CAE346-AEROSPACE MATERIALS

LECTURE NOTES
UNIT II - MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS
Linear and non-linear elastic properties – Yielding, strain hardening, fracture, Bauchinger’s effect –Notch
effect testing and flaw detection of materials and components – Comparative study of metals, ceramics
plastics and composites.

INTRODUCTION
Materials are very important in development of human civilization at various ages. Engineering materials play an
important role in the construction and manufacturing of equipment and tools. The knowledge of properties, uses,
availability and cost of the material used for the fabrication of an equipment/tool is very important for a design
engineer.
Engineering materials subject deals with the manufacturing, properties and uses of materials in applied engineering.
The range of engineering materials varies from light weight to heavy materials Eg. Alloys and composites for aircrafts,
Semi – conductor chips for pc, Energy storage in photo voltaic cells, Semiconductor scanner, etc.,
The major domain of material science is the combination of physics, chemistry, and focus on the relation between the
properties of a material and its micro or atomic structure. Properties are the way the material responds to the
environment. Processing of the materials is the application of heat, mechanical forces etc., to affect their
microstructure and thereby its properties.

Classification of Materials

Materials are classified in groups based on their structure, properties, use etc., the atomic structure of the material
plays an important role in its application.

In general the materials can be classified as follows:

MATERIALS

METALLIC MATERIALS NON - METALLIC MATERIALS ALLOYS

 Composites
FERROUS NON-FERROUS  Ceramics FERROUS NON-FERROUS
 Plastic/polymer
(Thermosetting

Iron  Aluminum and Thermo  Stainless  German

 Copper plastics) Steel Silver
Cast Iron  Manganes  Electronics  Silver
 Ni Steel
e  Duralumin
Steel  Vn Steel
 Titanium
 Mn Steel  Bronze
 Nickel
Alloys of Iron  Etc.,  W Steel  Brass
Metals
Metals account for two thirds of all materials. They have useful properties like strength,
ductility, high melting points, thermal and electrical conductivity and toughness. A few of
the common metals are as below:

 Iron/Steel - Steel alloys are used for strength critical applications

 Aluminium - Aluminium and its alloys are used because they are easy to form, readily
available, inexpensive, and recyclable.
 Copper - Copper and copper alloys have a number of properties that make them
useful, including high electrical and thermal conductivity, high ductility, and good
corrosion resistance.
 Titanium - Titanium alloys are used for strength in higher temperature (~1000° F)
application, when component weight is a concern, or when good corrosion
resistance is required
 Nickel - Nickel alloys are used for still higher temperatures (~1500-2000° F)
applications or when good corrosion resistance is required.
 Refractory materials are used for the highest temperature (> 2000° F) applications.

The key feature that distinguishes metals from non-metals is their bonding. Metallic
materials have free electrons that are free to move easily from one atom to the next. The
existence of these free electrons has a number of profound consequences for the properties
of metallic materials.

For example, metallic materials tend to be good electrical conductors because the free
electrons can move around within the metal so freely.

Alloy
An alloy is a mixture of metals. It is obtained by melting two or more elements together,
one of them being a metal. An alloy crystallizes into a solid solution, mixture or intermetallic
compound. The components of an alloy cannot be separated using physical means. An alloy
is homogenous material which retains the property of a metal, even if it includes metalloids
or non-metals in its composition.

90% of the metals in engineering are used in alloy form. Alloys are mainly used in
manufacturing because their physical properties are superior for an application than that of
the pure element components. Typical improvements include corrosion resistance,
improved wear, special electrical or magnetic properties and heat resistance. They are less
expensive when compared to the pure forms.

Ceramics
A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide
material. Some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic
materials are brittle, hard, and strong in compression, weak in shearing and tension. Si
based ceramics are widely used in aero applications due to heat resistance.
They are typically crystalline in nature and are compounds formed between metallic and
nonmetallic elements such as aluminum and oxygen (alumina-Al2O3), calcium and oxygen
(calcia - CaO), and silicon and nitrogen (silicon nitride-Si3N4).

