Theme 1: The Indigenous Peoples and the Europeans

1. Describe the migratory and settlement patterns of the indigenous peoples in the
Caribbean up to the arrival of the Spanish in 1492.
-Migration and settlement patterns

The Bering Strait Theory provides an explanation for the arrival of these early peoples in the
Americas. The theory outlines that the early peoples originated in Central East Asia. They would
travel from Asia into North America via a frozen land bridge known as the Bering Strait.
Historians suggest that they travelled from Asia into North America as they wandered in search
of food. It is suggested that they were nomadic peoples. Once in North America, they followed a
southward movement which saw them moving throughout North, Central and South America,
with some groups also venturing into the Caribbean. Three distinct groups in which developed
societies in parts of the Caribbean and in Central and South Americas are the main focus. They
include the Tainos, Kalinagos and Mayans. The Tainos settled in Hispaniola, Cuba, Puerto Rico
and some parts of The Bahamas and Trinidad. The Kalinagos settled in Grenada, Tobago, St
Vincent, St Kitts & Nevis, Puerto Rico and Hispaniola; and the Mayans settled in Mexico,
Belize, Honduras and Guatemala.

2. Describe the social, political and economic practices of the indigenous peoples in the
Americas up to 1492.
-Taino, Kalinago and Maya practices
a) Interaction among social groupings and each people
b) Political systems and leadership roles
c) Economic patterns – level of self-sufficiency, acquisition of surplus.

The Cacique (chief) of the Taino society was chosen based on hereditary. This means it
was passed from father to son; however, if there were no male heir, the eldest son of his eldest
sister would assume the title. This however, was quite rare. Nobles assisted the cacique in the
village; these were usually older men who were considered wise and mature. The cacique was
entrusted with several responsibilities such as: making laws and distributing land. The Ouboutou
(chief) of the Kalinago society gained his title through his military dexterity. He would have had
to defeat or kill several enemies in battle. His duties included presiding over victory celebrations
and deciding when raids were to be held. He was assisted by tiubutuli hauthe who acted as
governors of their villages. They were responsible for supervising fishing and cultivating, as well
as leading in social ceremonies. Other leaders included the priests (boyez), the latter’s primary
role being that of a religious nature. The position of Mayan Halach uinich (chief) was inherited
through family lineage. This position passed from father to son (hereditary). However, if the son
of the previous ruler was not competent, one of his brothers became head of state. If this was not
successful either, a council of nobles would elect a suitable person from the ruler’s family.
Ppolms (merchants) were other important persons in the Mayan society. The ppolms were
important merchants who had their own laws, worshipped their own gods, and did not have to
pay taxes.

The Tainos and Kalinagos primarily practised subsistence farming. In other words, they
produced enough food to feed their villages and the surplus would be traded. The Tainos
cultivated crops such as maize, peanut, sweet potato, hot pepper and cassava. They also hunted
small animals such as iguanas, agoutis, birds and yellow snake. The Kalinago cultivated crops
such as cassava, sweet potato and yam; and ate animals such as manatee, birds, agouti and fish.
They did not eat pig or turtle because they believed these foods would make them stupid. The
Mayans also had a rich seafood diet that included fish and oyster and cultivated their crop on
small plots called milpas.

Religion played an important role in the life of the indigenous peoples. Their societies
were polytheistic in nature, as they believed in many gods. The Tainos made zemis which
represented the sky god and earth goddess. The forces which were controlled by these gods were
also represented by zemis. They also believed in life after death in coyaba (heaven). Coyaba was
said to be a peaceful place away from any evil that could harm them. The priest was the only one
that was capable of communicating with the zemis. The Kalinagos believed in evil spirits called
maboyas. Death for the Kalinagos meant a special journey to either a heaven or a hell. However,
the souls of the brave Kalinago warriors went to the fortunate islands where they were waited on
by Taino slaves. Cowardly souls, on the other hand, went to dreary deserts where they became
the slaves of Taino masters. The Mayans worshipped 166 gods, some included Yum Kax (god of
Corn) and Chac (god of Rain). They believed in immortality of the soul and practised burying
the dead with several of their favourite items that they would use in the afterlife.

