Documentupload - 609download Full Ebook of Playing With Ease A Healthy Approach To Guitar Technique David Leisner Online PDF All Chapter

Playing with Ease A Healthy Approach
to Guitar Technique David Leisner

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmeta.com/product/playing-with-ease-a-healthy-approach-to-guitar-techni
que-david-leisner/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Guitar Chords in Context The Practical Guide to Chord

Theory and Application Learn Guitar Theory and
Technique 2nd Edition Joseph Alexander
https://ebookmeta.com/product/guitar-chords-in-context-the-
practical-guide-to-chord-theory-and-application-learn-guitar-
theory-and-technique-2nd-edition-joseph-alexander/
Playing at Work Clinical Essays in a Contemporary

Winnicottian Perspective on Technique 1st Edition
Vincenzo Bonaminio
https://ebookmeta.com/product/playing-at-work-clinical-essays-in-
a-contemporary-winnicottian-perspective-on-technique-1st-edition-
vincenzo-bonaminio/
Healthy Recipes: A Clean Cookbook with Delicious and

Healthy Recipes 2nd Edition Booksumo Press
https://ebookmeta.com/product/healthy-recipes-a-clean-cookbook-
with-delicious-and-healthy-recipes-2nd-edition-booksumo-press/
Rust for C++ Programmers: Learn how to embed Rust in

C/C++ with ease 1st Edition Mustafif Khan
https://ebookmeta.com/product/rust-for-c-programmers-learn-how-
to-embed-rust-in-c-c-with-ease-1st-edition-mustafif-khan/
Essential Interviewing: A Programmed Approach to
Effective Communication 9th Edition David R Evans
https://ebookmeta.com/product/essential-interviewing-a-
programmed-approach-to-effective-communication-9th-edition-david-
r-evans/
Mediterranean Cooking 101: A Simple Introduction to

Mediterranean Cooking with Classical Healthy Recipes
2nd Edition Booksumo Press
https://ebookmeta.com/product/mediterranean-cooking-101-a-simple-
introduction-to-mediterranean-cooking-with-classical-healthy-
recipes-2nd-edition-booksumo-press/
5 Figure Affiliate Blueprint Your guide to earning 10

000 dollars per month online with ease 1st Edition
Jason Elder
https://ebookmeta.com/product/5-figure-affiliate-blueprint-your-
guide-to-earning-10-000-dollars-per-month-online-with-ease-1st-
edition-jason-elder/
Fruits!: A Healthy Cookbook with Delicious Recipes for

Cooking with Fruits 2nd Edition Booksumo Press
https://ebookmeta.com/product/fruits-a-healthy-cookbook-with-
delicious-recipes-for-cooking-with-fruits-2nd-edition-booksumo-
press/
How to Become a Miracle Worker with Your Life Steps To

Use The Almighty Ancient Technique Of Ho Oponopono
First Edition Bruno R Cignacco
https://ebookmeta.com/product/how-to-become-a-miracle-worker-
with-your-life-steps-to-use-the-almighty-ancient-technique-of-ho-
oponopono-first-edition-bruno-r-cignacco/
Playing with Ease
ii
Playing with Ease
A Healthy Approach to Guitar Technique
David Leisner
1
iv
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.
© Oxford University Press 2018
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Leisner, David, author.
Title: Playing with ease: a healthy approach to guitar technique / David Leisner.
Description: New York, NY: Oxford University Press, [2018] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017047703 | ISBN 9780190693305 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9780190693312 (pbk.) | ISBN 9780190693343 (oxford scholarly online)
Subjects: LCSH: Guitar—Performance—Physiological aspects.
Classification: LCC MT580.L35 2018 | DDC 787.87/193—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017047703
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Paperback printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada
Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
To my students, past, present and future, whose probing questions
and open minds teach me more than they can ever know
vi
When I let go of what I am, I become what I might be.

Lao Tzu
CONTENTS
Photo and Illustration Credits ix

Acknowledgments xi
About the Companion Website xiii
Introduction 1
1. Your Body and Your Instrument: Principles 11
2. Your Body and Your Instrument: Specifics 32
3. Basic Right-Hand Mechanics 65
4. Basic Left-Hand Mechanics 83
5. How to Play with the Large Muscles 102
6. Suggestions for Relaxed and Effective Practice 117
7. Preparing for a Concert 142
Index 153
vi
P H O T O A N D I L L U S T R AT I O N C R E D I T S
Photos by Simon Powis, simonpowisphotography.com

Illustrations by Jay Kauffman, jaykauffman.com
x
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
No undertaking like this book can be accomplished alone. It is only possible

with the help of family, friends, colleagues, professionals, and sometimes
even an angel or two. I have been extraordinarily fortunate to have had the
support and assistance of many remarkable people in the production of
this book.
Once I finished the first draft of the manuscript, four people contributed
their criticisms, suggestions, and observations. Heartfelt thanks to my
colleague at the Manhattan School of Music, Mark Delpriora, and current
student Andrew Mines for their thoughtful contributions; former student,
colleague, and friend Bradley Colten for his incredibly meticulous and re-
fined editing; and dear friend the writer-scholar Robert Oxnam for invalu-
able advice that helped broaden the scope of my writing.
From the time I first approached chief music editor Suzanne Ryan at
Oxford University Press until completion of the process, her delightful
enthusiasm for this project never flagged. Suzanne and her editorial assistant,
Jamie Kim, have both been always at the ready with help and advice on every
issue, from little details like file conversion to the big-picture issues of con-
tent. I am forever thankful for their solid support and expertise. I am also
extremely grateful to Rajesh Kathamuthu, a most accommodating project
manager, to copy editor Jane Zanichkowsky for her eagle-eye editing that
helped to refine my writing and to indexing assistant, Dave Belcher.
A word of special thanks goes to author-guitarist and former student
Glenn Kurtz for excellent professional advice which also led me to The
Authors Guild, which offered me yet more professional advice in even
greater detail.
From the initial conception of the book, my plan was to include photos,
illustrations, and videos. In order to accomplish this, I had three splendid
collaborators. A mountain of gratitude goes to guitarist, teacher, and pho-
tographer Simon Powis for his pristine photos, to guitarist, composer,
xi
teacher, and illustrator Jay Kauffman for his sensitive illustrations, and
to clarinetist, composer, and videographer Alexey Gorokholinskiy for
the clarity and calm of his video sessions. And special thanks go to Nina
D’Abbracci, my current Alexander Technique teacher, for specific help with
an important photo of exemplary spine and pelvis alignment.
I also happen to have had one of those rare angels appear in the form
of Brian Hays, guitarist and software developer, who so generously offered
the financial support for the creation of all these photos, illustrations, and
videos. Brian’s assistance had everything to do with the high quality of
each of these endeavors, and I am deeply indebted to him.
For his graceful, colorful artwork, I must say thank you to artist Michael
Adam Webster for the cover image, which provides the gateway to this book.
There are many references in this book to Alexander Technique, the
Feldenkrais Method, and yoga. My own original ideas are thoroughly
infused with knowledge and understanding gleaned from the study of these
three disciplines. I owe my first-rate teachers an ever-flowing fountain of
thanks for my brief study with Feldenkrais practitioner Clifford Shulman,
a year of private study with yoga teacher Richard Jonas, and seven years of
study with Alexander teacher Brian Kloppenberg. I’m quite sure that the
rewards of their teaching went far beyond what they imagined.
Although I am mostly self-taught, I had the great good luck to have
studied briefly with teachers who were and continue to be masterful
mentors, all of whom had either direct or indirect influence on the contents
of this book. I am forever grateful to Mildred Brown, my first guitar
teacher, John Duarte, David Starobin, violist Karen Tuttle, pianist John
Kirkpatrick, and pianist Seymour Bernstein, who was also an inspiring
model, on every level, for the writing of this book.
Some of my best teachers have always been and will always be my
students. They are my sounding board, my playground for ideas, my
challengers, and my inspiration to always do better. They have my lifelong
gratitude.
Finally, this list would be woefully incomplete without including my hus-
band, Ralph Jackson, partner of thirty-seven years as of this writing. For
this project he was a reader, prodder, advisor, photographer, and my Rock
of Gibraltar through every storm, both large and small. Thank you, dearest.
[ xii ] Acknowledgments
ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE
www.oup.com/us/playingwithease
Oxford University Press has created a website to accompany Playing with
Ease. When movements and concepts described in the book cannot be
demonstrated by either photos or illustrations, videos are provided on
the website. The reader is strongly encouraged to use these additional re-
sources for Chapters 1–5. The videos were filmed by Alexey Gorokholinskiy.
They are available online and indicated in the text with the symbol .
xvi
Playing with Ease
xvi
Introduction
EASE
Every musical instrument is hard to play. To juggle, balance, and remember

all that is necessary to play any instrument is a staggering feat of acro-
batics. It can only elicit admiration and awe from the knowing observer.
While the guitar is one of the easiest instruments at the beginner’s level, it
is one of the most difficult instruments at the more advanced stages. Think
about it: To begin with, the two hands do completely different things,
and to complicate matters, they face in opposite directions. The neck of
the instrument is usually placed at an odd angle to the side, tilted up and
away from the body, which makes for a rather dizzying spatial orientation.
Contrast this with the piano, for instance, whose keys are clearly laid out
horizontally in front of you. The guitar can also make you, the player, feel
very exposed and vulnerable, as the volume is rather quiet and there are
only six strings at your disposal. Missed notes can be quite obvious to a
listener. Also, there are times when you need to play two-or three-voice
counterpoint on these six strings, with only four fingers on the right hand
to pluck the notes. Playing the guitar is anything but easy.
Is it possible to make it easier? Of course. But it requires careful thought
and consideration, supported by knowledge and awareness, with the rein-
forcement of focused practice. My intention with this book is to offer you
some new ideas, as well as some familiar ones that are perhaps described
in novel ways, of how to play your instrument with greater ease. At the
very least, the book provides a systematic summary of the point of view
of one person, who has an abiding interest in the sensible management of
anatomy and of good physical health.
2
First, we might ask: what is ease? Playing with ease means playing with
a minimum of effort. There are two kinds of ease, physical and mental/psy-
chological. The two are interrelated. By working on one, you can affect the
other. You can train your mind or your emotions to think or feel something
that makes playing physically easier. Conversely, you can train your body to
work in ways that involve less physical effort, which also puts your mind or
emotions at ease. Both methods are effective. This book mostly offers advice
about working with the physical approach. At the same time, there is always
an awareness here of the positive consequences for the mind and the psyche
as well, not to mention for the music itself.
With so much intense concentration on physical ease, you might be con-
cerned about the risk of losing some musical energy. I once taught a master
class in Austria for the students of the splendid guitarist and teacher Leo
Witoszinski. As I worked intently with a physically convoluted student to
overcome his tension, Leo interrupted. He protested, “But this is like the
method of some facile actors whose primary goal is to be as relaxed as they
can be, and meanwhile all the emotion and intensity is lost.” It was a very
intelligent and well-taken comment, one that is often brought up by other
people. I replied by saying, “What actors like this are missing is the final stage
of bringing the depth and soul of their interpretation back after they have re-
laxed their tense, underlying physical habits. The ideal is to find a way of being
that is just as expressive without the unnecessary tension.” What we must
strive for is a balance between physical ease and musical engagement.
INJURY
In general, the level of physical tension of instrumentalists has run rampant.

