e−E∘Fe2+/Fe=−0.44V

The electrons reduce oxygen in the air in acidic solutions.

(ii) At cathode: O2(g)+4H+(aq)+4e−→2H2O(l)E∘O2/O2=+1.23V

Overall: 2Fe(s) +O2 (g) +4H+ (aq) →2Fe2+ (aq) +2H2O(l) E∘cell=+1.67V

Rust is hydrated iron (III) oxide, which forms when iron (II) ions react further with oxygen.

4Fe2+(aq)+O2(g)+(4+2x)H2O(l)→2Fe2O3⋅xH2O(s)+8H+(aq)

The former (i) producing electrons and the later (ii) consuming them. In order to inhibit
corrosion it is therefore necessary to stop the flow of electrons either by suppressing the cathodic
or the anodic reaction or by inserting a high resistance in the electrolytic path of the corrosion
current.

Fig.2: Corrosion on Iron (Rusting)

Rate of Corrosion

The Deal–Grove model is often used to describe the formation of an oxide layer. This model
helps in predicting and controlling oxide layer formation in a lot of diverse situations. Apart from
this, the weight loss method is also used to measure corrosion. In this method, a clean, weighed
piece of the metal or alloy is exposed to the corrosive environment for a certain duration. This is
followed by a cleaning process that removes the corrosion products. The piece is then weighed to
determine the loss of weight.

The rate of corrosion (R) is calculated by the formula :

R= k W/ ρAt

Where,

k = constant,

W = weight loss of the metal in time t,

A = surface area of the metal exposed,

ρ is the density of the metal (in g/cm³)

Classification of Corrosion
Based on the appearance of the corroded metal, corrosion can be classified as follows:

 Uniform corrosion
 Non Uniform corrosion or localized corrosive attack.

In non-uniform or localized corrosion, a small part of a component's surface corrodes due to the
presence of material of a different nature in a non-homogeneous environment. This localized
corrosion may again be subdivided into the following:

 Galvanic or bimetallic corrosion

 Pitting corrosion
 Filiform ( underfilm) corrosion
 Selective corrosion or Dezincification (or selective leaching)
 Erosion corrosion
 Crevice corrosion
 Atmospheric corrosion
 Inter-granular corrosion
 Stress corrosion
 Hydrogen damage
Uniform corrosion

It is mostly found in ferrous metals like aluminum, lead, cast iron, wrought iron, and alloys
(Fig.3). A layer (rust) on the surface of the metal is created if placed in corrosive surroundings
like air or water. In order to prevent uniform corrosion, thicker elements for corrosion allowance
should be used.

Fig.3: Uniform corrosion

Galvanic corrosion

Galvanic corrosion (dissimilar metals) takes place in a galvanic couple, where active element
deteriorates. Galvanic corrosion is usually found in materials like copper, aluminum, iron, and
their alloys (Fig.4). It can be predicted with the help of electromotive series as well as galvanic
series. Remedial measures include insulating dissimilar materials using non-conductive material
coatings, greases, paints, treatments, or primers. Optimal protection is offered by insulating both
materials. Usage of impermeable coating on the metal surface can help make sure that the metal
won't come in contact with an electrolyte, which is a good way to prevent galvanic corrosion.

Fig.4: Galvanic corrosion

Pitting corrosion

Pitting corrosion occurs in small areas by forming micro-pits on the surface of the material
(Fig.5). Passive metals and their composites are most likely to get affected by pitting corrosion.
In pitting corrosion, a pitting factor is utilized to determine the harshness, where the pitting
factor is the fraction between the most bottomless pit on the surface and average penetration.
Pitting corrosion can be mechanically removed by grinding or polishing and the missing metal
replaced by weld build-up. Care must be taken to prepare and undertake the welding process
carefully, to avoid reducing the properties of the surrounding metal. The best procedure is to use
materials that are known not to pit in the environment under consideration.

Fig.5: Pitting corrosion

Filiform (under film) corrosion

This form of corrosion is also referred to as underfilm corrosion (Fig.6) since it often occurs as
irregularly developed hairfine lines of corrosion products below coatings of lacquer, paint or
rubber. This form of corrosion is a major problem in the canning industry. Recent developments
with films of very low water permeability hold some promise in preventing this form of
corrosion. The use of passivated material is sometimes of temporary benefit. The polishing can
often delay the start of corrosion.