3. Explain the relationship between the main art forms and the beliefs and technology of the
indigenous peoples.
-Indigenous art forms – architecture, music, painting, sculpture, dance.
-Indigenous beliefs and technology
i. Polytheism – types of gods/goddess
ii. Animism
iii. Ancestral worship and sacrifice
iv. Scientific applications – mathematics, agriculture, astronomy.

The Tainos had ample leisure time which they occupied with singing, dancing and
reciting epic poems called areytos. Women and men usually dressed separately but sometimes
both sexes danced together. They also had a ball game, known as batos, which played on the
batey with two teams trying to hit the ball with any part of their body into the opponent’s goal
line, according to Dyde, Hamber and Greenwood, a game somewhere between volleyball and
football. The tainos were also illiterate, they knew little about metalworking (apart from gold for
decoration) and nothing about the wheel or the domestication of animal (apart from their barkless
dogs). The Mayan ball game was called pok-a-tok. The players had to butt the ball through hoops
set 10 meters from the ground. The loser would be executed after the match.

Religion played an integral role in the life of the indigenous peoples. Their societies were
polytheistic in nature, as they believed in many gods. The Tainos worshipped idols known as
zemis for every aspect of lifes. The cacique was the religious leader of the village and the
cacique was the direct link to the zemis. They used tobacco as a part of religious ceremonies.
The Tainos believed Coyaba was heaven. They used cotton trees to make canoes for fishing and
for transport across the river or on long voyages across the Caribbean Sea. Many Kalinago boys
were trained as priests or boyez. They had to undergo a rigid initiation process as well. One of
the boyez’s duties had to do with overcoming evil spirits; the maboya was used in this process.

In addition, they were taught to use the bow and arrow and to apply poison to the
arrowhead. The poison was deadly the victim died in great pain. Another part of the test was to
endure pain by being scratched with agouti claws and having salt rubbed into the wounds
without crying out. The Mayans who worshiped 166 gods believed in immortality of the soul and
practised burying the dead with several of their favorite items that they would use in the afterlife.
The Mayas developed a calendar that had 365 ¼ days to make up a year and they had a complex
system of mathematics that used base 20 to count.

Theme 6: Caribbean Economy, 1875-1985

1. Explain the factors that created the crisis in the British-colonized Caribbean sugar
industry in the late 19th century.
-Factors which caused decline
a) Environmental
b) Trade Regulations
c) Technological backwardness
d) Factors of production
e) Competition from beet producers (effect on process)

There are five main factors that hindered the development of the Caribbean economy. These
are: only having one main crop, foreign ownership and decision making, having a production
system based on preferences in development, competition between islands for market and lack of
regional integration.

Relying on one crop means that changes in prices for that one product can determine how
profitable or poor a country will be. Also, lack of processing means that less value is added to the
product, which means lower profits for the producer. However, it is also the case that
specializing in a particular product, then trading that product for other goods, might be the most
effective policy, since the producers become highly skilled in making that product.

Foreign ownership can mean that decisions are made in the interests of foreigners rather than
the people who work in the sector, or that decisions well not be as well informs as those made by
locals, and local markets and entrepreneurs have fewer opportunities to develop. However,
foreigners may have more experience in the industry.

If production is decided by what people in the USA or Europe want, then local resources are
used less, so innovation is hindered. Then again, if a Caribbean production system is geared
toward metropolitan wants, this could create more profitable industries within the region.

Competition between the islands reduces the profits for each island – for example, each
island tries to get tourists for itself, which cost more in advertising than is the region advertised
as one destination. Yet it is also a basic principle of economics that competition helps ensure that
market forces work for the good of consumer.

Regional integration would create a larger internal market and allow specialization for each
island – that is each island could produce specific goods, with the profits shared between unified
regional groups. This could also be attributed to a lack of political will or desire by the majority
of people for a common currency.