A dean of a major North American music school told me about a recent orien-
tation meeting for new students. The large group of students was asked how
many of them currently had injuries. What percentage of them do you think
raised their hands?
Half of them!
In a frequently cited study from 2009 by music medicine specialist Dr. Alice
Brandfonbrener, 330 incoming freshman students at a Midwestern music
school were asked how many of them had a history of playing-related pain.
Seventy-nine percent did!1
1. Alice Brandfonbrener, “History of Playing-related Pain in 330 Freshman Music

Students,” Medical Problems of Performing Artists 24, no. 1 (March 2009): 30–36.
[2] Introduction
These findings are astonishing indications of the extraordinary pro-
liferation of injuries among musicians in recent times. The figures may
not even be fully representative because sometimes, musicians do not
realize that the numbness, awkwardness, or pain they are experiencing
is, in fact, an injury. And sometimes, even when they are aware of an
injury, they do not wish to report it. While musician injuries have been
documented for a long time, it seems that, since the second half of the
twentieth century, they have become something of an epidemic. Why is
this happening?
The answer probably lies in the fact that there has been an accumu-
lation of increasing demands on musicians in recent decades—to play
louder and faster, with more difficult repertoire, in larger concert halls,
and with a technical perfection like that of recordings. This has piled an
ever-greater amount of pressure on musicians, their bodies, and their
psyches. The need for a sturdier, more ergonomic approach to the playing
of instruments has never been more urgent. This includes a greater need
for the support of larger muscles because the smaller muscles are not ca-
pable of sustaining this increased workload. Chapter 5 teaches you how
to play with the larger muscle groups, and the rest of this book offers
plenty of advice on how to otherwise maintain good physical health while
playing your instrument. With all the increased demands mentioned
above, we must learn better ways of curing injury and, more important,
how to prevent it.
FOCAL DYSTONIA
Some of my more recent ideas on playing with ease emerged from my twelve
years of suffering with focal dystonia, from 1984 to 1996. Focal dystonia is
a mysterious condition in which fingers of either hand flex uncontrollably
into the palm, without pain. (With some people, the fingers can also extend
outward.) This aspect of painlessness distinguishes it from all other types
of musician injuries. The fingers are able to move slowly and awkwardly
back to normal position, but then they flex in again immediately upon use.
Hundreds, maybe thousands of musicians of all instruments suffer from
this debilitating condition, which often signals the end of playing their in-
strument. In my case, the right-hand ring finger was the primary one af-
fected, with the pinky and sometimes the middle finger flexing in as well. It
completely stopped my performing career for most of those twelve years.
While totally devastated on every level by this sinister condition, I pursued
one specialist after another, seeking a cure. I consulted practitioners of
Introduction [3]
4
Eastern medicine as well as Western. Unfortunately, no one was successful.

Curiously, they all noted that my technique seemed to be perfect from an
anatomical point of view.
To me, that was one of the mysterious aspects of my condition. I was
someone who had always thought carefully and accurately about the ana-
tomical considerations of playing. It would seem that I was an unlikely can-
didate for injury. How could this be happening to me? Perhaps, I thought, it
was because I was mostly self-taught. The longest period that I ever studied
with anyone was nine months (with composer-guitarist John Duarte). In
retrospect, I believe that being self-taught may have actually helped me
cure myself.
Certainly, there are pros and cons to teaching yourself. The cons in-
clude not having someone more experienced and knowledgeable to guide
you and give you a method or some systematic approach, having to always
rely on yourself for inspiration and fresh ideas, and the lack of a teaching
tradition that gives you a sense of belonging. The pros are the develop-
ment of independent and creative thinking, self-reliance, and the possi-
bility of originality. Because my physical instincts were generally reliable,
my technique was well-founded, and I never had an injury of any sort be-
fore 1984. In fact, I am proud to report that, in my forty years of profes-
sional teaching to date, not one of my students has ever been injured for
long while studying with me. If they ever did experience some minor injury,
I was always able to help resolve the issue within days or, at most, a couple
of weeks. While I certainly experienced both the benefits and obstacles of
being self-taught, the pros fortunately outweighed the cons, with respect
to my playing, teaching, and focal dystonia experience. That said, I would
not generally recommend self-teaching to anyone else, except the rare
person who appears driven to do this, as I was.
After failing to get myself cured by any of the various practitioners
I consulted, I turned inward to search for answers. Soon, in an unexpected
moment, I received initial inspiration from someone else. He was my
teaching colleague, Neil Anderson, at the New England Conservatory in
1992. I credit him with sparking the idea of using the large muscles to play
the guitar. He had just begun to experiment with this concept, and, during
a performance class, he showed a student a simple, basic way of engaging
the large muscles by swinging the arm to pluck a string. It struck me im-
mediately that this might have some relevance for me. It was just a kernel
of an idea, but I proceeded to take that golden kernel and develop, enlarge,
and refine it over the course of four years. My work paid off with steady
progress, and by 1996, I was completely cured. Ever since then, I have been
playing totally free of focal dystonia. I am also one of the few people in the
[4] Introduction
world who has been able to help and cure many others with focal dystonia
(not just guitarists, but players of all instruments, except brass). Bear in
mind that this condition is otherwise regarded by the medical establish-
ment as incurable!
OTHER LESSONS
As a matter of fact, even before my experience with dystonia I have had

the privilege of helping many people cure different kinds of playing
injuries. This is because of my lifelong interest in studying the relation-
ship of the body to playing the guitar, as well as other instruments, and
because I’ve been able to develop a good instinct for pinpointing the
source of physical injury. I have always been fascinated by the broader
anatomical and technical viewpoint, as well as the nuanced details, and
have continually searched for a system of understanding of how it all fits
together.
All this led me to consider the ease of virtuosity, which I then began to
observe in the master players of all instruments. The most virtuosic players
always made it look easy, as if there were no obstacles at all. I sensed that
this must be a combination of natural gifts and focused technical con-
sideration and work. My investigation led me to understand that this
ease could be attained with a thorough study of how the body functions
when playing an instrument and by taking advantage of its most natural
inclinations.
Most of the exercises and ideas presented in this book came from this
lifelong exploration, while my ideas about playing with the large muscles
arose from years of living with and ultimately curing focal dystonia. During
those years I continued to teach but could no longer demonstrate on the
guitar as much as I could before. This forced me to develop a more ver-
bally articulate way of expressing what I wanted to communicate, since
I was unable to demonstrate by playing. Even after curing myself, this re-
fined ability to describe and explain my ideas has stayed with me and has
improved my teaching.
A few years after the dystonia was cured, I developed some severe lower
back problems, which were helped immensely by the study of Alexander
Technique, Iyengar yoga, and a little bit of the Feldenkrais Method. As it
turned out, these three disciplines also deeply enriched my ideas about
playing the guitar and other instruments. Their influence can be observed
throughout this book. I am deeply grateful to these three great traditions
and their wise teachers.
Introduction [5]
6
LETTING GO
One underlying theme of this book is the importance of letting go. The
widely accepted work ethic—“no pain, no gain”—is at the root of the
problem of musicians’ expending too much effort too much of the time.
The belief that hard work can solve most problems contributes to the
judgment that taking the easy route is lazy. A corollary of this is the belief
that when you work hard, you gain control, but when you let go, you lose
control. This is simply not true. When you let go, you may lose control at
first, but the more you get used to it, the more control you gain. Everything
is easier once you let go, and that greater freedom allows you the ability
to control without feeling pressured. As long as you feel pressured, your
command of control is vulnerable at best.
Letting go means trusting nature—the nature of your body, mind, and
spirit. When nature is trusted, its wonders become self-evident. The de-
scription of how to breathe naturally in Chapter 2 is one instance of this.
When you know how to let the diaphragm work on its own, without any
artificial help or extra work, then breathing becomes a strong, natural
foundation for all that you do. The discussion of dead weight and its sig-
nificance, in Chapters 2 and 5, is another example. Less is more. If you do
too much work with the small muscles of the right forearm or the biceps
and triceps of the left mid-arm, you will make playing more difficult than
it needs to be. Yet another example in this book of the wisdom of letting
go is knowing when to put a piece aside in the process of practicing, as
mentioned in Chapter 6. If you work too hard on a piece for too long, the
law of diminishing returns becomes evident. But when you learn to let go
of the piece for a while, your progress can be much greater, partly due to the
fact that your mind and body naturally continue to assimilate the work you
have done, with no effort expended at all.
The theme of letting go, in fact, permeates this entire book. Knowing
how your body works and how it functions most effectively gives you the
information you need to let go. This serves the dual purpose of creating
a more secure technique that requires less effort and making you a more
expressive player with greater musical flexibility. The eminent violist and
teacher Karen Tuttle once told me, as she surely told all her students,
“Don’t make the music happen; let it happen.” Then she proceeded to show
me physical ways in which to accomplish this. In fact, I have always believed
that most goals can be achieved equally by working from the inside out
and by working from the outside in. For example, in order to be able to let
go while playing an instrument, you can either learn to develop a greater
inner awareness, respect, and understanding of letting go, in all its levels
[6] Introduction
of meaning, or you can learn about the various physical ways you can use
and move your body that will allow you to let go. There is no reason why you
cannot work on both approaches simultaneously.
HOW THIS BOOK IS ORGANIZED
Very often, students tell me, “I’ve never thought about that before.” It is
my intention in this book to bring these very issues to light, illuminating
many big ideas and small details that you may or may not have thought
about in the past, and synthesize them into a coherent, unified, and
memorable whole. This book will take you on a journey from basic prin-
ciples of movement and alignment to nuanced advice about specific parts
of the body as you play your instrument, to a method of right-and left-
hand guitar technique, to some innovative ideas about engaging the large
muscle groups, and finally to suggestions for both practicing and preparing
for a concert performance. My overall aim is to demonstrate how to ac-
complish all this with ease or how to find the path of least resistance, so
that the goal of making music can be as effortless and free as possible. The
basic premise is that this can be achieved with basic knowledge and under-
standing of the functions of the body and its movement, as well as some
careful thinking about the application of this information to all aspects of
playing, practicing, and performing.
The first two chapters contain the basic information you need. They
are concerned with these essentials: movement of the body at the joints,
alignment, release of unnecessary tension in the muscles, and flexibility.
The rationale of these early chapters is that if you think in these tangible,
physical terms, and if you apply your knowledge of them with awareness
and logical intelligence, then the difficulties of playing your instrument are
no longer shrouded in mystery. Certainly, thinking this way must always
be accompanied by the question: How does it feel? At the same time, in
making technical decisions, we might allow ourselves to be governed too
much by feeling, which can be informed by misguided instinct. It is best
when feeling and instinct are balanced with scientific knowledge and logic.
I suggest that you read this book slowly. There is a lot to absorb here,
maybe the equivalent of twenty private lessons or more. You will surely
want to space out those “lessons” and give each one time to sink in, so that
it has its maximum impact. On the other hand, you might wish to first
read through the book relatively quickly for an overview and then go back
to immerse yourself in a slower and closer study of the details. Whichever
method you choose, there is a tremendous density of information here,
Introduction [7]
8
and some of it may be radically different from what you know or believe, so
give it time and space. Also, be sure to try things out as you proceed. There
is no substitute for experiencing the results directly.
Much of the technical advice offered here, especially in Chapter 5, is first
demonstrated in an exaggerated manner. Never be afraid to exaggerate,
both in the abstract exercise and in its practical application to a piece of
music. This is when the true learning takes place. Once the exaggeration is
mastered, then you must return to a normal amount of motion, and with
the new technique assimilated. This is the hard part—making sure that the
new technical approach remains, without the exaggeration.
Because of the abundance of information in this book, I have chosen
to highlight in italics the statements I wish to particularly emphasize, so
that the most important statements do not get lost in the web of details.
Comments from personal experience are in text boxes, in order to sepa-
rate them from the teaching material. The accompanying photos and
illustrations will help clarify details that are difficult to describe completely
in words. There are also short supporting videos, available online at http://
global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780190693312/. Be sure to
spend time with the supporting materials.
Another consequence of the abundance of information offered is that
I often try to keep explanations as simple as they can be. Sometimes I in-
tentionally avoid going into too much background or descriptive detail. For
instance, when describing various aspects of the anatomy, I give only the
information I think you will need to understand how it applies to playing
your instrument—no more, no less. Otherwise, you might get bogged
down in excessive detail and lose sight of the intended goal. Another ex-
ample is the Alexander Technique idea of “body mapping,” which is used
often throughout the book, but is only superficially described as a con-
cept here. It is a very broad subject. Entire books have been written about
it. Again, my aim is to give you just enough information to be useful in
this context. Yet another example is my brief description of the Tadasana
(Mountain) yoga pose, which should properly be described in much greater
detail than I do here. I choose to give just the minimum amount of infor-
mation needed in order to do a simple stretch in between practice sessions.
Human anatomy, Alexander Technique, and yoga are deep areas of study,
with many books devoted to each. If my touching these subjects catches
your interest, I hope that you will explore these well-documented areas
more deeply on your own.2
2. Three books that I have found especially helpful are: Wynn Kapit and Lawrence
M. Elson, The Anatomy Coloring Book (London: Pearson, 2014; originally published as
[8] Introduction
Finally, this book is essentially intended primarily for guitarists.
However, except for Chapters 3 and 4 on right-and left-hand guitar tech-
nique, all of the chapters are applicable to other instrumentalists as well.
I sincerely hope that any instrumentalist might find this book useful.
DANGERS
Writing a book like this is somewhat dangerous. First of all, by discussing

