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Mirko D’Onofrio
Paola Capelli
Paolo Pederzoli
Editors
123
Imaging and Pathology of Pancreatic Neoplasms
Mirko D'Onofrio • Paola Capelli
Paolo Pederzoli
Editors
Second Edition
Editors
Mirko D'Onofrio Paola Capelli
Department of Radiology, University Department of Pathology, GB Rossi
of Verona, GB Rossi University Hospital University Hospital
Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata
Verona Verona
Verona, Italy Verona, Italy
Paolo Pederzoli
Department of Surgery
Pederzoli Hospital
Peschiera del Garda (VR), Italy
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or
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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Professor Carlo Procacci had the idea of an Atlas on the imaging and
pathology of pancreatic neoplasms around the year 2000. Carlo Procacci
was born in Corato, Puglia, Italy, in 1950 and died in Verona, Veneto, Italy,
in 2004. His idea was recovered in 2012 by Paola Capelli, and this book is
the result.
Thanks Professor, the teachings last forever.
Mirko D’Onofrio
“Friend, you will forever be in our thoughts as your thoughts will always be
part of us.”
Alec J. Megibow
Ipotesi
Ipotesi di vivere
di essere di divenire
speriamo andiamo
nell’ipotesi di noi stessi
niuna cosa è tesi solo la morte nella sua verità
Rubiamo ogni ora alla speranza
e risorgiamo
nell’ipotesi del nuovo
Anche il seme nella terra
è un’ipotesi
dell’erba e del fiore
Anche il bimbo nella mamma
è un’ipotesi
dell’uomo che sarà
Anche tutti noi che corriamo
gli altri siamo ipotesi
immagini solo negli occhi nei capelli
solo parvenze o mistificazioni
saremo certezze solo in ciò che daremo
È l’amore che fa il fiore
È il sorriso che fa il bambino
È l’attenzione alla apertura del cuore
che fa per noi la sapienza migliore
proiezione sicura per l’eternità
Maria Antonietta Cocco
(Tra ombra e luce, 2021)
Foreword to the Second Edition
When a book reaches its second edition, it can only be an exceptional book!
This is even more evident when it comes to a text on medical sciences; the widespread dis-
semination of information via the Web makes the pages of a medical book to leaf through and
study more and more (theoretically!) “useless”!
In the first edition foreword, I wrote “… I believe that Mirko D’Onofrio, one of the younger
and favorite of Carlo’s apprentices, has brilliantly compiled his teachings in this volume,
reflecting how Prof. Procacci was able to share his knowledge with others.”
The success of the book clearly demonstrates that I was perfectly right.
Mirko had promised himself in wanting to make this text a tribute to his master, but it is not
just a question of celebrating the memory of Prof. Procacci; this result is also the best way to
celebrate the “Verona Pancreas Institute” method and approach to the patient: relationship with
other disciplines and mutual interaction between different disciplines!
I am convinced that this is the real secret of this text: by reading it, you let yourself be trans-
ported from mere descriptive radiology to a modern clinical–radiological approach.
Thanks Mirko, and thanks to all your collaborating colleagues once again. Of course, I am
ready for more and more “forewords” in the next future!
vii
Acknowledgments
The volume editors wish to express their most sincere thanks to the following colleagues, for
their invaluable contribution and the precious exchange of constructive clinical and scientific
experiences: Alec J. Megibow, Cristina Hajdu, Christoph Dietrich, Enrico Martone, Giancarlo
Mansueto, Giovanni Carbognin, Carlo Biasiutti, Rossella Graziani, Alessandro Guarise,
Elisabetta Buscarini, Paolo Arcidiacono, Arnaldo Fuini, Marco Ferdeghini, Franco Bonetti,
Erminia Manfrin, Alice Parisi, Massimo Pregarz, Luigi Romano, Giuseppe Zamboni.