Fig.6: Filiform corrosion

Dezincification

This is a type of attack occurring with zinc alloys. The selective dissolution of active metals from
a specific alloy in a corrosive surrounding is described as dezincification (Fig.7). Examples of
dezincification are tin bronzes in hot brine, alloys of copper-nickel in condenser and others. The
beneficial conditions for dezincification are alkaline water, permeable coatings on the surface of
tubes, and various others. Plug type dezincification and uniform layer dezincification are two
types of dezincification. Dezincification can be minimized by deaeration of the environment or
by cathodic protection. Use of a less susceptible alloy viz. red brass (15 percent Zn) is the best
alternative, as it is practically immune.

Fig.7: Dezincification

Erosion corrosion

Erosion corrosion (Fig.8) refers to a combined action of mechanical damage and corrosion, and
includes all forms of accelerated attack in which protective films, and even the metal surface
itself, are removed by the abrasive action of movement of a fluid at high velocity. It is one of the
types of corrosion in which deterioration of several metals and their alloys happens because of
corresponding motion amongst metal exterior and corrosive liquids. Pump impeller built of
stainless alloy, valves, blades of steam turbines, and tunnel walls of the condenser is some
examples where erosion-corrosion is most likely to happen.

Fig.8: Erosion corrosion

Crevice corrosion

Crevice corrosion occurs between two metal or non-metal surfaces due to concentration
gradients (Fig.9). The factors which affect crevice corrosion are environmental conditions,
roughness, alloy composition and metallographic structure. The crevice corrosion can be
prevented by using higher alloys, rivets joints at the edge of the metal and by reducing the use of
soldering and welding.

Fig.9: Crevice corrosion

Atmospheric corrosion

Atmospheric corrosion happens (Fig.10) on the element's surface due to the reaction of
pollutants, chemical compositions or moisture in the atmosphere. Dry atmosphere, surface
coating, coating of polymers are some of the essential methods for preventing atmospheric
corrosion.

Fig.10: Atmospheric corrosion

Intergranular corrosion

The intergranular corrosion refers to the attack close to grain boundaries in a metal surface
(Fig.11). The presence of precipitation or impurities and depletion of an alloying material at
grain boundaries leads to intragranular corrosion. This type of corrosion is common in stainless
steel welded surfaces. Intergranular cracking can be prevented through the use of low carbon
grade stainless steels. Use of stabilized grades alloyed with titanium or niobium. Titanium and
Niobium are strong carbide former.

Fig.11: Intergranular corrosion

Stress corrosion

Cracking caused by the conjoint action of the externally applied or internally constant or
gradually increasing tensile mechanical stresses and a local corrosion attack in presence of a
specific corroding medium is known as stress corrosion or corrosion cracking (Fig.12). Some
methods to prevent stress corrosion include various heat treatments to reduce residual stresses,
using corrosion inhibitors during cleaning operations, employing a closed system to control the
environment, and coating the material to isolate it from the environment.

Fig.12: Stress corrosion

Hydrogen Damage

It is defined as the reduction of the load carrying capacity by the admission of hydrogen into the
metal (Fig.13). Mechanical damage of a metal caused by the presence of, or interaction with
hydrogen is termed as hydrogen damage. Selection of clear metal, use of coatings, control of
media chemistry, alloying of steels are some of the remedial measures for hydrogen damage.

Fig.13: Hydrogen Damage

Factors Affecting Corrosion

Corrosion can be influenced by various factors including:

1. Environmental conditions such as humidity, temperature, and presence of corrosive substances

like salt or acids.
2. Material composition and structure, including the type of metal or alloy and its susceptibility
to corrosion.
3. Presence of contaminants or impurities in the environment or the material itself.
4. Surface condition and preparation, such as scratches, pits, or surface roughness, which can
accelerate corrosion.
5. Electrochemical factors, including the presence of an electrolyte (such as water) and the
potential difference between different areas of the material.
6.Exposure of the metals to air containing gases like CO 2, SO2, SO3 etc. and to moisture,
especially salt water (which increases the rate of corrosion).
7. Nature of the first layer of oxide formed: Some oxides like Al 2O3 form an insoluble protecting
layer that can prevent further corrosion. Others, like rust, easily crumble and expose the rest of
the metal.