technical matters in a rather definitive way, I am throwing myself into
the hornet’s nest of diverging opinions about technique. There are many
different schools of technique in the guitar world, just as there are in the
instrumental world in general, and each school has its staunch defenders
and critics. The stronger the opinion, the more closely held it is, and the
less receptive its owner might be to any idea that represents a different or
opposing point of view. The guitar world’s perspective, in particular, can
sometimes be narrow, compared to that of the piano world, for example,
where differing points of view are taken for granted, if only because there
are so many pianists. Indeed, contrary opinions are to be expected. As you
read this book, I hope that you will keep your mind as open as possible,
even if the ideas may be quite unlike, or even fundamentally different from,
what you have thought or experienced until now.
There are, indeed, some fairly radical ideas here, like the large muscle
approach, the concept of dead weight, the importance of the thumb pad,
the relaxation of facial muscles, and the notion of giving rest to pieces for
a long time. Because they might be different from what you may have prac-
ticed or believed until now, these ideas may be far outside your comfort
zone. But sometimes those are the very things that can help you the most,
so please give each concept enough time to prove itself.
There will also surely be a lot of concepts in this book with which you
are already familiar. However, sometimes people fall into the trap of
recognizing only that which they know already, thereby losing an opportu-
nity to learn something new. In addition to staying open to the new ideas,
when you come across something that is familiar, you might notice that
the way it is described may be different from how you have described it or
heard it described before, and perhaps that difference of detail sheds some
new light on the subject.
New York: Harper & Row, 1977); Barbara Conable, How to Learn the Alexander Technique
(Columbus, OH: Andover Press, 1991); and Silva, Mira and Shyam Mehta, Yoga, the
Iyengar Way (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010).
Introduction [9]
01
Communicating technical and physical concepts mostly in written

words, as opposed to demonstrating them in-person during a class or pri-
vate lesson, is also a risky proposition. I trust that the supporting photos,
illustrations, and website videos will clarify any questions you might have.
Naturally, weekly private lessons are the best way to convey these ideas,
but a carefully considered book in the hands of a thoughtful, attentive
reader—one who is open to deep investigation of new concepts—should
be a reasonable substitute.
ALL ROADS LEAD TO THE MUSIC
While the central issues of this book are physical and technical matters,
there is almost always an inextricable connection to the music itself. After
all, technique exists only to serve music. Throughout my many years of
teaching both private lessons and public master classes, I have witnessed
again and again that miraculous moment when a student conquers a tech-
nical problem or a physical bad habit, and, lo and behold, without any delib-
erate intention, the music suddenly blooms. For example, when you sit with
better alignment, you have a more direct relationship to the music you play,
and the sound gets bigger. When you move with greater flexibility, your
phrasing becomes more fluid. Allowing your shoulders and upper back to
release tension brings more expressive freedom to the music and allows it
to sound less forced. The more naturally you learn to breathe while playing,
the more the music itself breathes. The less tension you have in your right-
and left-hand technique, the more the music flows effortlessly and with
energy. When large muscles are engaged properly, there is a broader sense
of musical architecture and overall freedom of expression. And when both
practicing and concert preparation are accomplished with an underlying at-
titude of ease, your musical interpretation organically grows to its greatest
potential. These are the kind of results that are best harvested without in-
tention but, rather, observed as a beautiful surprise, like when the seeds
you have planted have suddenly come to full flower.
[ 10 ] Introduction
CHAPTER 1
Your Body and Your

Instrument: Principles
D etails are essential. It is not enough to be told to “relax” or to “sit up

straight.” This is the same as being told to play a phrase “more musi-
cally.” What does that really mean? You need to have more specific informa-
tion before you can benefit from the advice. Likewise, in order to use your
body effectively and with a sense of well-being, it would be wise to learn
more about the human anatomy in general, and specific parts of the body
as well. This knowledge will teach you how to prevent injury and how to
accomplish your technical and musical goals with the best possible results.
What follows is a good deal of detailed information about your body as it
relates to playing your instrument—general principles in this chapter and
specific information and advice in the next. You may use this information
to understand how to partner intelligently with your body in order to play
your instrument with the greatest amount of ease.
MOVEMENT, JOINTS, AND THE MID-R ANGE
Just as you need to speak the language of music in order to discuss its
interpretation, you need to speak the language of movement in order to
consider the effective use of the body. It is quite simple. There are only a
few words and concepts you should know to be able to speak this language.
Movement of the body occurs at the joints. The joints are the places
where the bones meet. Some of the important joints involved in playing
an instrument are the three joints of each finger, the wrist, the elbow, the
shoulder, the head and neck, the hip, the knee, and the ankle. Each joint
21
allows several different kinds of motion. For playing an instrument, the

most essential of these are
flexion—moving toward the next segment of the body; for example,

when the finger flexes, it moves toward the palm (photo 1.1) and
Photo 1.1. Index finger flexing
extension—moving away from the next segment of the body; for

example, when the finger extends, it moves away from the palm
(photo 1.2).
Photo 1.2. Index finger extending
[ 12 ] Playing with Ease

There are also other kinds of motion:
abduction—moving away, in a side-to-side direction, for example,

when the index finger moves away from the middle finger
(photo 1.3)
Photo 1.3. Index finger abducting
adduction—moving toward, in a side-to-side direction, for example,

when the index finger moves toward the middle finger (photo 1.4)
Photo 1.4. Index finger adducting
Yo u r B o d y a n d Yo u r I n s t r u m e n t: P r i n c ip l e s [ 13 ]
41
elevation—lifting up, like shrugging your shoulders up (photo 1.5)
Photo 1.5
depression—lowering, like shrugging your shoulders straight down

(photo 1.6)
Photo 1.6

pronation—rotating your arm, for example, inward toward your
torso, from the elbow or shoulder joint (photo 1.7)
Photo 1.7
supination—rotating your arm, for example, outward away from

your torso, from the elbow or shoulder joint (photo 1.8)
rotation—moving your arm from the shoulder in a circle, for ex-
ample (photo 1.9).
For the moment, let’s only concern ourselves with flexion and exten-
sion. In-between the extremes of flexing and extending there is the neu-
tral state, or mid-range of motion. The mid-range of motion for all joints is
always optimal. Flexing creates a kind of tension, even if it is a very small
amount. With a lot of repetition, flexing can create a large amount of
tension. Extending can be a kind of release, but in some cases it creates
tension as well. With a lot of repetition, extension can also create a large
amount of tension. The mid-range of motion creates a state of stability
61
Photo 1.8
Photo 1.9

and rest. Therefore, the mid-range is where we want the joints to be most of
the time, when possible.
Fingers
Consider the fingers, for example. Your right-hand fingers are curled into
playing position, ready to strike a string.1 In order to pluck the string,
you need to flex your finger in toward your palm. Then, the finger extends
away from the palm so that it can get ready to pluck the next note.
However, the finger is the least tense and most rested when it is in between
flexion and extension, which is called its “mid-range” or “neutral” position
(photo 1.10).
Photo 1.10
Take this idea a bit further, and you will understand that, in order to avoid
flexion or extension too much of the time, you want to keep your fingers
in their mid-range or neutral position most of the time. For the right hand,
this means a quick release of the fingers back to the neutral position as much as
possible. For the left hand, this means that it is always best to keep the fingers
1. Throughout this book, a left-

handed player will need to translate to the
opposite hand.
81
off the fingerboard whenever possible because when they are down on the
fingerboard, they are flexed and somewhat tensed. This small amount of
tension, when multiplied by the hundreds or thousands of finger strokes in
both hands that one does in the playing of a piece, adds up to a good deal
of unnecessary tension.
Wrist
The wrist is flexed when it is bent toward the underside of the forearm.
This stretches tendons and ligaments beyond the optimal comfort zone
and taxes the flexor muscles, which are located on the underside of the
forearm. The wrist is extended when it is bent toward the upper side of the
forearm. This also overstretches the tendons and ligaments and overuses
the extensor muscles on the forearm’s upper side. The wrist is happiest by
far in the mid-range area. It is just as disadvantageous, if not downright
dangerous, for the left hand to overflex or overextend the wrist as it is for
the right hand. This is essential knowledge for the prevention of injury. The
wrist of both hands should be flat (straight) or as close to flat as can be in any
given situation (photo 1.11a and b).
(a)
Photo 1.11a. Flat right wrist

(b)
Photo 1.11b. Flat left wrist
Elbow
The elbow’s mid-range position occurs when the forearm and the mid-
arm (the next segment of the arm, between the elbow and the shoulder
joints) are at a right angle to each other. When the elbow is flexed (bent
toward the torso), it makes the arm work with excessive tension, espe-
cially in the flexor muscles on the arm’s underside. When it is extended
(bent away from the torso), it is mostly released, but with a small amount
of tension when the fingers are moving. The optimum balance, as always,
is at the mid-range. Think about the application of this idea in your right
arm, and check to see that the positioning of your guitar and your hand
allows for an approximate right angle between your forearm and mid-arm
(photo 1.12).
Then check your left arm to see if your positioning of the guitar and
your arm allow for the same right angle between forearm and mid-arm
(photo 1.13).
In fact, most guitar players that I have witnessed have both elbows, es-
pecially the left, overly flexed. Over time, this excess tension adds up and
can cause injury.
02
Photo 1.12
Photo 1.13
Hip
The hip joint functions best at its mid-range as well (surprise!), when torso and
leg are at right angles to each other (photo 1.14).