The volume editors are furthermore grateful to the following collaborators, for their effec-
tive technical support: Alma Olivieri, Renato Padovani, Flavio Rigo, Manola Crestani, Nicola
Sperandio, Stefano Minutelli.
ix
Contents
xi
xii Contents
Pancreatic Surgery and Post-Operative Complications ������������������������������������������������� 451
Riccardo De Robertis, Luca Geraci, Nicolò Cardobi, Luisa Tomaiuolo,
Antonia Maria Olivieri, Francesco Verrengia, Francesco Cicalò, Filippo Moro,
Roberto Calbi, and Mirko D’Onofrio
Imaging Methods for Pancreatic Neoplasms������������������������������������������������������������������� 463
Alessandro Beleù, Fabrizio Urraro, Roberto Calbi, Chiara Longo,
Annalisa Cominziolli, Riccardo De Robertis, Nicolò Cardobi,
and Mirko D’Onofrio
Advanced Imaging of Pancreatic Neoplasms������������������������������������������������������������������� 481
Nicolò Cardobi, Riccardo De Robertis, and Mirko D’Onofrio
Elastography and New Ultrasound Techniques��������������������������������������������������������������� 495
Christoph F. Dietrich, Adrian Saftiou, Michael Hocke, and Liliana Chiorean
Percutaneous Interventional Procedures in Pancreatic Cancer������������������������������������� 517
Mirko D’Onofrio, Antonia Maria Olivieri, Francesco Verrengia,
Filippo Moro, Luca Geraci, Luisa Tomaiuolo, Chiara Longo,
Francesco Cicalò, Cesare Cacciatore, Alice Parisi, Erminia Manfrin,
and Riccardo De Robertis
New Diagnostic and Interventional Endoscopic Techniques������������������������������������������� 535
Michael Hocke
Ductal Adenocarcinoma
it sometimes hard to identify the actual dimensions of the In most of the cases, cysts are adjacent or upstream
tumor, both at imaging and macroscopically. located in respect to the mass. These cysts are secondary to
Extensive areas of hemorrhage and necrosis with cystic duct obstruction, may grow to huge dimensions, and could
cavitation are uncommon, but microscopic foci are not so be colonized by neoplastic epithelium. These cases must not
uncommon. be mistaken for infiltrating IPMNs.
Carcinomas of the pancreatic head, with the exception of Finally, ductal adenocarcinomas with huge dilated ductal
those arising in the uncinate process, almost always infiltrate structures may macroscopically present as microcystic
both the common bile duct and Wirsung duct, leading to a lesions [14].
variable degree of stenosis and upstream dilation (radiologi-
cal “double-duct sign”). This causes jaundice and upstream
obstructive pancreatitis, which could lead to chronic pancre- Microscopy
atitis, characterized by the presence of fibrotic or fibro-
adipous components, associated with a variable degree of Ductal adenocarcinoma is composed by neoplastic tubules
acinar cells atrophy, with duct dilatation and retention cysts or glands embedded in abundant desmoplastic stroma, with
formation. low vascularization.
The involvement of duodenum and/or Vater’s ampulla, Neoplastic glands can have different degrees of differen-
frequently found in the carcinomas of the pancreatic head, tiation, ranging from duct-like and medium-sized glandular
causes retraction of the intestinal wall, and eventually muco- structures in well-differentiated cases to a mixture of densely
sal ulceration. packed, small irregular glands, solid sheets, and nests, as
Invasion and thrombosis of large peripancreatic vessels, well as individual cells, in the poorly differentiated ones.
such as the splenic vein, are frequently observed in body-tail The intense non-neoplastic stromal reaction accounts for
carcinomas. the scirrhous and firm macroscopic aspect and is responsible
The pathological evaluation of the retroperitoneal resec- for the low vascular density, which leads to the radiological
tion margin provides the most important information about detection as a hypovascular mass [15].
local recurrence and patient survival. This margin is defined The development of a marked peritumoral fibro-
as the peripancreatic adipose tissue behind the head of the inflammatory reaction due to obstructive chronic pancreatitis
pancreas, which is located ventral and lateral, in respect to can exacerbate the pathological findings, and, as a result, the
the superior mesenteric artery [8–11]. neoplastic epithelial cells in most pancreatic cancers com-
When the tumor involves the celiac trunk or the superior prise only a small portion of the cells in the tumor.