USES:
 Ceramics are used in commercial and military aircraft and space shuttles. The
low mass of ceramics is highly advantageous for use in aerospace industry.
 Ceramics are used in Structural applications (crystalline inorganic non-metals) as
Thermal barrier coatings (TBC’s) in the hot part of the engine.
 They are used in composites as a reinforcement or as a ceramic matrix
composites (CMC)
 Thermal protection systems in rocket exhaust cones
 Insulating tiles for space shuttle
 Missile nose cones
 SiC ceramics are used in turbine blades
Ceramics have excellent strength and hardness properties and are brittle in nature.
Ceramics can also be formed to serve as electrically conductive materials or insulators.
Some ceramics, like superconductors, also display magnetic properties. They are also more
resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers. Due to
ceramic materials wide range of properties, they are used for a multitude of applications.
The broad categories or segments that make up the ceramic industry can be classified as:
 Structural clay products (brick, sewer pipe, roofing and wall tile, flue linings,
etc.)
 White wares (dinnerware, floor and wall tile, electrical porcelain, etc.)
 Refractories (brick and monolithic products used in metal, glass, cements,
ceramics, energy conversion, petroleum, and chemicals industries)
 Glasses (flat glass (windows), container glass (bottles), pressed and blown
glass (dinnerware), glass fibers (home insulation), and advanced/specialty
glass (optical fibers))
 Abrasives (natural (garnet, diamond, etc.) and synthetic (silicon carbide,
diamond, fused alumina, etc.) abrasives are used for grinding, cutting,
polishing, lapping, or pressure blasting of materials)
 Cements (for roads, bridges, buildings, dams, and etc.)
 Advanced ceramics
o Structural (wear parts, bio ceramics, cutting tools, and engine components)
o Electrical (capacitors, insulators, substrates, integrated circuit packages,
piezoelectrics, magnets and superconductors)
o Coatings (engine components, cutting tools, and industrial wear parts)
o Chemical and environmental (filters, membranes, catalysts, and catalyst
supports)
The atoms in ceramic materials are held together by a chemical bond which will be discussed a
bit later. Briefly though, the two most common chemical bonds for ceramic materials are
covalent and ionic. Covalent and ionic bonds are much stronger than in metallic bonds and,
generally speaking, this is why ceramics are brittle and metals are ductile.

Polymer:
A polymeric solid can be thought of as a material that contains many chemically bonded
parts or units which themselves are bonded together to form a solid. The word polymer
literally means "many parts." Two industrially important polymeric materials are plastics
and elastomers.

Plastics are a large and varied group of synthetic materials which are processed by forming
or molding into shape. Just as there are many types of metals such as aluminum and copper,
there are many types of plastics, such as polyethylene and nylon.

Elastomers or rubbers can be elastically deformed a large amount when a force is applied to
them and can return to their original shape (or almost) when the force is Released.

Polymers have many properties that make them attractive to use in certain conditions.
Many polymers:
 are less dense than metals or ceramics,
 resist atmospheric and other forms of corrosion,
 offer good compatibility with human tissue, or
 Exhibit excellent resistance to the conduction of electrical current.

The polymer plastics can be divided into two classes, thermoplastics and thermosetting
plastics, depending on how they are structurally and chemically bonded.

Thermoplastic polymers comprise the four most important commodity materials –

polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride.

There are also a number of specialized engineering polymers. The term ‘thermoplastic’
indicates that these materials melt on heating and may be processed by a variety of molding
and extrusion techniques.
Thermosetting polymers cannot be melted or re-melted. Thermosetting polymers include
alkyds, amino and phenolic resins, epoxies, polyurethanes, and unsaturated polyesters.

Rubber is a natural occurring polymer. However, most polymers are created by engineering the
combination of hydrogen and carbon atoms and the arrangement of the chains they form.

The polymer molecule is a long chain of covalent-bonded atoms and secondary bonds then
hold groups of polymer chains together to form the polymeric material. Polymers are
primarily produced from petroleum or natural gas raw products but the use of organic
substances is growing. The super-material known as Kevlar is a man-made polymer. Kevlar is
used in bullet-proof vests, strong/lightweight frames, and underwater cables that are 20
times stronger than steel.
Composite Materials

A composite is commonly defined as a combination of two or more distinct materials, each

of which retains its own distinctive properties, to create a new material with properties that
cannot be achieved by any of the components acting alone. Using this definition, it can be
determined that a wide range of engineering materials fall into this category. For example,
concrete is a composite because it is a mixture of Portland cement and aggregate. Fiberglass
sheet is a composite since it is made of glass fibers imbedded in a polymer.

Composite materials are said to have two phases. The reinforcing phase is the fibers, sheets,
or particles that are embedded in the matrix phase. The reinforcing material and the matrix
material can be metal, ceramic, or polymer. Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with
low densities while the matrix is usually a ductile, or tough, material.

Some of the common classifications of composites are:

 Reinforced plastic
 Metal-matrix composites
 Ceramic-matrix composites
 Sandwich structures
 Concrete
Composite materials can take many forms but they can be separated into three categories
based on the strengthening mechanism. These categories are dispersion strengthened,
particle reinforced and fibre reinforced. Dispersion strengthened composites have a fine
distribution of secondary particles in the matrix of the material.