Photo 1.14
(When both feet are on the floor, this works best; when a footstool is used,
this advantageous position is compromised because the hip joint is forced
to flex.) When you are leaning forward, past the mid-range point, you are
flexing the hip joint and causing it to work harder. Leaning back, beyond
the mid-range point, might be a release, but you are then no longer sitting
on your sitting bones, and this is disadvantageous (a more detailed discus-
sion of this may be found in section “Sitting Bones” section, p. 24). Most
guitarists tend to overflex at the hip joint, especially under the duress of
performance. The combination of nervousness, excitement, and musical
intensity makes many players lean quite far forward from the hip joint.
This creates a tremendous amount of unnecessary tension.
Knee and Ankle
The knee and ankle joints function together. When you are sitting down and
the knee is flexed (leg bent toward the torso), the ankle automatically flexes.
This creates tension in both joints, as well as excessive tension in the shin
2
and calf muscles. When you are sitting down with the knee extended (leg bent
away from the torso), the ankle automatically extends, creating a release in
both joints but creating a slight tension in the shin muscles. Once again,
the healthiest position is at the mid-range. This is another reason why playing
with a footstool is disadvantageous, as it forces the knee joint to flex the
entire time you are playing. The ankle joint is also flexed if your footstool
is angled upward on the toe side. The joint is still in its mid-range if angled
only very slightly down on the toe side, and, of course, it is extended if it
is angled much further down on the toe side. If you use any of the recent
inventions that raise the guitar rather than the leg, then your feet are flat on
the ground, creating the happy mid-range position for both knee and ankle
joints for the entire duration of your playing. Ergonomically considered, any
of the guitar supports that allow both of your feet to be flat on the ground are pref-
erable to the footstool. Using the footstool causes your lower back to torque or
twist the entire time you are playing, and that is a frequent instigator of low
back pain. At the same time, be wary of supports that bring the guitar too far
over to the left, causing an imbalance in the workings of both arms.
Photo 1.15

Considering the right leg, if you have it in a flexed position under-
neath your chair, you are not only undesirably flexing the knee joint but
the ankle joint as well. If you extend the leg out in front of you, that’s not
bad, but, as usual, the mid-range, or right-angle, position is always best.
The knee and ankle joints should ideally be more-or-less in right-angle position
(photo 1.15).
ALIGNMENT AND FLEXIBILITY
First, it is important to know that curves, not straight lines, indicate proper
alignment of the spine. When the spine is in correct alignment, there are
slight natural curves at the neck (cervical spine), the middle of the back
(thoracic spine), and the lower back (lumbar spine). At the neck, the nat-
ural curve is inward. A straight line here would indicate tension in the back
of the neck and compression in the front, with a lowered chin (ill. 1.1).
(a) (b)
Misaligned spine with straight lines Aligned spine with curves
Ill. 1.1
At the mid-back, the natural curve is outward. A straight line here indicates
excessive curvature and tension in the low back, while the head and neck are
thrown backward. Finally, at the low back, the natural curve is inward again.
If this region were straightened, there would be a forward slump in the
shoulders, head, and neck. Try out these different positions, both curved
and straight, and you will clearly feel the difference. The three natural curves
help balance, de-stress, and protect the spine, and help support natural breathing
(as discussed in Chapter 2, section “Diaphragm and Breathing”, p. 51).
Now, let’s look at the overall alignment of the body, starting from the
feet and working our way up to the head.
42
Feet and Legs
The feet and legs should feel their weight falling into the floor (or footstool,
if you use one). The concept of falling is very important. When any part of
your body is falling, it is not exerting any effort. When the legs or feet, for
example, have the sensation of falling, they are not actively using any mus-
cles. They are at rest and feel gently rooted in the ground. Most guitarists
have the bad habit of lifting their legs at the heel, often rocking back and
forth as they lift one heel and then the other. The excessive tension that
this creates in the calf muscles becomes quite an extreme exertion, and
that tension extends all the way up the torso and into the arms and hands.
Sitting Bones
When you are sitting, the base of support for your entire upper body is in your
sitting bones. These bones are the bony protuberances at the bottom of your
pelvis (ill. 1.2).
Sitting Bones
Ill. 1.2
They are curved and allow you to rock back and forth on them. If you sit and
slowly lean forward with your whole torso, you’ll feel the moment when
you move off of your sitting bones. Likewise, if you slowly lean backward
with your whole torso, you can feel the place in the back of those bones
where you have moved off them. Another way to identify your sitting bones
is to sit on your hands and move the torso forward and back. When you feel
the bones protruding the most into your hands, you are sitting exactly on top of
your sitting bones. You have just discovered the correct balance, forward-to-
back, on your sitting bones.

You can now find the correct side-to-side balance. This is easy. Simply
rock from left to right and vice-versa, feeling the changing distribution of
weight on the two sitting bones. Then find the place where the weight is
evenly distributed on both sitting bones. When you find the balance of both
forward-to-back and side-to-side at the same time, you are sitting correctly on
your sitting bones.
Sacrum and Sternum
Moving up a bit further, we arrive at the sacrum. The sacrum is the rather
large, triangular-shaped bone at the base of your spine, with the tip of the
triangle at the bottom (ill. 1.3).
Sacrum
Tailbone
Ill. 1.3
Just below it is the tailbone. Put your fingers or thumb on the sacrum and
push it gently down. Keeping your sacrum in place, move your attention up
to the sternum (breastbone). The sternum is the flat bone that runs from
your clavicle (collar bone) to the bottom of your ribcage in the front center
of your torso. While keeping the sacrum down, lift the sternum up (photo 1.16).
This creates a desirable traction of the spine, making the spine as long as
it can be. Once you find this traction, release any excess tension you might feel
in your shoulders, chest, and lower back. At the same time, make sure that your
head is not tilted back and your chin is parallel to the ground and not pointing
up. With the sternum up, your chest is facing slightly upward, not straight
ahead. I call it “worshipping the sun.”
Most people sit with their sacrum up and sternum down, which
compresses the spine, collapses the chest, drops the head forward and
down, and makes breathing rather labored. This is the classic slouch! On
the other hand, with your sacrum down and sternum up, your spine has
62
Photo 1.16
a healthy length, and the entire torso has proper support for breathing,
balance, and stability. You may notice that this alters how much of the fin-
gerboard you can see. When you’re sitting correctly, you can only see one
or two bass strings when looking at the fingerboard. You may choose to
modify this by slightly angling the upper bout of the instrument in toward
you. But be aware that the more you angle it toward you, the more you put
your left hand at a disadvantage, so be as conservative with the angling as
possible.
I cannot emphasize enough how important is the practice of sitting

sacrum-down and sternum- up. For most of my playing life, I have
struggled with the issue of aligning the back. I had an approximate sense
of what felt right, but my lower back continued to bother me after a
fair amount of practicing. Even after seven years of studying Alexander
Technique, which was beneficial and revelatory in every other way, this
problem never quite went away. The Alexander directive was to bring
the head up and forward so that the back could lengthen and widen. No

doubt, it was a misunderstanding of mine, but somehow I still never felt
completely secure in the correct alignment of my back. Later, when I took
private yoga lessons, I learned about a different approach to lengthening
the spine, which was to bring the sacrum down while directing the
sternum upward. Immediately, I understood how to align my back the
moment I sat down in a chair and played the guitar. My confusion and
misunderstanding were finally resolved into clarity.
Shoulders
Now consider the shoulders. They should have the sensation of floating on
top of the ribcage. Don’t pull them up (elevate) or push them down (de-
press), but rather just rest them freely in their mid-range of motion. Many
instrumentalists elevate their shoulders, producing a great deal of tension,
not only in the shoulders themselves but in the entire upper and middle
back, as well as the arms. Often, in conjunction with this, the head is
hunched down. The combination of the raised shoulders and hunched head
looks like a scared turtle. This creates a disaster zone of your whole upper
torso, making you a certain candidate for injury. So, rather than promoting
that scenario, let your shoulders float.
Head
Speaking of the head, let us turn our attention to this important part of
your body, crucial to its overall alignment. To allow your head to be free
and unencumbered, start by thinking of a string attached to the top of
your head, pulling you up toward the ceiling. Think of it as attached not at
the back of the top of your head, which would raise the back of your head and
lower your chin, but rather at the middle of the top of your head, which keeps
the chin parallel to the ground. Don’t pull the imaginary string taut, but in-
stead, pull it up gently, so that the neck muscles stay loose. Then let your head
hang comfortably, aware of its weight, suspended by the imaginary string. This
is a simple and effective way to keep your head from crunching down or
leaning forward, both of which are common, major deterrents to playing
with ease.
Most heads weigh around ten to twelve pounds, which is quite heavy.
With only a slightly forward tilt of 15 degrees, the neck muscles have to
work with a force of more than double the weight. Leaning the head for-
ward 30 degrees causes the neck muscles to work with a force of about forty
pounds. And at a 60-degree lean, the stress equivalent is sixty pounds! So,
82
it really is essential to keep your head directly over your shoulders, up

and free.
Posture
You may notice that I rarely use the word “posture” in this book. That is be-
cause this word often has an unhealthy association—the image of so-called
military posture—a kind of tense, rigid holding of the body. “Alignment” is
a healthier alternative. However, when it comes to describing the general
concept of body positioning or stance, of which alignment is one impor-
tant facet, the word “posture” becomes uniquely useful. So when I do write
“posture,” I want you to have the image in your mind of an unstressed body,
one that is at ease.
Flexibility
That stated, we can now say: Good posture = alignment + flexibility.

Alignment alone is not sufficient for healthy posture. Once you un-
derstand the nature of correct alignment as discussed above, it is also
important to know that holding on to your aligned position can create
another kind of tension. This is because holding any position can easily
turn into rigidity. There needs to be fluidity in your body’s movement such
that you know where true alignment is but can move easily around it, using
it as a center. For example, when you consider alignment in the up-
down axis, your torso might be allowed to collapse and straighten a bit,
starting from your pelvis, in an undulating movement, while your neck
is kept free. In side-to-side movement, you can allow your upper back to
go in one direction while the pelvis moves in the other, creating a similar
slight undulation, again while keeping your neck free. Whichever way
you move, your pelvis originates the movement, straight lines vanish, and
there is flexibility in all parts of your torso, neck and head (see video 1.1 on
the OUP website ).
Experiment with this kind of fluid movement, first away from your in-
strument, and then with it. In the beginning, it will surely be disorienting
and distract you from accurate playing, but the more you get used to moving
this way, exaggerated at first and then more subtly, the more confident you will
be. It might seem counterintuitive, but ultimately, with this looseness
and flexibility of movement in your torso, your technical accuracy will im-
prove and be even better than it was before. This is because you are no