Prevention Methods for Corrosion

Corrosion can be prevented through various methods such as:
1. Coating: Applying protective coatings like paint, enamel, or zinc can create a barrier between
the metal and corrosive elements.
2. Cathodic Protection: Using sacrificial anodes or impressed current systems to protect the metal
from corrosion by directing the flow of electrical current.
3. Alloying: Mixing metals to form alloys that are more resistant to corrosion, such as stainless
steel.
4. Environmental Control: Limiting exposure to corrosive environments, such as keeping metals
dry or controlling humidity.
5. Design Considerations: Designing structures or equipment with features that minimize
exposure to corrosive elements, such as proper drainage or ventilation.
6. Maintenance: Regular inspection, cleaning, and maintenance to detect and address corrosion
early on before it causes significant damage.

The following are mostly used methods for preventing corrosion.

 Barrier coating
 Hot- dip galvanization
 Alloyed steel (stainless steel)
 Cathodic protection
 Eon Coat

Barrier coating

The barrier coating is one of the simple and easiest prevention methods as compared to others. In
this method, the coating of paint, fibre or plastic, nylon and other things adhere to the surface of
the element and form a thin layer. It protects from the electrochemical charges and resists to
surrounding factors. Although, the major disadvantage of barrier coating is that it needs to be
reapplied because durability is low.

Hot-dip galvanization

The hot-dip galvanization includes molten zinc in which the steel surface is dipped. A strong
alloy coating is observed on the surface due to the reaction between iron (in steel surface) and
zinc. This tight bond works as a protection from the atmosphere and is extensively used in
artistic sculptures and playing equipment. Some drawbacks of the galvanization process is that
the exhalation coming from zinc coating is hazardous, and the coating is not permanent. It can
peel away from the surface.

Alloyed steel

Alloyed steel provides better protection to the surface than galvanization or barrier coating. In
this method, several properties of metals are combined and used on surfaces for protection from
resistance. Also, different alloys of metals can be mixed for providing resistance in different
conditions and give more flexibility. One of the major drawbacks of alloyed steel is that they are
very expensive.

Cathodic protection

Cathodic protection prevents corrosion by transforming active metals into passive metals with
the help of electron transfer from different sources like galvanic anodes. Mostly, magnesium,
aluminium and zinc are used as anodes for producing electrons. The cathodic process has great
effectiveness, but its maintenance cost is high because it needs to be replaced more frequently. In
high resistive surroundings, the cathodic protection is not much effective.

Combination coating (Eon Coat)

In this type of coating, all of the above methods are included. The metal surface is initially
alloyed, and then by providing a thick layer of inhibitors, it is protected from corrosion. For
example, in industries, water-resistance barriers are formed to separate water from the metal
surface, but this method is not effective, and eventually, rust is formed on the surface. So, the
combination coating (Eon-Coat) is applied by chemically bonding with steel and forming an
alloyed layer. The layer will protect the surface even if water reaches and doesn't get rusted. This
prevention method is inexpensive, low maintenance and long-lasting.

Anticorrosive Coatings
Coating of metal surfaces with organic materials, particularly paints and lacquers, is by far the
most widely used anticorrosion coatings on the surfaces of metals and probably accounts for
more than half (about 65 per cent) of all costs spent on long-term anticorrosion measures. In so
far as the uses of paints for protective coatings on metals are concerned, it would appear that
early Greeks used them for protective treatment of weapons. The protective coatings were
introduced in the Far East in the forms the oriental lacquers.
Anticorrosive coatings prevent corrosion by creating a protective barrier between the metal
surface and the corrosive environment. These coatings typically consist of paints, enamels, or
specialized coatings such as epoxy or polyurethane. They work as follows:

1. Barrier Protection: The coating physically separates the metal from corrosive elements like
moisture, oxygen, and chemicals, preventing them from reaching the metal surface.

2. Chemical Protection: Some coatings contain corrosion inhibitors that react with the metal
surface to form a protective layer, inhibiting corrosion.

3. Adhesion: Proper adhesion of the coating to the metal surface is crucial for long-term
protection. Good adhesion ensures that the coating remains intact and continues to provide
protection even under harsh conditions.

4. Thickness: The thickness of the coating plays a vital role in its effectiveness. Thicker coatings
provide better protection, but they must be applied uniformly to avoid weak spots where
corrosion can occur.

5. Surface Preparation: Proper surface preparation, such as cleaning and priming, is essential to
ensure good adhesion of the coating and to remove any contaminants that could compromise its
effectiveness.
6. Regular Maintenance: Anticorrosive coatings require periodic inspection and maintenance to
ensure that they remain intact and provide continued protection. Any damage or degradation
should be promptly repaired to prevent corrosion from spreading.