These particles impede the mechanisms that allow a material to deform. (These mechanisms
include dislocation movement and slip, which will be discussed later). Many metal-matrix
composites would fall into the dispersion strengthened composite category. Particle
reinforced composites have a large volume fraction of particle dispersed in the matrix and
the load is shared by the particles and the matrix. Most commercial ceramics and many
filled polymers are particle- reinforced composites. In fibre-reinforced composites, the fibre
is the primary load-bearing component. Fiberglass and carbon fibre composites are
examples of fibre-reinforced composites.

If the composite is designed and fabricated correctly, it combines the strength of the
reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to achieve a combination of desirable
properties not available in any single conventional material. Some composites also offer the
advantage of being tailorable so that properties, such as strength and stiffness, can easily be
changed by changing amount or orientation of the reinforcement material. The downside is
that such composites are often more expensive than conventional materials.
Advanced Materials

Materials used in "High-Tec" applications, usually designed for maximum performance, and
normally expensive. Examples are titanium alloys for supersonic airplanes, magnetic alloys
for computer disks, special ceramics for the heat shield of the space shuttle, etc.
Modern Material's Needs
An aircraft must be constructed of materials that are both light and strong.

 Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high temperature

structural materials

 Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or advances in nuclear
waste processing.
 Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist high temperatures.
 Optical communications require optical fibres that absorb light negligibly.
 Civil construction – materials for unbreakable windows.
 Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics
LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:
Materials can exhibit different types of elastic behaviour, depending on their response to
applied forces. The two main categories of elastic properties are linear and non-linear elastic
properties.

1. Linear Elastic Properties: In linear elastic materials, the relationship between stress
(force per unit area) and strain (deformation) is proportional and follows Hooke's
law. This means that as long as the stress does not exceed a certain limit, the
material will return to its original shape and size once the applied force is removed.
The key characteristics of linear elastic materials are:

a. Hooke's Law: This law states that the stress (σ) is directly proportional to the
strain (ε) within the elastic limit of the material. Mathematically, it can be
expressed as σ = E * ε, where E is the elastic modulus or Young's modulus, a
constant specific to the material

b. Elastic Limit: Beyond a certain stress value called the elastic limit, the
material will undergo permanent deformation and will not return to its
original shape upon removal of the force.
c. Elastic Modulus (Young's Modulus): As mentioned earlier, the elastic modulus
(E) is a measure of a material's stiffness and its ability to resist deformation. It
is defined as the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic range.
d. Poisson's Ratio: This dimensionless quantity, denoted by ν (nu), expresses
the lateral contraction (negative strain) of a material when it is stretched
(positive strain) along one axis. For linear elastic materials, Poisson's ratio
remains constant within the elastic limit.
e. Yield Strength: It is the load per square meter at which the material exhibits
a specified limiting permanent set or a specified elongation under load.
f. Yield point: The point is the load per square meter at which there occurs a
marked increase in deformation without an increase in load.
 g. Yielding: The component continues to elongate without increase in load at a
particular load Set.
h. Necking: The component tends to get fracture point beyond elastic limit.

2. Non-linear Elastic Properties: In non-linear elastic materials, the stress-strain

relationship is not directly proportional, and Hooke's law does not apply throughout
the deformation range. These materials may exhibit more complex behaviors,
including a varying elastic modulus, stress softening, or strain hardening. Some
materials may show elastic behaviour initially, but beyond a certain strain level, they
start to behave non-linearly.

a. Stress Softening: Some materials become softer (reduced stiffness) as they

deform. This means that their elastic modulus decreases as the strain
increases.
b. Strain Hardening: Conversely, some materials become stiffer (increased
stiffness) as they deform. This means that their elastic modulus increases as
the strain increases.
c. Hysteresis: In some non-linear elastic materials, the stress-strain curve shows
a loop during loading and unloading, indicating energy loss during the
deformation process.
d. Plastic Deformation: Non-linear elastic materials can undergo significant
permanent deformation even within the elastic limit, making it difficult for
them to return to their original shape.
e. Elastic deformation. When the stress is removed the material returns to the
dimension it had before the load was applied. The deformation is reversible,
non-permanent.
Examples of non-linear elastic materials include elastomers (rubber-like materials), certain
polymers, and some biological tissues.

In summary, linear elastic materials follow Hooke's law and exhibit a constant elastic
modulus within their elastic limit, while non-linear elastic materials do not follow Hooke's
law and may display varying elastic properties as they deform.