2. Assess the measures taken to resolve the crisis in the British-colonized Caribbean sugar
industry during late 19th century and early 20th century.
-Measures to resolve crisis
a) Imperial policies
b) Market
c) Science and Technology

-Almagation of estates. Smaller estates were joined into bigger working units producing
economies of scale.

-Introduction of central factories to allow for greater efficiency and to lower production
costs.

-Modernization of operations through purchase of new equipment.

3. Analyze the factors that led to the Cuban sugar industry in the 19th century.
 -Growth of the Cuban’s sugar industry
a) Investments
b) Advanced Technology
c) Entrepreneurship
d) Markets

4. Explain the factors that encouraged the growth and survival of alternative agricultural
enterprises in the British-colonized Caribbean up to 1935.
-Growth and survival of alternative agricultural
a) Government policies
b) Education and training
c) Markets
d) Investment Capital
e) Entrepreneurship

As the British Caribbean colonies struggled to revive a declining industry, the sugar
planters in Cuba were adapting to the challenges so effectively that Cuban sugar
production itself became a challenge to the British islands. These challenges were
resolved due to the following: government policies, entrepreneurship, the availability of
the market, investments of capital, and education training.

The West Indian Royal Commission was appointed to analyze the sugar crisis.
Countries such as Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago encourage agricultural
diversification to save the economy. As a result of education and training, post-control
measures were expanded. Also, low interest loans were given to farmers to improve the
infrastructure on their land, through irrigation, roads and better equipment.

In 1880, Lorenzo D. Baker established the Boston food company. He financed the
opening of banana plantations near Port Antonio and Morant Bay in the eastern end of
the island of Jamaica. By 1912, the banana represented 50% of Jamaica’s exports. This
company was later taken over by the giant multi-cooperation, the United Food Company
(UFC). United Food Company controlled the banana industry in much of the Caribbean
until the 1930s.

The markets provided a vital source of income and livelihood for a number of
lower classes, whose only hope of social mobility was via the ownership and use of the
land. This too was the only avenue through which they would earn enough to send their
children to school and give them a chance to enter the profession of their choice.
Windward islands bananas were also sold to the United Kingdom.
 The invention and introduction of refrigeration enabled the export of perishable
fruits and other items. The creation of faster and more efficient shipping services also
helped in this. The government provided farmers with financial assistance and new
seedlings, although it was mainly the larger cocoa farmers who benefited from this.

5. Explain the factors that led to establishment and growth of the extractive and service
industries in the Caribbean up to 1985.
-Industrial development factors
a) Natural resource
b) Government policies
c) Investment capital
d) Technology
e) Methods of communication
f) Human resources

The 1897 West India Royal Commission, which was appointed to analyze the sugar crisis
in the British Caribbean, recommended agricultural diversification as the key to saving the
economy. The factors that facilitated the growth of the extractive and services industries in
the Caribbean include: natural resources, government policies, investment capital,
technology, method of communication and human resource.

Influx of foreign exchange helped to boast the economy, but most of the huge profits that
were made from the bauxite industry in particular went back to Canada and the United States.
It is not until the era and rain of Michael Manly that Jamaica received what could be termed a
‘fair’ offer for her bauxite. The Americans who invested heavenly in the oil fields of
Trinidad also invested heavenly in carnival and the steel pan the latter was literally stated by
oil field workers.

The government in the respective countries did their best to upgrade the information in
their islands. They promoted cleaner beaches, the construction of shopping centers, craft
markets and so on. Unfortunately, racism and prejudice raised their ‘ugly heads’ in the
tourism industries. In order to attract and secure returning clients, the hotels and other places
of service only used brown skinned or white females for front office operations.