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
5 A Study of Maya Art, 1913, p. 225. ↑
6 See his commentaries on the several codices, passim. ↑
7 See Torquemada, bk. vi, c. 24. ↑
8 Sahagun, III, c. 4; Anales de Quauhtitlan. ↑
9 On Quetzalcoatl generally see Sahagun, passim; Torquemada, vol. i, p. 254; Motolinia, tom. i,
pp. 10–11; and Mendieta, passim. ↑
10 Consult bibliography to chapter ix of H. B. Alexander’s North American Mythology. Boston,
1916. ↑
11 Sahagun, bk. vi, c. viii. ↑
12 See appendix on Tonalamatl. ↑
13 See chapter on Cosmogony. ↑
14 Seler, Codex Vaticanus B, 1902–3, p. 174. ↑
15 In many cosmogonies—Hindu, Babylonian, Chinese, Scandinavian, for example—the earth is
formed from the remains of a slain monster or living being. ↑
16 See section on Tlaloc. ↑
17 Payne in his History of the New World called America, vol. i, 1892, pp. 424 ff., was the first to
indicate the “fetishtic” nature of this statue, which he identifies as that of Chicomecoatl. He pours
the vials of scorn upon “the Italian dilettante Boturini” for his identification of the block as
Uitzilopochtli-Teoyaomiqui. He further states that it “has no limbs,” but its large, scaly dragon-legs
are at least as obvious as his lack of success in giving the sculpture its proper name. ↑
18 See my article “Cherokees” in Hastings’ Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, vol. iii, p. 504. ↑
19 See Brinton, Nagualism. ↑
20 Anales de Quauhtitlan (Brasseur, Hist. Nat. Civ. de Mex., vol. i, pp. 400 ff.). ↑
21 Codex Vaticanus, 1902–3, p. 75. ↑
22 For much Mexican star-lore of value see Seler’s Venus Period in the Picture-Writings of the
Borgia Codex Group, translated into English in Bulletin 28 of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
pp. 355 ff. For the myth see section on Cosmogony. ↑
23 Bk. ii, c. 4. ↑
24 See Appendix on Tonalamatl. ↑
25 Sahagun, bk. ii, Appendix. ↑
26 Clavigero, Storia del Messico, vol. i, bk. vi, p. 257 (English translation). ↑
27 The native name for Mexico, signifying “Place upon the water.” ↑
28 Monarq. Ind., tom. ii, p. 525. ↑
29 Hist. Mex., tom. i, pp. 291–2. ↑
30 See the section on Tlaloc. ↑
31 Notes on the Shushwap People of British Columbia, “Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal
Society of Canada,” 1891, vol. ix, sect. ii. Montreal, 1892. ↑
32 Sahagun, Hist. Gen., bk. ii, c. xiv. ↑
33 Hist. de Tlaxcallan, c. v. ↑
34 See Section on Itzpapalotl. ↑
36 See Sahagun, bk. i, c. 6. ↑
38 Torquemada, bk. viii, c. 13. ↑
39 Although some of the old authors, Bernal Diaz for instance, say explicitly that the gods of one
city were not recognized in another, in effect they were, only under other names. ↑
[Contents]
CHAPTER II
COSMOGONY
Accounts of the creation of the world and of man, even as handed down to us by
those writers on Mexican mythology who had the best opportunities for collecting
them, are prone to vagueness, and differ so materially one from another that we will
probably not be in error if we impute their inconsistencies to a variety of local
origins. As regards the agencies by whom the creation or reconstruction of the earth
was accomplished, we are not in doubt, for certain passages in the Interpretative
Codices find almost exact corroboration in the creation story contained in the Popol
Vuh, the mythic book of the Quiche of Guatemala (which was unknown to the
interpreters of the Mexican Codices), as well as in similar works of Maya origin.
The interpreter of the Codex Telleriano-Remensis states that the god Tonacatecutli,
“when it appeared good to him, breathed and divided the waters of the heavens and
the earth, which at first were all confused together, and disposed them as they now
are.” 1 Further, “he breathed and begot Quetzalcoatl, not by connection with a
woman, but by his breath alone.” 2 The first of these deities, and his female
counterpart Tonacaciuatl, are almost certainly spoken of in the Popol Vuh as “the
serpents covered with green feathers,” which, farther on in the Quiche work, are
alluded to as Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, gods who are generally admitted to be the
same as the Mexican Oxomoco and Cipactonal, who, again, are either identical
with or closely connected with Tonacatecutli and his spouse. 3 Quetzalcoatl, [37]too,
appears in the Popol Vuh as Gucumatz, a known Quiche equivalent or translation
of his name, for as “wind” or “breath” he was also thought of as “spirit” or “life,” and
probably his fecundating efficacy as a water-bearing god was also taken into
consideration. In the Sahagun MS. in the Academia de la Historia, Madrid, is a
passage which reads when translated: “They say that he made, created, and
formed us whose creatures we are, Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, and he made the
heaven, the sun, the earth.” The Anales de Quauhtitlan or Codex Chimalpopca, 4
too, relates how Quetzalcoatl created the four classes of humanity, the men of the
four “suns” or periods of the world, and how men were made by him on the day “7
wind,” and, as we shall see, the work of creation in detail is alluded to in the Historia
de los Mexicanos por sus Pinturas, as effected by him and by Tezcatlipocâ. Lastly,
we find in the Creative Council of the Quiche heaven, Hurakan, who is none other
than Tezcatlipocâ, a deity closely connected with Quetzalcoatl in at least one
Mexican creation myth.
[Contents]
THE “AGES” OF MEXICAN COSMOGONY
Having thus satisfied ourselves regarding the creative personnel of the Mexican
pantheon, and preserving further proof of the constructive character of certain of
these deities until we come to discuss them individually, we may proceed to
examine such myths as tell of the formation of the world. In the belief of the
Mexicans the earth was not destined to receive its present inhabitants, although
occupied by man-like beings, until it had undergone a series of cataclysms or partial
destructions, regarding the precise incidence and even the number of which there is
a marked difference of opinion on the part of the older authorities.
The interpreter of the Codex Vaticanus states that “in the first age” (or “Sun,” as
these periods were called by the Nahua of Mexico) “water reigned until at last it
destroyed [38]the world.… This age, according to their computation, lasted 4,008
years, and on the occurrence of that great deluge they say that men were changed
into fish, named Tlacamichin, which signifies men-fish.” 5 The second age, he tells
us, lasted for 4,010 years and the world was ended by the force of violent winds,
the catastrophe concluding by the transformation of men into apes. The third age
endured for 4,801 years and ended in a universal fire, and in the fourth, which
occupied 5,042 years, the human race, which had never ceased to transmit a few
survivors from one of these epochs to the next, was almost destroyed by famine.
In his Historia Chichimeca 6 Ixtlilxochitl calls the first of these epochs Atonatiuh
(Water Sun), in which all men perished by a great inundation. The second epoch,
Tlachitonatiuh (Earth Sun), ended with violent earthquakes. In this age lived
gigantic beings called Quinames. The third epoch was Ecatonatiuh, or “Sun of
Wind,” in which edifices, trees, and men were nearly all destroyed by hurricanes,
those who remained being changed into creatures of an intelligence so low as to be
almost indistinguishable from monkeys. 7 The Texcucan chronicler does not furnish
us with the name of the present age in his Historia, nor in his Relaciones, 8 where,
however, we receive fuller information regarding the first three epochs, which he
succeeds in carelessly transposing, giving the third the second place.
THE GREAT CALENDAR STONE OF MEXICO.
(Now in the Museo Naçional, Mexico.)
Camargo 9 would almost appear to have been indebted to Ixtlilxochitl for his version
of the creation myth, but he seems to have been under the impression that only two
of the epochs were ended. That three past cataclysms had taken place and that
four ages in all had occurred is, indeed, the most generally favoured version of the
story, but some [39]authorities seem to have been of the opinion that a myth was
current among the Mexican people which stated that no less than five epochs had
taken place in the history of the world. Gama, Gomara, and Humboldt share this
view, and Mendieta is of opinion that five “suns” existed before the present era, all
of which were of such noxious character that the inhabitants of the earth languished
and perished through their baneful influence.
But we have more stable authority for the sequence of these “suns” or epochs. It is
probable that this cataclysmic theory was in vogue among the Nahua for
generations before it received a more or less definite form, and, indeed, Veytia 10
and Ixtlilxochitl 11 state that the number of suns was agreed upon at a meeting of
native astronomers within traditional memory. We are probably following the official
version of the myth if we accept that to which the so-called calendar-stone of
Mexico gives sculptured form and which may be interpreted as follows: While the
world was still wrapped in primeval gloom, the god Tezcatlipocâ transformed
himself into the sun. This epoch, which was known as Naui Ocelotl or “Four
Jaguar,” ended in the destruction of humanity and the race of giants who then
inhabited the earth by fierce jaguars. Quetzalcoatl became the second sun, and the
age of Naui Eecatl or “Four Wind” ended in violent hurricanes, during which men
were transformed into monkeys. Tlaloc then took upon himself the task of providing
the world with light, and his epoch of Naui Quiauitl or “Four Rain” came to an end
by means of a deluge of fire. The goddess Chalchihuitlicue represented the sun of
the age Naui Atl, “Four Water,” at the end of which there descended a deluge in
which men were changed into fishes. Later there appeared the present sun, Naui
Olin, which, it was believed, would end in earthquakes.
[Contents]
THE MAKING OF THE EARTH
The second chapter of the Historia de los Mexicanos por [40]sus Pinturas, a précis
of the opening chapters of which is given farther on, states that the gods “created a
great fish which is called the Cipactli, which is like the cayman [alligator], and of this
fish they made the earth.”
The description of the earth-monster, as it appears in the Codices, as an alligator or