Strain hardening or Work hardening:

It is also called as cold working. It is the process of strengthening of a metal

by plastic deformation. The metal is strengthened by modifying the
crystalline structure of the material. Non- brittle materials and polymers can
be strengthened in this manner.
The metal is heated at a relatively low temperature after cold-working. During
strain hardening the strength of the metal is increased and ductility decreased.

Eg: If a low-carbon steel is cold-worked, or strained passed the yield point, then aged for
several days at room temperature, it will have a higher yield stress after the aging. This
happens because during the aging carbon or nitrogen atoms diffuse to dislocations,
resetting them.

Not all materials are strain hardened. Different materials exhibit different behaviour after
the process.

Fracture:
When a material separates into two or more pieces under the action of stress, it is called
fracture. When a load is applied on the material beyond its ultimate tensile strength a
displacement discontinuity occurs in the surfaces of the solid which causes fracture. The
displacement perpendicular to the surface of displacement, then it is called tensile crack,
and if it is parallel to the surface of displacement, it is called shear crack. Fracture strength
or breaking strength is the stress where the specimen fails or fractures.
The Bauschinger effect:
The Bauschinger effect (BE) can be observed during tension-compression conditions and is
associated with a decrease of the yield stress when the loading direction is reversed. Such
behavior may have different origins: for instance, if due to residual macroscopic stresses, it
is not a true Bauschinger effect. Macroscopic residual stresses may result from heat
treatment or from cold work during manufacture. Two other causes exist. One of them, the
principal cause, is related to the dislocation structure in the work-hardened metal. As
deformation occurs, the dislocations accumulate at barriers (precipitates, grain boundaries)
and form dislocation pile-ups and tangles.

Two types of mechanisms are used to explain BE. First, local back stresses, which oppose
the applied stress on the slip plane, are produced by dislocations pile-ups on slip planes at
barriers (pile-up of dislocations at grain boundaries and Orowan loops around strong
precipitates). Back stresses assist the movement of dislocations in the reverse direction due
to their favorable orientation to the stress axis. Thus, the dislocations can move easily in the
reverse direction and the yield strength of the metal is lowered. Secondly, when the slip
direction is reversed, dislocations of opposite sign may be created at the same source that
produced the slip-causing dislocations in the initial direction. Since dislocations of opposite
sign attract and annihilate each other, the net effect is a further softening of the lattice.

The other cause, known as “composite effect”, is due to zones of different yield strength
inside the material, on a microscopic scale. This case is sometimes referred to as a pseudo-
Bauschinger effect. The Masing or generalized Saint-Venant model describes this behavior.
Figure 2 shows a rheological model for two phases differing by their flow stress.
Notch effect:
Notch:
A notch in mechanical and materials engineering refers to a deliberately introduced v-
shaped, u-shaped or circular defect in a planar material whereby stress is concentrated.
Notch geometries play an important role in fracture mechanics and materials Notches are
most often found in impact testing of materials where the presence of a crack origin of
controlled morphology is necessary in order to achieve standardized characterization of
fracture toughness.
Notch effect:
Notched-bar tension tests are performed on notched specimens of either rectangular cross-
section, with varying thicknesses, or circular cross-section, with varying radii. For either type
of specimen, the stress state will vary with the notch depth and notch root radius. The notch
contour is classified as shallow or deej), external or internal, single or multiple, and blunt or
sharp. The most comprehensive collection of elastically calculated stress concentrations and
stress distributions around notches is provided in the work of Neuber. For all geometries
studied, at, the notch root the transverse stress is zero and the longitudinal or axial stress is
a maximum. For the external deep circumferential notch under tension, the tangential
stress "crt" and the radial stress "as" are approximately equal at points away from the
proximity of the notch root. A plastic stress distribution of the neck of a tension specimen by
applying the von Mises conditions of plasticity. Because he approximated the contour of a
tension specimen and the lines of principal stress at the neck by a circle, the Bridgman
solution has been used to approximate the stress distribution in tensile specimens with
circular notches. The Bridgman solution, however, appears to provide a poor approximation
of the stress state of sharply notched specimens because of the extreme strain gradients at
the notch tip. It, appears that finite element techniques must be used to correctly model the
nonlinear material behavior and the large but finite strains associated with sharp notches.

Flaw Detection
An aggregate of methods of nondestructive testing of materials and products in order to
detect defects. It includes the development of methods and apparatus (such as
defectoscopes), the creation of testing procedures, and the processing of the data of
defectoscopes.
Various defects—

Disruptions of the continuity or homogeneity of a material or deviation from the prescribed

chemical composition, structure, or dimensions occur in products as a result of the imperfect
state of manufacturing processes or of operation under difficult conditions. Defects alter the
physical properties of a material (such as density, electrical conductivity, and magnetic and
elastic properties). The basis for existing methods of f law detection is the investigation of the
physical properties of materials upon exposure to X rays; infrared, ultraviolet, and gamma rays;
radio waves; ultrasonic vibrations; and magnetic an d electrostatic fields.