Anticorrosive coatings are better at preventing metal corrosion than traditional ones. They work
by actively protecting against environmental changes, fixing coating defects, and stopping
further corrosion.The application of coatings, which provides a barrier between the metal and its
environment to protect metals, is one of the most common anticorrosion measures. In general,
paints are either targeted for specific vessel areas and for specific functions for best performance,
or universal coatings are available for all areas with a compromise in performance. In all cases, a
balance between cost, performance and difficulty of maintenance has to be achieved. For
example, anti-corrosive coatings used on the outside of the accommodation area have different
performance requirements from anti-corrosion paints used in sea water ballast tanks as the
corrosion stress placed on the latter is far greater.

Epoxy resins are particularly important and their development for use as binders was one of the
most significant advances in anti-corrosion coating technology. The rate of cross-linking or
curing is dependent on temperature. Below 5°C the curing rate of standard epoxies is
considerably reduced and to obtain optimal film properties full cure is essential. Epoxies with
special curing agents will cure or set at temperatures down to –5°C. Epoxies are used in both
underwater and above water situations and show good resistance to many marine environments,
including cathodic protection utilizing zinc or other anodes, but they have a tendency to chalk in
sunlight. This process occurs when the binder is degraded by ultra violet light to produce a loose
and friable surface, with the pigment particles remaining on the surface.

There are many types of anti-corrosion coatings, but epoxy paints generally cover the greatest
area, particularly when they are used in sea water ballast tanks. Pure epoxy coatings are
generally regarded as paints which contain only epoxy polymers, the cross linking agent,
pigments, extenders and solvents. The coatings contain high levels of epoxy binder and are
therefore expected to provide the maximum possible performance from a coating in terms of
anti-corrosion protection, long life and low maintenance. In addition, some products also claim
abrasion-resistance properties. Other pigments such as aluminum can be added to pure epoxy
coatings to provide additional anti-corrosion performance. Epoxy Phenolic coatings can be used
in cargo tanks where a high level of additional cargo resistance is required, such as on oil-
product and chemical carriers. Special care needs to be taken with the surface preparation; curing
the coating by heating the tanks may be necessary. Coating manufacturers will advise on the
specific requirements for each tank.

Modified Epoxy known as epoxy mastic, tar-free epoxy and bleached tar epoxy, this group
covers a wide range of products and anticorrosion performance capabilities. In service, modified
epoxies can be effective. However, as there are many possible modified epoxy formulations it is
not possible to make generalizations on their anti-corrosion performance. Modified epoxies can
contain non-epoxy materials which are capable of cross-linking into the final film. They may
also contain non-reactive materials, either solid or liquid, which do not take part in film
formation, but remain like pigments or extenders in the final coating. If these materials are water
(or cargo) soluble, they can leach out over an extended time period leaving a porous or brittle
film with reduced anti-corrosive properties.

Coal tar is a naturally occurring product. Coal tars are available in a wide range of types from
liquid to solid. The inclusion of coal tars in a coating results in a very dark brown or black color
to the coating, which can be slightly lightened by the addition of aluminum flake pigment for
lighter colored paints. A light colored, non-tar based epoxy top coat can be used over a tar based
first coat. Certain constituents of the coating can leach out over long periods of time, leaving a
more brittle and less protective coating. Coal tar epoxies have a long track record in service and
generally have performed well.

Solvent-free Epoxy (sometimes referred to as 100 percent solids) paints are, as the name implies,
formulated and applied without the need for additional solvents, thereby overcoming the
problems of retained solvents in the coating. The viscosity required to spray the paint is obtained
from the selection of low molecular weight raw materials or by heating and the use of plural
component systems. They are sometimes used where volatile organic components (VOC)
removal is difficult due to poor ventilation, although it should be noted that the VOC for solvent-
free systems is not necessarily zero. Typical applications for solvent-free coatings include the
inside of pipe work, some tanks and other areas where adequate ventilation cannot be provided
or for areas where stringent VOC controls are in force.

Anti-corrosive Pigments

Metallic zinc is widely used in primers giving resistance to corrosion of steel. Initial protection is
by galvanic action. However, as the coating is exposed to the atmosphere, a progressive build-up
of zinc corrosion product occurs, producing an impermeable barrier with little or no galvanic
protection. To give good galvanic and barrier protection, high levels of zinc are required, about
85% zinc in the dry film by weight. Resins which may be considered are epoxies and silicates.
Obviously, for the zinc to function correctly it has to be in intimate contact with the steel
substrate and therefore good surface cleanliness prior to application is essential.