mesenteric artery, it is considered unresectable; so, this Most ductal adenocarcinomas infiltrate a variety of preex-
involvement is rarely present in surgical pathology speci- isting structures: pancreatic ducts, nerves, vessels, duodenal
mens. A focal and partial, noncircumferential, adhesion of wall, and vasculonervous structures. For these reasons, carci-
the posterior pancreatic surface to the mesenteric vein may nomas extend beyond the main pancreatic mass, leading to a
justify the surgical resection of a fragment of the vessel wall. radiological and macroscopic underestimation of the actual
Just the histological examination will then prove if this adhe- tumoral dimensions.
sion is caused by neoplastic infiltration or by a fibro- At diagnosis, a vast majority of adenocarcinomas has
inflammatory response to the tumor. spread beyond the pancreas (pT3), even in resectable cases.
Carcinomas of the head of the pancreas frequently metas- Perineural and vascular invasions are invariably present in
tasize in peripancreatic lymph nodes; almost all ductal ade- most cases.
nocarcinomas resected along with a sufficient amount of A variant of adenocarcinoma, named large duct adenocar-
lymph nodes are pN1 [12, 13]. cinoma, is composed by irregular and dilated glands
In advanced cases, especially in carcinomas that involve [16–18].
the body-tail, the tumor infiltrates the mesocolon, the trans-
verse colon with the encasement of the celiac trunk and
splenic vessels, the stomach, the spleen, the left adrenal Imaging
gland, and the peritoneum, leading to peritoneal carcinoma-
tosis and ascites. The common vascular spread via the portal Imaging techniques have the following roles: identify and
vein explains the relatively high incidence of liver characterize pancreatic adenocarcinoma, assess its resect-
metastases. ability, and stage the disease.
Most pancreatic adenocarcinomas are solid, but some can Ultrasound (US) is often the noninvasive imaging method
be cystic due to extensive necrosis, particularly in larger for the first evaluation of the pancreas [19]. Since adenocar-
ones. In such cases, a large degenerative cyst is usually found cinoma is the most common primary malignancy of the pan-
in the center of the neoplasm [13]. creas, each pancreatic solid mass detected at US has a high
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 3
probability of being an adenocarcinoma, even if not every located, often giving an erroneous cystic appearance to the
solid pancreatic mass detected at US is obviously an adeno- lesion.
carcinoma [20]. The tumor is characterized by infiltrative margins and
Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) can characterize early diffusion in the adjacent parenchyma and structures,
pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma [21, 22]. In particular, justifying the usual lack of clear-cut margins at US [19, 24,
every pancreatic solid hypoechoic mass detected at US, 28]. As a result, sometimes, the lesion can be difficult to
hypoenhancing in all phases at CEUS, has to be considered a identify or delineate. Harmonic US and compound tech-
ductal adenocarcinoma, until otherwise proven. niques may improve the correct identification of the margins
Multi-detector computed tomography (MDCT) remains of the tumor [29].
the imaging gold standard for ductal adenocarcinoma identi- At Doppler study, no vessels are usually observed within
fication, characterization, and staging [1]. ductal adenocarcinomas [30, 31].
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may provide better The main pancreatic duct is often infiltrated and upstream-
tumor conspicuity than MDCT [23], paying in a lower spa- dilated. Particularly, tumors located in the pancreatic head
tial resolution, especially for resectability assessment. also determine the dilation of the common bile duct, with the
so-called double-duct sign [32, 33]. Thus, identification of
duct dilation with abrupt cutoff must be considered a second-
Ultrasound ary sign, highly suspicious for pancreatic cancer, even if the
tumor itself cannot be visualized [34]. As a consequence,
The detection of a pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma at patients with unexplained dilation of the pancreatic duct with
transabdominal US is related, both to the exploration of the abrupt cutoff should be directly referred to second-line imag-
pancreatic lodge and to the conspicuity of the lesion, in terms ing methods, especially CT.