The simplest method of flaw detection is the visual method by the naked eye or with the
help of optical devices such as magnifying glasses. Special tubes with prisms and miniature
illuminators (dioptric tubes) and television tubes are used to examine internal surfaces,
deep cavities, and hard-to-reach places. Lasers are also used for testing—for example, the
surface of a fine wire. Visual flaw detection allows only the detection of surf ace flaws (such
as cracks or scabs) in metal products and internal flaws in products made of glass or plastics
that are transparent to visible light. The minimum size of flaws detectable by the naked eye
is 0.1-0.2 mm, or a few dozen microns when optical systems are used.
X-ray flaw detection is based on the absorption of X-rays, which depends on the density of
the medium and the atomic number of the elements that form the material of the medium.
The presence of such defects as cracks, blisters, or inclusions of foreign material leads to a
situation in which the rays passing through the material (Figure 1) are attenuated to a
varying degree. By recording the distribution of the intensity of the transient rays it is
possible to determine the presence and location of various discontinuities in the material

Diagram of X-raying
(1) Source of X radiation, (2) X-ray beam, (3) part being tested,
(4) Internal defect in the part, (5) X-ray image behind the part (invisible to the eye),
(6) X-ray image recorder

The intensity of the X-rays is recorded by several methods. Photographic methods are used
to record the article on film. The visual method is based on observation of the image of an
article on a fluorescent screen. This method is more efficient when electro-

Optical image converters are used. In the xerographic method, images are produced on
metal plates that are coated with a layer of a substance whose surface has been given an
electrostatic charge. Contrast pictures are taken on plates that can be used repeatedly. The
ionization method is based on measurement of the intensity of the electromagnetic
radiation by its ionizing effect (for example, on a gas). In this case the indicator may be
placed at a considerable distance from the product, which makes possible the testing of
products heated to high temperatures.

Creep and Fatigue:

Creep: Failure under Constant Load at High Temperature Or Creep is a time dependent
permanent deformation of a material. But, it is under the influence of constant loading of
stress which is lower than the yield strength. But, at higher temperatures, the temperatures
are ranging greater than point four times the melting temperature of the material.
If we keep a material at high temperature high enough temperature for long enough
duration and that material will undergo some changes in the, it will deform permanently.
So, that is the cause for the deformation of the material and that is not very desirable
because it will change the shape of the component.
The creep can be divided into 3 stages
i) Dislocation climb away from obstacle
ii) Rate of dislocation climb equals that if blocking by obstacles
iii) Necking occurs, stress increases.

Fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is the progressive
and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading.

Under the influence of a non-constant external load, the state in the material also varies
with time. The state at a point in the material can be described by many different variables
such as stress, strain, or energy dissipation. The fatigue process is typically viewed as
controlled by a specific such variable. A load cycle is defined as the duration from one peak
in the studied variable to the next peak.
The process until a component finally fails under repeated loading can be divided into
three stages:

 During a large number of cycles, the damage develops on the microscopic level and grows
until a macroscopic crack is formed.
 The macroscopic crack grows for each cycle until it reaches a critical length.
 The cracked component breaks because it can no longer sustain the peak load.

Comparative Study of Metals, Ceramics, Plastics and Composites:

1. Classification of materials: Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three
basic classifications: metals, ceramics, and polymers.

This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure, and most
materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are some intermediates.
In addition, there are the composites, combinations of two or more of the above three basic
material classes. A brief explanation of these material types and representative
characteristics is offered next. Another classification is advanced materials—those used in
high technology applications—viz. semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials, and nano
engineered materials.

Metals: Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as
iron, aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (for
example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts. Atoms in metals and
their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner and in comparison to the ceramics and
polymers, are relatively dense (Fig 1.1).With

Fig.1
Bar-chart of room temperature density values for various metals, ceramics, polymers, and
composite materials regard to mechanical characteristics, these materials are relatively stiff (Fig
2) and strong (Fig 3), yet are ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts of deformation without
fracture), and are resistant to fracture (Fig 4), which accounts for their widespread use in
structural applications. Metallic materials have large numbers of non-localized electrons; that
is, these electrons are not bound to particular atoms. Many properties of metals are directly
attributable to these electrons. For example, metals are extremely good conductors of
electricity (Fig 5) and heat, and are not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface
has a lustrous appearance. In addition, some of the metals (viz., Fe, Co, and Ni) have
desirable magnetic properties. Fig 6 is a photograph that shows several common and
familiar objects that are made of metallic materials.

Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and non-metallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, some of the common ceramic

Fig.2
Bar-chart of room temperature Stiffness (i.e., elastic modulus) values for various metals,
ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.

Fig.3
Bar-chart of room temperature strength (i.e., tensile strength) values for various metals,
ceramics, polymers, and composite materials materials include aluminium oxide (or
alumina,Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4),
and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics—those composed of clay
minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement, and glass. With regard to mechanical behaviour,
ceramic materials are relatively stiff and strong—stiffnesses and strengths are comparable
to those of the metals (Fig 2 and 3). In addition, ceramics are typically very hard.

On the other hand, they are extremely brittle (lack ductility), and are highly susceptible to
fracture (Fig 4). These materials are typically insulative to the passage of heat and
electricity (i.e., have low electrical conductivities, Fig 5), and are more resistant to high
temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers.

Fig.4

Bar-chart of room-temperature resistance to fracture (i.e., fracture toughness) for various

metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.
 Fig.5

Bar-chart of room temperature electrical conductivity ranges for metals, ceramics,

polymers, and semiconducting materials.

Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic
compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements
(viz.O, N, and Si). Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often chain-like in
nature that have a backbone of carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers
are polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene
(PS), and silicone rubber. These materials typically have low densities, whereas their
mechanical characteristics are generally dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic materials—
they are not as stiff nor as strong as these other material types. However, on the basis of
their low densities, many times their stiffnesses and strengths on a per mass.

Familiar objects that are made of metals and metal alloys: (from left to right) silverware
(fork and knife), scissors, coins, a gear, a wedding ring, and a nut and bolt.
Common objects that are made of ceramic materials: scissors, a china tea cup, a building brick, a
floor tile, and a glass vase basis are comparable to the metals and ceramics. In addition, many of
the polymers are extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed
into complex shapes. In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large
number of environments. One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften
and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some instances, limits their use.
Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities and are nonmagnetic.

The photograph in below shows several articles made of polymers that are familiar to the
reader.

Several common objects that are made of polymeric materials: plastic tableware (spoon,
fork, and knife), billiard balls, a bicycle helmet, two dice, a lawnmower wheel (plastic hub
and rubber tire), and a plastic milk carton.
Composites
A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the
categories discussed above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers. The design goal of a
composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single
material, and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component
materials. A large number of composite types exist that are represented by different
combinations of metals, ceramics, and polymers. Furthermore, some naturally-occurring
materials are also considered to be composites—for example, wood and bone. However,
most of those we consider in our discussions are synthetic (or man-made) composites. One
of the most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in which small glass fibers are
embedded within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester). The glass fibers are
relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle), whereas the polymer is ductile (but also weak
and flexible). Flexible, and ductile. In addition, it has a low density. Another of these
technologically important materials is the “carbon fiber reinforced polymer” (or “CFRP”)
composite—carbon fibers that are embedded within a polymer. These materials are stiffer
and stronger than the glass fiber-reinforced materials, yet they are more expensive. The
CFRP composites are used in some aircraft and aerospace applications, as well as high-tech
sporting equipment (e.g., bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, and skis/snowboards).
Metals Ceramics
Ceramics are generally
This type of materials compounds between
has characteristics like, metallic and nonmetallic
high electrical and elements and include such
compounds as oxides,
thermal conductivity,
the ability to be nitrides, and carbides.
Typically they are
deformed or cut into new
insulating (not electrical or
shapes without breaking,
thermally conductive) and
and high mechanical resistant to high
strength. Since metals temperatures and harsh
must be reduced from environments (corrosion
chemical compounds, resistant). They usually
they tend to be have lower electrical and
somewhat more costly thermal conductivity,
than non- metallic higher stiffness, good
resistance to corrosive
materials, and they are
environments, and lower
often vulnerable to
fracture toughness than
corrosion damage as the
metals. With the exception
metals react with their of glasses, ceramics usually
environment to re- form cannot be reshaped easily.
those compounds. They To shape a ceramic, a
tend to be shiny and mixture of ceramic
malleable. Metals have powders, water, and binder
these characteristics materials is molded into the
desired dimensions to
because they have no form a temporary shape.
localized electrons. These temporary shapes
called "green bodies" are
then dried to remove water
and heated to allow the
binder materials to oxidize,
leaving the ceramic powder
particles to bond to each
other during the high
temperature baking.
Polymers Composites
Plastics (or Composites
polymers) are A combination of two
generally organic or more materials
compounds based differing in form or
upon carbon and composition. The
hydrogen. They are different parts still have
very large molecular the same features they
structures. Usually originally did, that is,
they are low density they do not dissolve or
and are not stable at merge completely into
high temperatures. one another, and
They can be readily however, their
formed into complex properties are enhanced
shapes. Their by each other.
strength, stiffness, Normally, the
and melting components can be
temperatures are physically identified
generally much and exhibit an interface
lower than those of (boundary) between one
metals and ceramics. another. Fiberglass, a
Their light weight, combination of glass
low cost, and ease of and a polymer, is an
forming make them example. Concrete and
the preferred plywood are other
material for many familiar composites.
engineering Many new combinations
applications. include ceramic fibers
in metal or polymer
matrix.
 TWO MARKS QUESTION & ANSWERS