Jobs were provided for many. There was a corresponding increase in the number of
persons employed in the construction, transportation and catering services. Much of the jobs
in this industry were for men. The women were at a distinct disadvantage, they were seen as
unsuitable for the kind of work that was required.
 6. Assess the effects of industrialization on the English-speaking Caribbean.
-Effects of industrialization
a) Urbanization
b) Occupation
c) Impact of women – social, economical, political
d) Standard of living

Theme 9: Caribbean Society, 1900-1985

1. Describe the social and economical conditions existing in the Caribbean between 1900
and 1935.
-Social and economic conditions
i. Housing
ii. Cost of living
iii. Working conditions
iv. Unemployment
v. Health

During the 20th century the Caribbean faced unethical housing conditions, high wages of
livelihood, unfair working conditions, unemployment and no health benefits.

In the rural areas most of the houses were constructed by the owner with the help of other
villages. A number of persons inherited land from their families who had acquired it through
the free village movement the century before. It would not be uncommon to see thatch
houses, nor outside bathroom and kitchen as described in the health conditions.
Many of the houses were made of bamboo walls and or wattle and daub (mud). They usually
had dirt floors. The houses usually had a large room which was called the hall (living room).
The verandah was a must. It afforded one the pleasure of looking out on the horizon and
calling to one's neighbor.
The rise in the cost of living contributed to the protests and demonstrations in the 1930s
in the British Caribbean. Goods and services were exorbitant – inflation. Inflation affected
poor people more seriously than the rich, because the poor spend a greater part of their
income on necessities, such as food.
The employers had the upper hand. In some territories unemployment reached a high of
50%. The demand for work was so high that they felt that they had a right to exploit their
workers. To make matters worse Trade Unions were not legalized before 1938 so the
workers were at the mercy of the employers. In addition to the working conditions: they were
not given any vacation or sick leave, women were not granted maternity leave, the employers
often dismissed workers unfairly, the women suffered from sexual harassment, etc.
Malnutrition was prevalent. This was mainly due to the fact that the masses could not
afford three meals a day or even one well balanced meal for the day. The majority of them
had too many mouths to feed. They had to focus on quantity rather than nutritional value
(quality). Their diet lacked most of the essential nutrients and vitamins required to build a
healthy body. Statistics show that only 45% of the population in Jamaica was adequately
nourished. Needless to say they had very little resistance to diseases.

2. Outline effects made to improve social conditions by different agents.

-Organization involved in improving living conditions: trade unions; governments
(policies); women’s organization; United Nergo Improvement Association (UNIA)

Numerous measures were implemented by varying organizations to improve the socio-

economic conditions of Caribbean people during the period from 1900 to 1985. Some of
which include: social organization development, trade unions and government policies.

In the post – 1930 period, after the Labour Riots, many groups and organizations were
formed which provided assistance to people in impoverished areas. For example, public
assistance, soup kitchens and homes for the poor and homeless ere established.

Trade unions emerged from 1937 onwards which fought for better working conditions of
labourers, higher wages and job security. The following are some of the trade unions which
were established from 1937 onwards: Progressive League – Barbados; Workingmen’s
association – St. Vincent; People’s National Party – Jamaica.

Labour laws were developed to protect the rights of the workers. Laws pertaining to
shorter working hours, workers’ compensation, better working conditions, restrictions on
child labour and social insurance were debated and put into effect.

3. Describe various aspects of social life

-Aspects of social life
i. Ethnic/race relation
ii. Festivals and celebrations
iii. Recreation
iv. Transport and communication
v. Art forms (architecture, visual and performing arts)