of size and echogenicity. A good conspicuity of the lesion is Sonoelastography is a real-time technique, capable of
almost always expected at US [24]. The high-contrast resolu- evaluating the stiffness of tissues, thus providing additional
tion makes in fact the US examination able to detect even information to improve the differential diagnosis among
very small pancreatic adenocarcinomas. It has been argued pancreatic lesions [35–37]. The most recent sonoelasto-
that the acoustic impedance of ductal adenocarcinoma is graphic applications could be theoretically used to detect
very low, with a significant difference between the lesion and even the pancreatic tumors not visible at conventional US:
the adjacent pancreatic parenchyma [19]. Moreover, this basically, as a result of the marked desmoplasia, which is
visual difference between the lesion and the adjacent paren- very often present in pancreatic adenocarcinoma, this tumor
chyma is sometimes greater than that observed at CT, regard- appears stiff at elastographic evaluation [24, 38, 39]. The
ing beam attenuation in both pre- and post-contrastographic quantitative sonoelastography methods such as ARFI
phases: in these cases, a simple US can cover the role of (Acoustic Radiation Force Impulse) make the results more
problem-solving, immediately after a doubtful CT examina- objective and reproducible. The wave speed values measured
tion, as the lesion can usually be immediately detected at US, inside a pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma are higher (usu-
owing to its hypoechoic appearance and better conspicuity ally >3 m/s) than that measured in the adjacent parenchyma,
[19, 25]. considering the fact that the mean value in the healthy pan-
The reported sensitivity and specificity of US in the detec- creas is about 1.4 m/s [24, 40].
tion of pancreatic adenocarcinoma vary in the medical litera- The introduction of contrast agents has significantly
ture, owing to the obvious impact of operator experience on strengthened US diagnostic capability, increasing the accu-
these results. Moreover, the inferior penetration of the US racy of the first-line examination in the characterization of
beam in obese patients and, particularly, the interposition of pancreatic tumors, especially for pancreatic adenocarcinoma
intestinal gas can be, more the last and less the first, impor- [21, 22, 41–44].
tant limitations. The mean sensitivity ranges from 72 to 98%, Dynamic observation of the contrast-enhanced phases
lower than that reported for CT, where specificity exceeds (early arterial, arterial, pancreatic, portal/venous, and late
90% [1, 25–27]. phases) begins immediately after the injection of second-
At US, pancreatic adenocarcinoma almost always pres- generation microbubble-based contrast medium. Contrast-
ents as a solid and markedly hypoechoic mass in compari- enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) is the only imaging method
son to the adjacent pancreatic parenchyma, because of its capable of providing this real-time evaluation of enhance-
very low acoustic impedance [19]. In highly aggressive ment, throughout all the dynamic phases [24], by maintain-
forms, necrosis is common, resulting from the difference ing the same scanning frame rate of the preliminary
between the tumor growth rate and the formation of new conventional B-mode examination [42]. As a consequence,
microvessels from neoangiogenesis [24]. The necrotic/liq- the study of tumoral macro- and microvasculature can pro-
uid, anechoic, portion of the tumor is usually centrally vide excellent results at CEUS [45].
4 M. D’Onofrio et al.
Ductal adenocarcinoma shows poor enhancement in all creatitis [50]. Ductal adenocarcinoma, typically without cal-
phases. This hypovascular, hypoenhancing pattern is present cifications, is detectable in the pre-contrast phase only when
in about 90% of cases [43, 46, 47]. The hypoenhancing its dimensions modify pancreatic shape and contours,
aspect depends on the marked desmoplasia and on the mean because of its isodensity, relatively to the adjacent paren-
vascular density (MVD), which is low and usually inferior to chyma. A central necrotic degeneration usually provides an
the normal pancreatic parenchyma, together with the pres- inhomogeneous hypodensity to the lesion [24]. The main
ence of necrosis or mucin [41, 48, 49]. The MVD of pancre- pancreatic duct is usually markedly upstream dilated, and the
atic adenocarcinoma is also influenced by different degrees double-duct sign can be observed in tumors located in the
of differentiation. It has been shown that the enhancement head of the gland, even in the pre-contrast phase.
