support reactions can be determined by statics.

Figure : 1

Normal Stresses Due to Bending :

While transverse loadings cause both bending and shear in a beam, the normal stresses
caused by bending are the dominant criterion in the design of a beam for strength.
Therefore, this chapter dealt only with the determination of the normal stresses in a beam,
the effect of shearing stresses being examined in the next one. The flexure formula for the
determination of the maximum value of the normal stress in a given section of the beam is
:

σ = |M|c/I

Figure : 2
where I is the moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to a centroidal axis
perpendicular to the plane of the bending couple M and c is the maximum distance from
the neutral surface. Introducing the elastic section modulus S = I/c of the beam, the
maximum value σm of the normal stress in the section can be expressed also as :

σ = |M|/S

Shear and Bending-Moment Diagrams :

From it is seen that the maximum normal stress occurs in the section where |M| is largest
and at the point farthest from the neutral axis. The determination of the maximum value of
|M | and of the critical section of the beam in which it occurs is simplified if shear diagrams
and bending-moment diagrams are drawn. These diagrams represent the variation of the
shear and of the bending moment along the beam and are obtained by determining the
values of V and M at selected points of the beam. These values are found by passing a
section through the point and drawing the free-body diagram of either of the portions of
beam. To avoid any confusion regarding the sense of the shearing force V and of the
bending couple M (which act in opposite sense on the two portions of the beam), we follow
the sign convention adopted earlier, as illustrated.
Figure : 3

Relationships Between Load, Shear, and Bending Moment :

The construction of the shear and bending-moment diagrams is facilitated if the following
relations are taken into account. Denoting by w the distributed load per unit length
(assumed positive if directed downward)

dV/dx = -w

dM/dx = V

or in integrated form

Vd = Vc

= - (area under load curve between C and D)

Md = Mc

= area under shear curve between C and D

Equation (5.6b) makes it possible to draw the shear diagram of a beam from the curve
representing the distributed load on that beam and V at one end of the beam. Similarly, Eq
makes it possible to draw the bending-moment diagram from the shear diagram and M at
one end of the beam. However, concentrated loads introduce discontinuities in the shear
diagram and concentrated couples in the bending-moment diagram, none of which is
accounted for in these equations. The points of the beam where the bending moment is
maximum or minimum are also the points where the shear is zero.

Design of Prismatic Beams :

Having determined σ-all for the material used and assuming that the design of the beam is
controlled by the maximum normal stress in the beam, the minimum allowable value of the
section modulus is :

Smin = M-max/σ-all

For a timber beam of rectangular cross section,

S = 1/6bh^2 where b is the width of the beam and h its depth. The dimensions of the
section, therefore, must be selected so that

1/6bh^2 > or = Smin.

For a rolled-steel beam, consult the appropriate table in Appendix C. Of the available beam
sections, consider only those with a section modulus S > or = Smin. From this group we
normally select the section with the smallest weight per unit length.

Relationships Between Load, Shear, and Bending Moment :

This section explores the fundamental connection between the external loads acting on a
beam, the resulting internal shear forces (V), and bending moments (M) within the beam. It
establishes key principles:

Figure : 4
Shear Force (V):

Represents the internal force trying to cut or shear the beam at a specific point. A positive V
acts upwards on one side of the imaginary cut and downwards on the other. The rate of
change of shear force (dV/dx) is directly proportional to the applied distributed load (w(x))
on the beam.

Bending Moment (M):

Represents the internal twisting force acting on a beam section, trying to bend it. A positive
M creates convexity (sagging) on the top of the beam, while negative M creates concavity
(hogging). The relationship between shear and bending moment is described by another
key formula: dM/dx = V(x).

Figure : 5
Design of Prismatic Beams for Bending :

This section focuses on designing beams with a constant cross-section (prismatic) to

withstand bending loads. Engineers use these principles to select appropriate beam
dimensions and materials to ensure they can handle the applied loads without failure.

Figure : 6

Deflection: Refers to the amount a beam bends under load. Understanding deflection is
crucial to prevent excessive bending that can damage the beam or surrounding structures.

Design: Involves selecting a beam material and size based on factors like allowable
bending stress, beam length, and applied loads. Engineers use various design codes and
equations to ensure the beam remains within safe stress limits.

Practical Applications:

Shear and bending moment diagrams are extensively used in various engineering fields,
including:

Structural Engineering:
Analyzing beams, columns, trusses, and other structural elements in buildings, bridges,
and other structures.

Figure : 7

Machine Design:

Designing shafts, levers, and other machine components to withstand loads and ensure
proper functionality.

Figure : 8
Aerospace Engineering:

Analyzing the structural integrity of airplane wings, fuselage, and other components under
various flight conditions.

Figure : 9

Understanding these concepts allows engineers to optimize designs for strength, minimize
material usage, and ensure the safety and functionality of structures and machines