Question 1: What is the fundamental difference between linear and non-linear elastic
materials?
Answer 1: Linear elastic materials exhibit a proportional relationship between stress and
strain, following Hooke's law within the elastic limit. In contrast, non-linear elastic materials
do not follow Hooke's law and display complex stress-strain relationships beyond their
elastic limit.

Question 2: Define Hooke's law and its significance in material behaviour.

Answer 2: Hooke's law states that the strain experienced by a material is directly
proportional to the applied stress within the material's elastic limit. Its significance lies in
describing the linear elastic behaviour of materials, enabling engineers to predict
deformations and design structures that remain within the elastic limit.

Question 3: What is Young's modulus, and how is it related to a material's stiffness?

Answer 3: Young's modulus (E) is a measure of a material's stiffness in the elastic range. It
quantifies the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic limit. Materials with higher Young's
modulus values are stiffer and offer greater resistance to deformation under applied stress.

Question 4: Explain the concept of the elastic limit in materials.

Answer 4: The elastic limit is the maximum stress that a material can withstand without
undergoing permanent deformation. Within this limit, the material behaves elastically, and
if the stress is removed, it returns to its original shape. Beyond the elastic limit, the material
undergoes plastic deformation and does not fully recover its original shape.

Question 5: How does strain hardening affect a material's behaviour?

Answer 5: Strain hardening, also known as work hardening, is a non-linear elastic behaviour
observed in materials subjected to plastic deformation. As a material is deformed beyond its
yield point, it becomes stronger and less ductile, making it more resistant to further
deformation.

Question 6: What is the yield point in stress-strain curves?

Answer 6: The yield point is the stress level at which a material transitions from elastic
behaviour to plastic deformation. At this point, the material begins to experience permanent
deformation, and it does not fully return to its original shape after the stress is removed.

Question 7: Differentiate between linear and non-linear stress-strain curves.

Answer 7: In linear stress-strain curves, stress and strain have a direct, proportional
relationship within the elastic limit, resulting in a straight line. Non-linear stress-strain curves
deviate from linearity, indicating non-linear elastic behaviour, and often display a yield
point, followed by strain hardening or softening.
Question 8: Provide an example of a linear and a non-linear elastic material.
Answer 8: An example of a linear elastic material is a steel alloy within its elastic limit, where
stress and strain have a proportional relationship. An example of a non-linear elastic
material is rubber, which displays significant deviation from Hooke's law even within its
elastic range, making it a non-linear material.

Question 9: What is fracture in the context of materials?

Answer 9: Fracture refers to the process of a material breaking or separating into two or
more pieces due to the application of stress, often beyond its strength or toughness limits.

Question 10: What are the two main types of fractures that materials can experience?
Answer 10: The two main types of fractures are ductile fracture and brittle fracture. Ductile
fractures occur in materials that can undergo plastic deformation before breaking, while
brittle fractures happen without significant plastic deformation.

Question 11: Explain the difference between ductile and brittle fractures.
Answer 11: Ductile fractures involve plastic deformation before the final fracture occurs,
resulting in a more gradual and energy-absorbing failure. Brittle fractures, on the other
hand, occur with minimal or no plastic deformation, leading to a sudden and often
catastrophic failure.

Question 12: What is Bauchinger's effect in materials science?

Answer 12: Bauchinger's effect refers to the phenomenon of strain softening that occurs in
materials when they are pre-strained in the plastic region. After pre-straining, the material
exhibits a lower yield strength than before deformation.

Question 13: How does Bauchinger's effect influence material behaviour?

Answer 13: Bauchinger's effect causes a reduction in the yield strength of a material after
pre-straining in the plastic region. This means that a material that has undergone plastic
deformation becomes easier to deform further at lower stresses than an unpre-strained
material.

Question 14: What is the importance of understanding fracture mechanics in engineering?