pattern at CEUS correlates with MVD, tumor differentiation, Contrast-enhanced CT appearance mainly depends on
aggressiveness, and prognosis [41]. To obtain a more objec- contrast medium volume, iodine concentration, and injec-
tive evaluation of CEUS perfusion, a quantification analysis tion flow rate. It is important to tailor the amount of con-
can also be obtained directly on the US scanner. The result- trast medium to the patient’s weight, using 1.5 ml/kg of a
ing color maps actually seem very similar to those obtained high iodine concentration contrast medium, for example,
at perfusion CT. 370 mgI/ml; the maximum amount of iodine should not
CEUS can increase the differential diagnosis between exceed 35–45 g, independently from the concentration
pancreatic lesions and should be recommended in patients [24]. The contrast medium is injected intravenously, fol-
with a proper visualization of the gland at US. So, a solid lowed by 50 ml of saline solution, at a flow rate of 3–5 ml/s.
hypovascular pancreatic mass at CEUS has to be considered To increase parenchymal enhancement, either a higher
a ductal adenocarcinoma, until proven otherwise. For the injection rate or a higher iodine concentration may be
above-explained reasons, the first recommendation in the applied, considering that only the latter does not depend on
2011 European Guidelines for Pancreatic Application of the intravenous access caliber [50]. Keeping constant the
CEUS is in fact: focal pancreatic lesions identified with US injection rate and the volume, the use of a contrast media
can be studied with CEUS to improve the characterization of with higher concentration of iodine significantly improves
ductal adenocarcinoma [22]. the arterial and portal venous phases’ enhancement and
pancreatic carcinoma conspicuity [51].
The administration of contrast medium involves the use
Computed Tomography of bolus tracking technique to exactly determine the timing
of scan delay for a precise individual study. Pancreatic phase
Multi-detector computed tomography, allowing pancreatic starts about 35–40 s after contrast administration or, using
imaging with a very high spatial and temporal resolution bolus tracking technique, 15–20 s after the aortic threshold
within a short breath-hold, is still considered the gold stan- enhancement [50], corresponding to a late arterial phase.
dard for the evaluation of focal solid pancreatic lesions. During this phase, there is maximal conspicuity of the mark-
The accuracy in the diagnosis of pancreatic solid tumors edly hypovascular tumor; this phase is furthermore useful to
is very high, owing to the isotropic or near-isotropic resolu- evaluate the peripancreatic arteries for the detection of vas-
tion (data set with a similar spatial resolution in each dimen- cular invasion [52, 53]. During the venous/portal phase, there
sion), thinner slice collimation (<1 mm), and multiphasic is a pancreatic washout, and the contrast agent begins to dif-
imaging [50]. fuse into the interstitium of the lesion, with the tumor becom-
The typical CT aspect of ductal adenocarcinoma is that of ing less conspicuous. Furthermore, during this phase, it is
a hypo−/isodense solid mass on unenhanced scan, hypodense possible to evaluate the peripancreatic veins for the detection
during dynamic study [20]. of vascular invasion. This phase is moreover ideal for the
After a minimum fast of 6 h, 500–700 ml of negative oral detection of liver metastases [54]. The late phase has no sig-
contrast medium (water) should be administered about nificant advantages for the detection of both pancreatic ade-
10 min before CT examination [50]. nocarcinoma and liver metastasis [55]; despite this, the
A triphasic CT examination is usually performed for the persistence of a pancreatic focal enhancement during this
evaluation of pancreatic adenocarcinoma, including a non- phase is suggestive of contrast medium pooling within a
enhanced phase, a late arterial or pancreatic phase (15 s highly fibrotic process, as an adenocarcinoma.
delay from the aortic enhancement threshold, using bolus The overall sensitivity of CT in the detection of pancreatic
tracking technique), and a portal venous phase (35 s delay). adenocarcinomas has improved over the recent years with the
Pre-contrast CT examination is performed from the top of advent of multi-detector CT scanners, ranging between 75 and
the diaphragm to the lower poles of the kidneys; this phase is 100%, with a specificity of 70–100% [56–62].