sword-fish is, however, by no means convincing. Moreover, the sculptured
representation of the earth-monster in Maya art, especially in such examples as
that from Copan, is essentially dragon-like in form, and there would seem to be little
difficulty in classing the Cipactli as an earth-dragon, similar in nature to the cosmic
monster of Chinese art and mythology. The fact, too, that in the native paintings we
frequently observe the sun-god in the act of being swallowed by the Cipactli
strengthens the analogy with the Chinese example.
The Jaguar-sun.
The Wind-sun.
STONES SHOWING THE SYMBOLS OF THE “SUNS” OR AGES.
[Contents]
THE PEOPLING OF THE EARTH
The precise manner in which the earth was peopled by the gods is also a subject
concerning which great variety of opinion is shown by the older writers on Mexican
beliefs, and, as in the case of the cosmogonic myth proper, this is probably to be
accounted for by local variation. Mendieta 12 is our authority for a conception which
appears to have gained wide currency in many parts of Mexico. There is good
evidence that he in turn received it from Andres de Olmos, a friar of great literary
integrity and linguistic capability, whose writings we may regard with credence and
confidence. The myth opens in the heavenly abode of the gods Citlalatonac and
Citlalicue, who were also known as Ometecutli and Omecihuatl or Tonacatecutli and
Tonacaciuatl, and whom the Mexicans regarded as the eventual sources of all
human life. The goddess gave birth to a flint knife, probably such an implement as
was employed for the purpose of human sacrifice. The circumstance appeared of
bad omen to her sons, who, scandalized by it, cast the flint earthwards. It fell in the
vicinity of Chicomoztoc, the Place of Seven Caves, [41]and immediately there
sprang from it an army of sixteen hundred gods, who, discontented with their
condition, dispatched Tlotli, the Hawk, as an ambassador to the heavenly sphere to
ask as a boon that the power of creating men might be conferred upon them, as it
was not fitting that beings of divine origin should suffer the miseries of earthly toil.
Their mother, who also seems to have been perplexed by the manner of their birth,
replied in no very gracious terms. But in order to relieve their wretchedness, she
directed them to seek the good offices of Mictlantecutli, Lord of the Realm of the
Dead, from whom, she suggested, they might obtain some of the relics of past
generations, which, if subjected to the magical influence of sacrifice, might provide
the beginnings of a new earth-race. After consultation, the earth-gods chose
Xolotl 13 as their messenger to the place of the dead, and after an interview with its
terrible ruler, he succeeded in obtaining a bone of superhuman dimensions. Fearful
of treachery at the hands of Mictlantecutli, Xolotl turned to flee, but was pursued
and, falling in his flight, broke in pieces the precious relic he carried. These he
hastily gathered up and succeeded in quitting the subterranean world without
mishap. Returning to his brothers, he placed the bone in a vessel, and each of the
earth-gods, drawing blood from his own body, dropped it into the receptacle. For
three days nothing occurred to justify their hopes; but on the fourth the gory mass
stirred, and from its depths there emerged a human boy. Satisfied with the
experiment, the gods repeated it, and at the end of another four days a girl arose
from the vessel. Xolotl was appointed guardian to the children so miraculously
created, 14 and nourished them upon the milk-like juice of the maguey plant. They
throve apace, and in course of time became [42]man and woman, the progenitors of
the entire human race, who differ in bulk and stature as the pieces of the rescued
bone varied in size and shape. Thus were born Iztac Mixcoatl the first man and
Ilanceuitl or Ilamatecutli, his wife.
The Water-sun.
The Rain-sun.
STONES SHOWING THE SYMBOLS OF THE “SUNS” OR AGES.
[Contents]
CREATION OF THE SUN AND MOON
These deeds had, however, passed in a world of darkness, for as yet the sun had
not risen. A council of the gods was assembled at Teotihuacan, a locality of great
sanctity, and seated round a council fire, it considered the means by which the
luminary might be created. It was resolved that he who first cast himself into the fire
should be transformed into the sun. The offer was accepted by Nanahuatzin, who
was afflicted with a painful disease, had therefore found life intolerable and did not
dread the transformation. Nothing happened for some time after his self-immolation,
and the waiting gods began to make wagers with one another regarding the place
in the heavens where the sun would be likely to show itself. None of them had
considered it probable that it would rise in the East, and when at last it became
visible in that quarter, it was as a stationary mass which directed such scorching
rays upon them that they dispatched the hawk messenger to request it to depart.
Whether or not Nanahuatzin in his rôle of Sun-god was wroth with his brothers for
personal reasons, he replied that it was his intention to destroy them utterly. A great
fear seized upon some, whilst others grew angry and caught up their weapons.
Among the latter was Citli, who fitted an arrow to his bow and fired at the
transformed Nanahuatzin. The sun-god avoided the shaft. He could not, however,
evade all those which followed, but seizing one, cast it back at Citli, whom it
transfixed and slew. Fiercer became the heat, until at length the gods could tolerate
it no longer, and felt that it behoved them to perish by each other’s hands rather
than by the ignoble death of suffocation. They agreed that Xolotl should dispatch
them one by one, cutting open their breasts, and this holocaust he undertook, finally
slaying himself. Before perishing, the gods left their raiment to their personal
[43]servants, of which each retainer made a bundle, wrapping his master’s clothing
round a stick, placing a small green stone inside to serve as a heart, and naming it
after the god to whom it had belonged. Olmos himself encountered such a relic in
Tlalmanalco, exhibiting evidences of very considerable age. 15 On the death of the
gods the sun began to move in the heavens, and a god, Tecciztecatl, who had
hidden himself in a cavern when Nanahuatzin leaped into the fire, now emerged
from his hiding-place and took the form of the moon. The retainers carried the
bundles from place to place, and one of them, the servant of Tezcatlipocâ, coming
to the sea-shore, had a vision of his deceased master, who commanded him to
betake himself to the house of the sun and to bring him singers and players of
instruments to assist in the celebration of a festival. To enable the messenger to
travel to the Sun-House, the whale, the siren, and the tortoise were asked to form
themselves into a bridge which might reach the abode of the luminary. The servant
crossed it, singing sweetly as he went, and his song was heard by the Sun, who
straitly commanded his retainers not to respond to it on being approached by the
singer. This some of them failed to do, and returning with the messenger, took with
them the necessary instruments wherewith to celebrate the festival of Tezcatlipocâ.
The people of Texcuco, says Olmos, naturally placed the occurrence of these
events within their own boundaries, but they added (according to a pictorial
manuscript which they showed the friar) that the Sun shot a dart into the ground
and at this spot the first man arose. He was imperfect, being formed only from the
armpits upward. He was followed by a woman. Mendieta suppresses the remainder
of the myth because of its Rabelaisian details, but we may conclude that from these
twain humanity was descended.
Sahagun’s account of the creation of the sun and moon 16 [44]differs somewhat from
the foregoing and is as follows: The gods met at Teotihuacan, and asked one
another: “Who will undertake the task of lighting the world?” to which one god called
Tecciztecatl (he who was to become the Moon-god) replied: “That will I.” They cast
about for still another member of the pantheon to undertake the duty. At last they
fixed upon one who was afflicted with a terrible disease who at once agreed to the
accomplishment of their desires. During four days the gods prepared for the
occasion by acts of penitence, then they kindled a fire on a rock named Teotexcalli
(high place of the gods). Meanwhile Tecciztecatl made offerings of many precious
things, rich feathers and golden ornaments. The spines with which the gods
ceremonially pricked themselves were like the spines of the maguey, but were
made from precious stones, and the copal they used for incense was of no common
sort. The victim, who was called Nanahuatl, offered nine green reeds, joined three
and three, instead of the ordinary branches and balls of grass and spines of the
maguey generally employed for such ceremonies, and these he saturated with his
own blood. In place of copal he offered up the scabs of his sores. The gods built a
tower for each of the two divinities who had undertaken the illumination of the world,
and performed penance for four days and four nights. They then strewed the
ground with the branches, flowers, and other objects of which they had made use
during that time. On the night following, shortly before midnight, they brought
Tecciztecatl his ornaments. These consisted of a plumage called aztacomitl, made
of herons’ feathers, and a jacket of light stuff, whilst to Nanahuatl they gave a crown
of paper called amatzontli (paper hair) and a stole and cincture, likewise of paper.
Midnight having arrived, all the gods ranged themselves in the place called
Teotexcalli, where the fire had burned for four days. They arranged themselves into
two files, one on either side of the fire, and Tecciztecatl was requested to cast
himself into the burning mass. Terrified by the intense heat which he experienced
as he advanced towards the flames, the god recoiled; again and again he essayed
[45]to leap into the fire, but his courage failed him. Then the gods called upon
Nanahuatl, who, on being summoned, immediately cast himself into the blazing
mass, where he at once began to crackle “like meat that roasts.” Tecciztecatl,
ashamed of his former conduct, now followed him into the conflagration, and it was
said that the eagle entered the flames at the same time, which is the reason
assigned for its dark plumage. The tiger or ocelot followed, and was only partly
burnt, as is witnessed by its spots. It is evident that this myth applied in some
manner to the Aztec military brotherhoods of quauhtli and ocelotl, who wore the
eagle and ocelot insignia respectively. 17
The gods had already waited some time to witness the resurrection of Nanahuatl,
when they beheld the heavens commence to grow red. Terrified at the sight, they
fell upon their knees and could not comprehend whence the light had arisen. The
glow of sunrise illuminated every point of the compass, but many fixed their gaze
upon the East, feeling that in that direction the luminary would first be sighted.
Those who gazed thither were Quetzalcoatl (also called Eecatl), Totec, and
Tezcatlipocâ. Others called Mimixcoa were innumerable, and there were also
present four goddesses, Tiacapan, Teicu, Tlacoeua, and Xocoyotl. When the sun
rose at length he appeared very red, and no one might look upon him without being
blinded by his rays. The moon appeared at the same time, and gave forth light
equal to that of the orb of day. But the gods thought it ill that the moon should be as
bright as the sun, and therefore one of them took a rabbit and cast it at the face of
the moon, so that it remained there to dim its splendour. Although the sun and
moon were raised above the earth, they remained stationary. They spoke mockingly
to their erstwhile companions.
“How now,” they said, “do you wish to remain in mortal shame? Die all of you and
confer life upon the stars.” The wind then offered to discharge the function of
immolating [46]the gods and slew them one by one. Only Xolotl refused to die, and
begged for life, weeping so sorely that his eyes dropped out. When those who were
to make the sacrifice laid hold of him he fled and concealed himself in a field of
maize, where he changed himself into a stalk of that plant having two feet (roots)
such as the peasants call xolotl. But having been recognized among the maize, he
took flight a second time and hid himself among some maguey plants, where he
changed himself into the double maguey plant which is called mexolotl (maguey of
Xolotl). On being discovered a third time he took flight once more and threw himself
into the water, where he took the form of a fish called axolotl. 18 But in this last
disguise he was caught and killed.
When the gods had been slain the wind commenced to whistle and blow with
violence, so that at length the burning globe of the sun began to drift over the
heavens. But the moon still remained at rest, and in this manner they became
separated, so that their habit is to rise at different hours.
The Anales de Quauhtitlan, after the manner of the Book of Genesis, states that the
world and all therein were created in seven days. In the sign Tochtli the earth was
created, the firmament was erected in Acatl, animals came into being in Tecpatl,
and man was made out of dust or ashes on Ehecatl, the seventh day, but
completed and perfected by Quetzalcoatl, who appears to have played the part of a
demiurgos as regards the human race. There can be little doubt that this myth has
been sophisticated, or is a later invention. The Anales de Quauhtitlan, however,
sustains the accounts of Olmos and Sahagun regarding the creation of the sun and
moon.
Camargo, speaking of the Tlaxcaltec cosmology, 19 says that the Indians did not
believe that the world had been created, but that it had been produced by chance.
Space, according [47]to their philosophy, has always existed. Veytia 20 states that the
Mexicans believed the world and man to have been created by Tloque Nahuague
(Tonacatecutli). Boturini credits the creation to the same first cause, and passages
in Sahagun lead us to believe that both Tezcatlipocâ and Quetzalcoatl were
regarded as sub-creative spirits, who were either partly or wholly responsible for the
existence of the universe. Clavigero expressly states that the former was “the soul
of the world, the creator of heaven and earth and lord of all things.” 21 Mendieta, 22 a
much older authority, gives it as his opinion that the making and moulding of the
world was the handiwork of several gods, but especially of Tezcatlipocâ,
Uitzilopochtli, and an obscure deity, Ocelopuchtli, who equates with the ocelot
alluded to in Sahagun’s account.
Sahagun, it will be observed, disappoints us in his account of the creation, which he