After slavery ended in the British West Indies, there was no immediate embracing of
the black population by the whites. The ex-slave masters were still very prejudiced and
still tried to treat the newly freed black men and women as property. The traditional
theory had been that being black meant being enslaved and being white was to be free.
When this was removed by emancipation, the white population sought other ways to
denigrate the black population in an effort to preserve their social supremacy.
 At a harvest festival, giving thanks for the harvest is perhaps one of the commonest
festivals to be celebrated by a number of people in various cultures. The earliest
occupants of the New World, the Tainos and the Mayans held harvest celebrations. Both
groups would pray to the gods for a good harvest. When their prayers were answered they
thought it was only fair and right that they should return thanks for the said harvest by
giving an offering. This would often take the form of an offering of the best of the crops.
This was the same for the other groups that would later control the region: the Spanish,
French and English and to a lesser extent the Dutch.
Recreational activities within the British Speaking Caribbean includes: festivals and
carnivals, celebrations, music festivals such as Reggae Sumfest, Crop Over, sports –
athletics and cricket. A lot of the activities were seen as the exclusive domain of the
ruling class. It is not until the 20th century that some of the barriers were removed. The
upper class engaged in: grand balls, hunting and shooting birds, swimming (going to
beach), etc.
The first most important developments were due to inventions such as steam power or
petrol engine that drives cars and aero-planes. In the English-Speaking Caribbean the
change in transport brought the greatest benefit to work of road and bridge improvement.
This made it possible for the peasantry to move their crops to the coast or the market
town. In some areas transportation was still done by foot, leading a donkey or, for
women, carrying baskets on their heads. Changing a mule track into a reasonable road
with bridges also brought remote free villages into contact with the rest of their territory.
Jamaica and Trinidad were the two British Caribbean territories that were most
engaged in visual art. Edna Manley, wife of Jamaica's most eminent politician was a
professional artist. Most of the Caribbean art that was on show copied European themes.
This is understandable since the majority of their patrons were whites- creoles. Those
who were interested in local art were usually self-taught and therefore not recognized by
society.

4. Explain the reasons for the emergence of various religious groups in the Caribbean
-Religious groups
i. Christian churches – established and evangelical
ii. Hindu
iii. Muslim
iv. African – Christian syncretic religions, for example, Orisha, Shango; Kumina,
Revivalism, Spiritual Baptists
v. Indigenous religions, for example, Rastafarianism.

The Christian Churches taught the following about gender: the men were superior
to the women, the man was the head of the household, the women were to stay at the
home and take care of the children and home life while the men worked, church men
were given leadership positions; e.g. Local preachers, Deacons, Priests. They
provided recreational and educational facilities. They did valuable charity work such
as operating soup kitchens and day care for desperate mothers. They conducted
informal adoptions. Some of the Missionaries themselves adopted and took care of
orphaned or less advantaged children.

The East Indian immigrants introduced this new religion to the region. It was
different because of its doctrines and practices. First of all, the Hindus were
polytheistic. That is they believed in many gods whereas Christians believe in One
God. To make matters worse these gods were represented by images of animals.
There was one god who was an elephant and another was part monkey. This was
ridiculous if not sacrilegious to the Christians and those of the African religions.

Some Africans were Muslims but they had to abandon this when they were
forcibly transported to the West Indies. This religion revived with the introduction of
the East Indian immigrants. The central figure of this religion is the Prophet:
Mohammed. Muslims believe in one God. His name is Allah. There were five
important pillars which each Muslim had to practice on a daily basis. They had to
pray three times a day at particular hours facing Mecca. The masses felt that this was
too demanding. It would not fit in with the strenuous workload that they had to carry.

Orisha is a religion of the Yoruba people of West Africa. This is a monotheistic

religion. They believe in one Supreme Being who communicates with his followers
through emissaries called Orishas. Participants sing until they fall into a trance and
are possessed by the spirits. In Trinidad, the shango religion is believed to be derived
from the Orisha. They share the same rituals and practices, except that their god is the
god of thunder and lightning (shango). It also has a mixture of Catholicism with the
Baptist faith.

The Rastafarian movement began in Jamaica in the 1940's. It began as a rebel

movement against the oppression and exploitation of colonialism. Rastas reject
European social standards. They see whites as oppressors, the ones who introduced
slavery to the Caribbean. They were the ones who dragged their forefathers across a
continent and enslaved them. After slavery whites remained the rulers and continued
their oppression and exploitation of the black race. Its founder Leonard Howell was
an ardent supporter of Garvey and his philosophies and program. He was especially
attracted to the teachings regarding Africa being the homeland of all. They also
preached racial pride and dignity.
5. Assess the implications of membership in the various groups
-Implications of membership: social, economic and political