Metallic aluminum flake is commonly used as an anti-corrosive pigment and acts as an anti-
corrosive by producing a circuitous pathway for water and ions around the lamellar flakes, as
well as absorbing oxygen to give aluminum oxides, which block pores in the coating. Where the
aluminum is in contact with steel, a limited cathodic protection mechanism will also operate,
although when used on tankers and product carriers, the aluminum content in the dry film should
not exceed 10 percent to avoid possible spark hazards where flammable gases build up.

Zinc Phosphate is also a widely used anti-corrosive pigment and it is thought that under normal
exposure condition protection is afforded by a barrier effect, since high pigmentation levels are
needed to give adequate anti-corrosion protection. Zinc phosphate can be incorporated into
almost any binder and, because of its low opacity or transparent nature, paints of any color can
be produced.

Apart from the anticorrosive coatings, there are following other coatings to prevent corrosion.
Self-healing coatings, whether organic, inorganic, or hybrid, typically work by containing
microscopic capsules of corrosion inhibitors or healing agents. When the coating is damaged,
these capsules rupture, releasing the inhibitors to react with the surrounding environment,
forming a protective barrier against corrosion. Organic coatings use organic polymers, while
inorganic coatings use materials like ceramics or metals. Hybrid coatings combine features of
both types for enhanced protection.

Inorganic coatings prevent corrosion through various mechanisms, including barrier protection
and sacrificial protection. Barrier protection involves forming a dense, impermeable layer on the
metal surface, blocking corrosive agents from reaching the substrate. Examples include ceramic
coatings like aluminum oxide or zinc-rich coatings. Sacrificial protection involves applying a
coating of a more reactive metal, such as zinc or magnesium, which corrodes preferentially to the
protected metal, sacrificing itself to prevent corrosion of the substrate. Inorganic coatings are
also resistant to high temperatures and harsh chemicals, making them suitable for a wide range of
applications.

Organic coatings prevent corrosion by forming a protective barrier between the metal substrate
and the corrosive environment. These coatings are typically made of organic polymers such as
epoxies, polyurethanes, or acrylics. The polymer film acts as a physical barrier, preventing
moisture, oxygen, and other corrosive agents from reaching the metal surface. Additionally,
organic coatings can contain corrosion inhibitors or pigments that further enhance their
protective properties.

The functions of organic coatings are two-fold:

1) The coatings serve to keep out air and moisture from the metal surface and thereby restrict
corrosion.
2) The pigments (red lead, zinc chromate etc.) or drying oils (linseed oil, wood oils etc.) present
in the paint often exert an inhibitive action by electrochemical and other means.
Hybrid coatings combine the benefits of multiple types of coatings, such as organic and
inorganic coatings, to provide superior corrosion resistance. These coatings typically form a
barrier against moisture, chemicals, and other corrosive elements, while also offering enhanced
adhesion and durability. Additionally, they may incorporate inhibitors or sacrificial materials that
further protect the substrate from corrosion. Overall, hybrid coatings offer a comprehensive
approach to corrosion prevention by addressing multiple mechanisms of degradation.

Nanotechnology offers various strategies to prevent corrosion, such as creating protective

coatings with nanoparticles that can enhance durability and resistance to environmental factors.
These coatings can act as barriers against moisture, oxygen, and other corrosive agents, thereby
extending the lifespan of materials. Additionally, nanoparticles can be designed to release
corrosion inhibitors or actively repair damaged surfaces on a molecular level, providing
advanced protection against corrosion.

Conclusion
In conclusion, corrosion emerges as a natural phenomenon posing significant threats to metal
structures and equipment. Its control is imperative not only for technical integrity but also for
economic sustainability, environmental preservation, and aesthetic appeal. Understanding the
differential corrosion rates, such as the accelerated pitting corrosion in acidic environments,
underscores the need for tailored preventive measures. While traditional methods like coatings
and galvanizing offer effective solutions, the advent of advanced techniques, including
nanotechnology and self-healing coatings, presents promising avenues for mitigating corrosion-
related losses. Incorporating innovative approaches such as anticorrosive coatings further
strengthens the arsenal against corrosion. Through a concerted effort involving various
prevention strategies like coatings, inhibitors, and cathodic protection, industries can prolong
asset lifespan and alleviate the economic impacts of corrosion. By embracing proactive
approaches and integrating multiple prevention techniques, the adverse effects of corrosion can
be curtailed, thereby enhancing overall productivity and ensuring long-term sustainability.

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