confines to the details of the appearance of the sun and moon and is silent
concerning the creation of gods and men. This is strange when the facilities he had
for the collection of myths are considered, but as a priest, it is evident that he is
more interested in points of ritual than in religious narrative, which, he evidently
agrees with Curtin’s French-Canadian, is to be regarded as “chose d’absurde.” 23
Even although we possess the sonorous warning of Prescott and the objections of
others to bias us against Ixtlilxochitl, there is little ground for regarding his version of
the Mexican creation story as being other than he received it from sources which
would have been unspeakably precious had he made better use of them as regards
other subjects.
Regarding Ixtlilxochitl’s version of the creation myth, that the creator Tloque
Nahuague, the maker of the planets, brought into being a man and a woman from
whom all human beings are descended, we have no parallel in Mexican myth, nor,
indeed, in American myth, if we accept that of [48]the creation of man current in
ancient Peru, and it is probable that, so far as his version of the creation of
humanity is concerned, Ixtlilxochitl had encountered a myth which was either of
relatively late origin, or had arisen out of the ideas engendered by contact with
Christianity. This is, however, by no means to say that Ixtlilxochitl himself invented
the account. 24
[Contents]
THE HISTORIA DE LOS MEXICANOS
The Historia de los Mexicanos por sus Pinturas is a manuscript of such importance
to the study of Nahua Cosmogony that a short précis of its earlier chapters may,
perhaps, be found of value in this place.
“Tonacatecutli and his consort Tonacaciuatl, who had existed from the beginning,
resolved to undertake the work of creation. They had four sons, the eldest of whom
was Tlactlauque-Tezcatlipocâ, or Camaxtli. He was born of a red colour. The
second son, Yayanque-Tezcatlipocâ, was greater and more powerful than the rest.
He was born black. The third was Quetzalcoatl or Yacatecutli, and the fourth
Omitecilt, and for another name Magueycoatl, and the Mexicans called him Ochilobi
(Uitzilopochtli), for he was left-handed and was chief god to those of Mexico, and
their war-god. Of these four, Tezcatlipocâ was the wisest, was in all places, and
knew the hearts and thoughts of everyone. And for this he was called Moyocoya,
“he who is all-powerful, and who has all those things without which nothing can be.”
Uitzilopochtli was born without flesh, but with bones, 25 and in this state he remained
for six hundred years, during which time the gods made nothing.
“After six hundred years these four god-like brothers were born, and all came
together to order what was to be and the law that they should hold. They made a
half-sun in the midst, the other luminaries great and small, [49]and a man and
woman named Oxomuco and Cipactonal, commanding him to till the earth and her
to spin and weave. From these were born the maceguales or labourers. And to
Cipactonal the gods gave certain grains of maize that she might keep them and use
them for charms and riddles, and since that day women have used them for that
purpose.
“The gods then gave this pair the days of the calendar and divided them into
months, twenty days to each month, and three hundred and sixty days in the year.
Then they made Mictlantecutli and Mictecaciuatl, man and wife, to be the gods of
the infernal regions. Later they made the heavens and space and the water, and
then a great fish like the cayman, which is called cipactli, from which they shaped
the earth. In order to create the gods of water, all four gods joined together and
made Tlaloc and his wife Chalchihuitlicue.
“These gods of water have their place in the four quarters, and in the middle of it
was a great court, where there were four tubs of water. One water is very good, and
this rains when they grow grain and wheat. And these gods of water have many
dwarfish servants in the said house, and these have pitchers, with which they take
the water from the tubs, and sticks in the other hand. When the gods of water wish
them to go to the boundaries, they take the pitchers and sticks and sprinkle the
water as they are told. And when it thunders, they crack the pitchers with the sticks,
and when it lightens they break off a portion of the pitcher.
“All the aforesaid things had been made and created without taking any account of
the years, and without respect of time. The first man and woman had a son called
Piltzintecutli, who desired a wife with whom to live. So the gods made of the hairs of
Xochiquetzal a woman, and thus was the first marriage made. This having been
done, all the four gods saw that the half-sun which had been created gave but little
light. And they saw that they must make another half, because the existing light was
not able to illuminate the world.… Then Tezcatlipocâ became the sun-bearer. And
the gods created the giants, who were very [50]great men and of much strength.…
And they called the age in which Tezcatlipocâ was the sun the age of boasting and
of tigers, for the giants gorged and ate and wanted for nothing. And when thirteen
times fifty and two years were passed, Quetzalcoatl was the sun. Then Tezcatlipocâ
took a great stick and struck upon the water, and turning himself into a tiger, went
out to kill the giants. Afterwards he appeared in the sky, for they said that the ursa
major sank in the water, because it is Tezcatlipocâ.… During the time Quetzalcoatl
was the sun another count went on, which, having ended, Tezcatlipocâ cast out
Quetzalcoatl, who became the wind, which, when it blew on the maceguales, turned
them into monkeys and apes. And there was for sun Tlaloc, which lasted three
hundred and sixty-four years.… During these years Quetzalcoatl rained fire on the
sun, and then created as the sun his wife Chalchihuitlicue. She was the sun for
three hundred and twelve years.
“In the last year in which Chalchihuitlicue was the sun, it rained so heavily that all
the maceguales were turned into fishes. And when it had ceased to destroy, the
heavens fell upon the earth and the great rain began, the which year was tochtli.
And the gods ordered four roads to be made to the middle of the earth for them,
and raised the heavens, and to help them in holding them up they created four
men, called Cotemuc, Yzcoadt, Yzmali, and Tenesuchi, who were created by
Tezcatlipocâ and Quetzalcoatl. Then they made great trees, Tezcatlipocâ one which
was called tazcaquavlt, which is to say “tree of the mirror,” and Quetzalcoatl one
which was called queçalhuesuch, and with the help of the men they had made and
the trees the gods held up the heavens and the stars and made a road in the sky.
“After the heavens had been raised, in the second year after the flood, which was
acatl, Tezcatlipocâ pronounced his name, and there appeared the dumb Mixcoatl,
‘Serpent of the Clouds.’ And they paint him as a serpent. And they drew fire from
fire-sticks, which they called heart of the fire. In the seventh year after the flood was
born Cinteotl, the first son of the first man, who was a god, and [51]his wife a
goddess, and he was made of the hairs of the mother goddess, and it was said that
he was not able to die. And in the eighth year after the flood the gods created the
maceguales, like those that were before. When the first three years of this group of
years had passed, in the first of the next group all the four gods came together, and
said that because the earth had no light, and was dark, and that because there was
no fire, they would make a sun which would give light to the earth, and which would
eat hearts and drink blood. In order to do this they made war, by which they were
able to procure hearts and blood. In this time Tezcatlipocâ made four hundred men
and a hundred women, and on these the sun lived. In the tenth year, Suchicar, the
first wife of Piltzintecutli, the son of the first man, was killed in the war, and was the
first so to die.”
If we search for a common factor among these conflicting ideas, we will, indeed,
find the task one of difficulty. The nature of the sources from which we obtain them
does not permit us to arrange them chronologically, and all that we can found upon
in this respect is their subject-matter, which cannot enlighten us much. As has been
said, we are probably on safe ground if we accept the version of the several ages
hypothetically contained in the so-called Calendar Stone of Mexico. The
circumstance, too, that the sun and moon myth, as related by Olmos, agrees for the
most part with the version of Sahagun, permits us to regard it as a well-recognized
belief. Nor can the variant myth regarding the creation of mankind, which is briefly
described in an annotation, shake our confidence in the credibility of Olmos, as it
obviously differs more in the names of the actors in the drama of creation than in
the circumstances, which are almost identical. But if it is impossible to verify strictly
the place of origin of the Olmos myth, although Texcuco was claimed as its home, it
is permissible to indicate the universal character of that portion of it which deals
with the creation of the heavenly bodies, from its similarity to the analogous
passage in Sahagun’s rendering, which proves that that part of it at least must have
been more or less widely [52]disseminated throughout Mexico. We know that after
the collection of data in any district it was his custom to submit them to experts in
other and distant parts of the country for comparison and verification. We may thus
be justified in classing the Calendar-stone version of the world’s ages and the
Sahagun portion of the creation myth of the luminaries of the last age as among the
standard beliefs of Mexican theology. It follows from Sahagun’s general agreement
with the Olmos-Mendieta account that the portion of that version which he does not
treat of must naturally be within reasonable distance of exactitude. The
circumstance that both of these accounts relate the self-immolation of the gods by
the sacrificial method of having their breasts opened, seems to prove that the myth
was no older than the institution of human sacrifice, which we are perhaps correct
in regarding as of no very great antiquity, although arguments of sufficient cogency
might be brought against this view.
[Contents]
DELUGE MYTHS
As Mexican myths of the creation differ, so do those concerning the great deluge
which at one period was supposed to have overwhelmed the earth. As we have
seen, myths which are concerned with the several ages of the earth dwell upon
such an event, but separate myths exist which also tell of a great flood which is
almost certainly to be identified with the “Water-sun.” The goddess Chalchihuitlicue
(the goddess of water), says one of the interpreters of the Codex Telleriano-
Remensis, “saved herself in the deluge.” The interpreter of the Codex Vaticanus A.
relates that: “Most of the old people of Mexico say that a single man and a single
woman escaped from this deluge, from whom, in course of time, mankind
multiplied. The tree in which they saved themselves was called Ahuehuete (the fir-
tree), and they say that this deluge happened in the tenth sign, according to their
computation, which they represented by water, which on account of its clearness
they place in their calendar. They say that during the first age men ate no bread, but
only a certain kind of wild maize, [53]which they called atzitziutli. They name this first
age coniztal, which signifies the white head; others say that not only did these two
who were preserved in the tree escape, but that seven others remained hidden in a
certain cave, and that the deluge having passed away, they came forth and
restored the population of the earth, dispersing themselves over it: and that their
descendants in course of time worshipped them as gods, each in his own nation.”
A similar myth in the Anales de Quauhtitlan or Codex Chimalpopoca, is also worthy

of quotation.
“And this year was that of Ce-calli, and on the first day all was lost. The mountain
itself was submerged in the water and the water remained tranquil for fifty-two
springs.
“Now toward the close of the year, Titlacahuan (Tezcatlipocâ) had forewarned the
man named Nata and his wife Nena, saying: ‘Make no more pulque, but straightway
hollow out a large cypress, and enter it when in the month of Tozoztli the water shall
approach the sky.’ They entered it, and when Titlacahuan had closed the door he
said: ‘Thou shalt eat but a single ear of maize and thy wife but one also.’
“As soon as they had finished eating, they went forth and the water was tranquil; for
the log did not move any more; and opening it they saw many fish.
“Then they built a fire, rubbing together pieces of wood, and they roasted fish. The
gods Citlallinicuc and Citlallatonac, looking below, exclaimed: ‘Divine Lord, what
means that fire below? Why do they thus smoke the heavens?’
“Straightway descended Titlacahuan Tezcatlipocâ and commenced to scold, saying:

‘What is this fire doing here?’ And seizing the fishes he moulded their hinder parts
and changed their heads, and they were at once transformed into dogs.” 26
[Contents]
THE “COXCOX” FALLACY
It is unnecessary in this place to deal at any length with the quite artificial myth
given by Siguenza and Clavigero, [54]based on a mistaken interpretation of certain
Mexican paintings. Briefly, they state that Coxcox, “the Mexican Noah,” and his
spouse Xochiquetzal escaped from the deluge in a boat which grounded on the
peak of Colhuacan: “the Ararat of Mexico.” Dumb children were born to them, who
received innumerable languages from a polyglot dove. Garcia y Cubas published in
his Atlas Geografico a letter from Ramirez (April 1858) in which the then
conservator of the National Museum of Mexico showed the fallacy of Siguenza’s
interpretation and proved that the pictures in question referred to the wanderings of
the Aztecs in the Valley of Mexico.
A flood myth which has for its hero one of the giants who were supposed to inhabit
the earth in the first age (or rather the first age according to the version which is
supported by the Calendar-stone), states that Xelhua, the giant in question,
escaped the deluge by ascending the mountain of Tlaloc in the terrestrial paradise,
and afterwards built the pyramid of Cholula. The interpreter of the Codex Vaticanus
A says of this story: “In this first age giants existed in that country.… They relate of
one of the seven whom they mention as having escaped from the deluge, that, the
earth becoming populous, he went to Chululan and there began to build a tower
which is that of which the brick base is still visible. The name of that chief was
Xelhua; he built it in order that should a deluge come again he might escape to it.
Its base is 1,800 feet in circumference. When it had already reached a great height
lightning from heaven fell and destroyed it. Those Indians who were under that chief
who had escaped from the deluge, named Xelhua, made bricks out of a mountain in
Tlalamanalco called Cocotle, and from Tlalamanalco to Chulula Indians were
placed to pass the bricks and cement from hand to hand: and thus they built this
tower, that was named Tulan Chulula, which was so high that it appeared to reach
heaven. And being content, since it seemed to them that they had a place to
escape from the deluge if it should again happen, and from whence they might
ascend into heaven—[55]a chalcuitl, which is a precious stone, fell from thence and
struck it to the ground. Others say that the chalcuitl was in the shape of a toad; and
that whilst destroying the tower it reprimanded them, inquiring of them their reason
for wishing to ascend into heaven, since it was sufficient for them to see what was
on the earth. The base of the tower is at the present day still remaining and its
circumference is 1,800 feet.”
This myth has equivalents in the Hindoo story of the manner in which Hanuman,
king of the monkeys, built a bridge from India to Ceylon, and in Scottish legend,
where Corstorphine Church, near Edinburgh, is the scene of the building, the
stones being passed on from hand to hand by the “Picts” from Ravelston Quarry,
some considerable distance away. But it bears a more striking resemblance to the
story of the tower of Babel, the work of another being of gigantic origin—Nimrod.
Xelhua was the mythical ancestor of the people of Tehuacan, and Teotitlan del
Camino. It may be that his myth has been sophisticated by the priestly writers who
set it down, and in any case it seems to be ætiological or explanatory of the
Pyramid of Cholula.
[Contents]
THE FALL OF THE GODS
In the literature of ancient Mexican mythology we find persistent vestigial notices of