Answer 14: Understanding fracture mechanics is crucial in engineering to predict and prevent
failure in materials and structures. It helps engineers design components with appropriate
safety margins and select materials that can withstand the expected loads and conditions.

Question 15: What are some common factors that can lead to brittle fracture in materials?
Answer 15: Common factors that can lead to brittle fracture include low temperatures, high
loading rates, the presence of defects or stress concentrations, and the use of materials
with low ductility.
Question 16: Provide an example of a material that exhibits the Bauchinger's effect.
Answer 16: One example of a material that displays the Bauchinger's effect is low-carbon
steel. When low-carbon steel is pre-strained in the plastic region, it experiences strain
softening and exhibits a lower yield strength compared to its unpre-strained state.

Question 17: What is the notch effect in materials testing?

Answer 17: The notch effect refers to the phenomenon where the presence of a notch or a
sharp discontinuity in a material significantly reduces its strength and toughness, leading to
a concentration of stress around the notch.

Question 18: How does the presence of a notch affect a material's mechanical properties?
Answer 18: The presence of a notch decreases a material's mechanical properties, particularly
its tensile strength and fracture toughness. Notches act as stress concentrators, causing
localized stress concentrations that can lead to premature failure at lower applied loads.

Question 19: What is the purpose of conducting notch impact tests?

Answer 19: Notch impact tests are performed to assess a material's ability to resist sudden
impacts and determine its impact strength under notched conditions. These tests help
evaluate a material's notch sensitivity and its behaviour under impact loads.

Question 20: How is a Charpy V-notch test conducted, and what does it measure?
Answer 20: In a Charpy V-notch test, a notched specimen is subjected to a pendulum
impact. The test measures the amount of energy absorbed by the material during fracture,
which is an indication of its notch toughness or resistance to impact at low temperatures.

Question 21: What is flaw detection in materials and components?

Answer 21: Flaw detection involves the identification and evaluation of defects or
imperfections, such as cracks, voids, or inclusions, in materials or components. It aims to
identify potential weaknesses that could compromise the integrity of the structure.

Question 22: What are some common non-destructive testing (NDT) methods used for flaw
detection?
Answer 22: Common non-destructive testing methods for flaw detection include ultrasonic
testing (UT), magnetic particle testing (MT), liquid penetrant testing (PT), radiographic
testing (RT), and eddy current testing (ET).

Question 23: Explain how ultrasonic testing (UT) is used for flaw detection.
Answer 23: Ultrasonic testing utilizes high-frequency sound waves to detect internal flaws in
materials. A transducer sends ultrasonic waves into the material, and any disruptions or
reflections of the waves caused by defects are analysed to identify the flaw's location and
size.
Question 24: Why is flaw detection important in industries like aerospace and
manufacturing? Answer 24: Flaw detection is critical in industries like aerospace and
manufacturing to ensure the safety and reliability of components and structures. Identifying
flaws early allows for preventive measures or the rejection of defective parts, reducing the
risk of catastrophic failures and potential accidents.

Question 25: What are the main constituents of metals, ceramics, plastics, and composites?
Answer 25: Metals are primarily composed of metallic elements, ceramics are composed of
inorganic compounds, plastics are made from polymers (organic compounds), and
composites consist of a combination of two or more materials, often including fibers and a
matrix material.

Question 26: What is the key characteristic that sets metals apart from ceramics, plastics,
and composites?
Answer 26: Metals are known for their excellent conductivity, both electrical and thermal,
which distinguishes them from ceramics, plastics, and composites that generally have lower
conductivity.

Question 27: Compare the mechanical properties of ceramics and metals.

Answer 27: Ceramics are typically harder and more brittle than metals. Metals have greater
ductility and toughness, making them better suited for applications requiring deformation
without fracture.

Question 28: What advantage do plastics offer over metals and ceramics in terms of
corrosion resistance?
Answer 28: Plastics often exhibit superior corrosion resistance compared to metals and
ceramics, especially in harsh chemical environments. This property makes them suitable for
various applications in chemical processing and corrosive conditions.

Question 29: What is the primary advantage of composites over individual metals, ceramics,
or plastics?
Answer 29: Composites combine the strengths of different materials, offering improved
specific properties tailored to a particular application. They can have high strength-to-
weight ratios, excellent stiffness, and superior resistance to fatigue and impact compared to
individual materials.

Question 30: In which application would you prefer to use ceramics over metals, plastics, or
composites?
Answer 30: Ceramics are often preferred in high-temperature applications due to their
excellent thermal stability and resistance to heat. They are commonly used in the aerospace
industry, gas turbines, and high-temperature insulation systems where metals and plastics
would not withstand the extreme conditions.