a fall of the gods, or rather of certain deities from “heaven.” Thus in the
interpretation of the Codex Telleriano-Remensis we find a divine locality called
Tamoanchan described as the “mansion” from which they fell, and “where they
gathered roses.” The same paragraph 27 relates that Tamoanchan “is the place
where these gods were created whom they feared: it signifies the Terrestrial
Paradise, and accordingly they relate that those gods being in that place
transgressed by plucking roses and branches from the trees, and that on this
account Tonacatecutli and his wife, Tonacacigua, became highly incensed, and cast
them out of that place, and that some of them came [56]to earth and others went to
hell.” One of these, the divinity most frequently associated by the Codices with this
event, Ixnextli, is spoken of in the same work 28 as “Eve, always weeping and
looking at her husband Adam. She is called Ixnextli, which signifies ‘Eyes blind with
ashes,’ and this refers to the time subsequent to her sinning by plucking the roses.”
In Codex Telleriano-Remensis (Plate VII, Kingsborough) she is associated with a
god Ueuecoyotl and is represented as kneeling on a chair with head averted. There
is no doubt that the name given her here, and which is supplemented by the name
Xochiquetzal, is that of a variant of the latter, who is the goddess of flowers.
In his interpretation of this goddess in his work on the Aubin-Goupil tonalamatl (pp.
118–119) Seler gives it as his opinion that the insignia of the goddess Tonacaciuatl,
consort of the creative deity Tonacatecutli, is identical with that of Xochiquetzal, and
proceeds to say that this strongly suggests “that the home of the cosmogonic
speculations embodied in the names of Tonacatecutli and Tonacaciuatl was to be
sought in the region where dwelt the goddess Xochiquetzal, and this was assuredly
not Mexico proper, but appears to have been the group which in one place is
comprised by Torquemada under the name Chalmeca, Olmeca, Xicalanca,
Tepaneca, Xochimilca, and Tlalhuica. Here by Chalmeca are to be understood the
dwellers about the volcano, and by Olmeca, Xicalanca, the aborigines of the
Tlaxcallan district.… Originally the goddess Xochiquetzal is perhaps nothing more
than the deity of one of those mountains from which the life-giving waters flow down
from the fields.” It is easy to believe that Xochiquetzal is a variant of Tonacaciuatl;
but it is not necessary to infer therefrom that the Olmec-Tlaxcaltec version of the
myth relating to her with its cosmogonic speculations was prior in origin to that
which found acceptance at Mexico, even although the Olmecs were regarded as an
older race. Tonacatecutli and his consort were believed to be Toltec deities, and had
thus a greater antiquity behind them than Olmec myth could invest them [57]with.
Codex Vaticanus A tells much the same story regarding Ixnextli and was probably
inspired from the same source.
[Contents]
MEXICAN CONCEPTIONS OF THE UNIVERSE
No definite account of the Mexican conception of the universe has come down to
us, but we are probably founding correctly if we accept the Maya belief as closely
approximating to that in general currency in Mexico. An examination of the central
design in the Maya Book of Chilan Balam of Mani, given in Cogolludo’s History of
Yucatan (1640), shows the earth as a cubical block, by which term it is practically
described in the Popol Vuh (“the quadrated castle, four-pointed, four-sided, four-
bordered”). This the Maya described as tem (“the altar”), that is, the altar of the
gods, the offering upon which was life. Above this cube on four legs is the celestial
vase (cum) containing the heavenly waters, rains, and showers, upon which all life
depends. Above it hang the rain-clouds which fill it and from it springs the vax che,
or Tree of Life, with outspread branches.
A similar illustration from the Codex Cortesiano, 29 a Maya MS. which has been
described as the “Tableau of the Bacabs” or heavenly supporters, shows the Tree
of Life, the Celestial Vase, and the cloud masses. Beneath the tree are seen the
two creative deities, and the whole design is surrounded by the twenty day-signs.
[Contents]
THE FIVE REGIONS OF THE WORLD
The Mexicans divided the universe into five regions. The locus classicus for the
representatives of the gods who preside over these regions is the first sheet of the
Codex Fejérváry-Mayer. The Fire-god occupies the centre of the picture, for just as
fire occupies a space in the middle of the primitive hut, so does Xiuhtecutli maintain
the central position in the universal disposition of things. From him four streams
[58]of sacrificial blood radiate in the direction of the four cardinal points, east, north,
west, south, 30 which are situated at each corner of the picture, for he rules over all
as well as over the centre, which is known as Tlalxicco. These bands of blood end
in the four day-signs—acatl, tecpatl, calli, and tochtli, from which alone the years of
the “calendar” or tonalamatl could be named, and which respectively agree with the
cardinal points noted above. The four sides of the square are also associated with
the four quarters of the universe. Thus the top square in the picture represents
Tlapcopa, Region of the Dawn (the East), the right-hand side Uitznauac, Place of
Thorns (the South), the bottom Ciutlampa, Region of Women (the West), and the
left-hand side Mictlampa, Place of the Dead (the North). Within these squares are
seen four species of trees, belonging to the four points of the compass. They
resemble the trees seen in sheet 49 of Codex Borgia and sheet 17 of Codex
Vaticanus B, from the first of which codices they can be more clearly described.
North.
South.
THE TREES OF THE WORLD-QUARTERS.
(Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, sheet 1.)
The Tree of the East is represented as a highly conventionalized tree having two
boughs, each with four branches which end in the chalchihuitl (greenstone) symbol.
Round branches are twisted two ropes, green and blue in colour, set with golden
bells. A quetzal bird perches upon the top and the trunk is decorated with the
symbol for war, for the spirits of the sacrificed warriors were believed to dwell in the
eastern heavens, where the sun rose. The tree springs from the body of the Earth-
goddess, and the ornaments borne by it are symbolic of the rich and fruitful
character of the Orient.
The Tree of the North.—This tree is painted half-green, half-blue, but is set with
thorns in every part. Bands of blood and darkness issue from the body of the Earth-
goddess, in which it has its root, and these wind around its boughs. The eagle
stands upon the top, each of its plumes bristling with a sacrificial stone knife.
The Tree of the West.—This has a yellow star, and bears [59]the magic bloom at the
end of each branch. It is surmounted by the humming-bird, and its trunk is dotted
with the stellar eye, in this case the evening star.
East.
West.
THE TREES OF THE WORLD-QUARTERS.
(Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, sheet 1.)
The Tree of the South.—This, too, is thorny, but painted red, and the trunk is
sprinkled with symbols recalling that of the “spoken word” which in the Codices is
frequently seen issuing from the mouths of gods and men. It may symbolize smoke
or fire, thus alluding to the fiery nature of the region to which the tree belongs. A
cloud of darkness and a stream of blood wind around the stem. It is surmounted by
the arara bird.
These four trees have parallels in Maya mythology, as, for example, on the altar-
pieces of the cross from Palenque (Temple II) and elsewhere.
The gods governing the five regions of the universe are 31:
Centre—Xiuhtecutli.
East—Mixcoatl and Tlaloc.
North—Itztli and Xochipilli.
West—Iztac Mixcoatl and Quetzalcoatl.
South—Macuilxochitl and Xipe.
We find from an examination of the codices that the Mexicans believed that the
“world” or universe was divided into:
Tlalxicco, the centre or “navel” of the Earth.

Tlapcopa, “the region of the Dawn” (the East).
Uitznauac, “Place of Thorns” (the South).
Ciuatlampa, “Region of Women” (the West).
Mictlampa, “Place of the Dead” (the North).
These several regions demand a brief description.
Tlalxicco was the dark interior of the earth, which was supposed to be inhabited by
an animal-headed god or demon, resembling a badger, to whom no name has as
yet been applied, but who seems to possess affinities with sorcery and the darker
arts. A good representation of him is to be found on sheet 9 of Codex Vaticanus B.
Tlapcopa, the East, or “Region of the Dawn,” was regarded [60]as a region of
prosperity, fertility, and abundant food-supplies. It was the house of the Sun, the
region where sacrificed warriors dwelt in bliss, and will be further described when
we come to deal with the subject of “heaven and hell.”
THE TREE OF THE MIDDLE-QUARTER.
Uitznauac or Uitzlampa, “Region of Thorns” (the South), was, as its name implied, a
place of rather evil omen, for it was sometimes thought of as inhabited by Mictlan,
Lord of the Dead. The Mexicans, dwelling in a plateau country where climatic
conditions were temperate, probably regarded the tropics to the south as a region
fatal to health, and generally insalubrious in character.
Ciuatlampa, “Region of Women” (the West), was the place to which those women
who died in their first childbed (Civapipiltin or Ciuateteô) went after death, and as
such falls to be described in the section on “heaven and hell.” But it was also the

Documentupload - 609download Full Ebook of Playing With Ease A Healthy Approach To Guitar Technique David Leisner Online PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Documentupload - 609download Full Ebook of Playing With Ease A Healthy Approach To Guitar Technique David Leisner Online PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Playing with Ease A Healthy Approach

to Guitar Technique David Leisner

Guitar Chords in Context The Practical Guide to Chord

Playing at Work Clinical Essays in a Contemporary

Healthy Recipes: A Clean Cookbook with Delicious and

Rust for C++ Programmers: Learn how to embed Rust in

Mediterranean Cooking 101: A Simple Introduction to

5 Figure Affiliate Blueprint Your guide to earning 10

Fruits!: A Healthy Cookbook with Delicious Recipes for

How to Become a Miracle Worker with Your Life Steps To

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

© Oxford University Press 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

You must not circulate this work in any other form

Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data

When I let go of what I am, I become what I might be.

Photo and Illustration Credits ix

Photos by Simon Powis, simonpowisphotography.com

No undertaking like this book can be accomplished alone. It is only possible

Every musical instrument is hard to play. To juggle, balance, and remember

In general, the level of physical tension of instrumentalists has run rampant.

1. Alice Brandfonbrener, “History of Playing-​related Pain in 330 Freshman Music

Eastern medicine as well as Western. Unfortunately, no one was successful.

As a matter of fact, even before my experience with dystonia I have had

HOW THIS BOOK IS ORGANIZED

Writing a book like this is somewhat dangerous. First of all, by discussing

Communicating technical and physical concepts mostly in written

ALL ROADS LEAD TO THE MUSIC

Your Body and Your

D etails are essential. It is not enough to be told to “relax” or to “sit up

MOVEMENT, JOINTS, AND THE MID-​R ANGE

allows several different kinds of motion. For playing an instrument, the

flexion—​moving toward the next segment of the body; for example,

Photo 1.1. Index finger flexing

extension—​moving away from the next segment of the body; for

Photo 1.2. Index finger extending

[ 12 ] Playing with Ease

abduction—​moving away, in a side-​to-​side direction, for example,

Photo 1.3. Index finger abducting

adduction—​moving toward, in a side-​to-​side direction, for example,

Photo 1.4. Index finger adducting

elevation—​lifting up, like shrugging your shoulders up (photo 1.5)

depression—​lowering, like shrugging your shoulders straight down

[ 14 ] Playing with Ease

supination—​rotating your arm, for example, outward away from

[ 16 ] Playing with Ease

1. Throughout this book, a left-​

Photo 1.11a. Flat right wrist

[ 18 ] Playing with Ease

Photo 1.11b. Flat left wrist

[ 20 ] Playing with Ease

Knee and Ankle

[ 22 ] Playing with Ease

ALIGNMENT AND FLEXIBILITY

Misaligned spine with straight lines Aligned spine with curves

Feet and Legs

[ 24 ] Playing with Ease

Sacrum and Sternum

I cannot emphasize enough how important is the practice of sitting

[ 26 ] Playing with Ease

it really is essential to keep your head directly over your shoulders, up

That stated, we can now say: Good posture = alignment + flexibility.

[ 28 ] Playing with Ease

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

1. Alice Brandfonbrener, “History of Playing-related Pain in 330 Freshman Music

MOVEMENT, JOINTS, AND THE MID-R ANGE

flexion—moving toward the next segment of the body; for example,

extension—moving away from the next segment of the body; for

abduction—moving away, in a side-to-side direction, for example,

adduction—moving toward, in a side-to-side direction, for example,

elevation—lifting up, like shrugging your shoulders up (photo 1.5)

depression—lowering, like shrugging your shoulders straight down

supination—rotating your arm, for example, outward away from

1. Throughout this book, a left-