important to assess the presence of bile duct stones, blood Different post-processing reconstructions can be used to
clots, or pancreatic calcifications, as a sign of chronic pan- maximize the diagnostic yield of the CT scan and to improve
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 5
the visualization of the peripancreatic vasculature and the conventional contrast-enhanced CT [65]. Moreover, this
biliary tree. The reconstructions most frequently used are functional imaging may add useful information on tumor
maximum intensity projections, which easily and efficiently aggressiveness, affecting treatment strategy and patient man-
display vascular structures; volume-rendered imaging, which agement: it has been reported that considering both peak
is more complex but able to display both vessels and soft tis- enhanced index (PEI) and blood volume (BV) perfusional
sue elements, useful for the evaluation of early local infiltra- parameters with the related cutoff values (17.8 HU and
tion; minimum intensity projections, able to demonstrate low 14.8 ml/100 g, respectively), it is possible to characterize
attenuation structures; and multiplanar and curved recon- high-grade adenocarcinomas with 60% sensitivity, 100%
structions, the latter created along the pancreatic duct to specificity, a positive predictive value of 100%, a negative
show the entire Wirsung duct in one or two 2D images. Such predictive value of 60%, and 75% accuracy [75].
additional 2D and 3D reformatted images provide useful
information about the tumor extent, vascular involvement,
and ductal abnormalities, which could be difficult to evaluate Magnetic Resonance Imaging
only on axial images [50].
Regarding tumor detection, as reported earlier, the con- Pancreatic adenocarcinomas are usually investigated by
spicuity of pancreatic adenocarcinomas is sometimes greater means of contrast-enhanced MDCT; however, not infre-
at US examination than at CT [19, 25]. This could be proved quently, these lesions are studied with double examinations,
by measuring and comparing the difference in echogenicity both MDCT and MRI, as a result of an incorrect
in respect to Hounsfield Units (HU) of the same lesion and management.
by analyzing some results already reported in the literature The MRI study of pancreatic adenocarcinoma is based on
on the use of ultrasound, both percutaneously and endoscop- T1- and T2-weighted sequences, dynamic post-contrast
ically [25, 61–63]. Pancreatic lesions are detectable at CT if images, and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography
a difference with the circumstant parenchyma of 10–15 HU (MRCP) sequences [76].
exists [59, 64]. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is usually inhomogeneously
Multi-detector computed tomography is still considered hypointense on T1-weighted images, because of its high
the most reliable technique for determining the nonresect- fibrotic component, due to marked desmoplasia [77, 78]; on
ability of a tumor, with reported sensitivity and specificity T2-weighted images, pancreatic adenocarcinoma has a vari-
values ranging, respectively, between 79–94% and 82–89% able signal intensity, especially if necrotic degeneration
[58, 65–67]. occurs [5], but it is mainly slightly hypointense in respect to
Finally, CT obviously covers the fundamental role of the surrounding pancreatic parenchyma. Thus, T1-weighted
staging. In particular, it is well known that imaging tech- images with fat saturation remain the most important pre-
niques, particularly CT, are highly sensitive for the evalua- contrast sequence for the detection of pancreatic adenocarci-
tion of the T and M stages. T1 and T2 tumors are distinguished noma at MRI.
on the basis of size (<2 cm or >2 cm, respectively); T3 dis- As for CT, the highest conspicuity of pancreatic adeno-
ease is defined as an extension into the peripancreatic soft carcinoma is obtained during the pancreatic phase, per-
tissues, without the invasion of the stomach, colon, celiac formed 35–45 s after the administration of gadolinium
axis, or SMA, whose invasion characterizes a T4 tumor. chelates contrast medium, when the lesion appears hypoin-
Conversely, it has been reported that CT is not accurate in the tense in respect to the background pancreatic parenchyma.
assessment of the N stage [68, 69]. The highly desmoplastic forms usually show a delayed
Perfusion CT is a relatively new imaging technique able peripheral rim enhancement [5, 20]. MRCP images are use-
to provide qualitative and quantitative information on tissue ful to evaluate the pancreatic ductal system and the biliary
perfusion, which have been demonstrated to be correlated ducts; the most common finding is the presence of the
with histological markers of angiogenesis. The excellent lin- double-duct sign for pancreatic head adenocarcinoma and of
ear relationship between tissue attenuation and iodinated an abrupt narrowing with upstream dilation of the main pan-
contrast agent concentration allows an objective quantifica- creatic duct. The differential diagnosis between a benign and
tion of the perfusion parameters correlated with the hemody- a malignant stenosis of the main pancreatic duct without
namic changes caused by angiogenesis [70–72]. Perfusion direct visualization of a focal pancreatic mass can be
CT can be applied to the study of the pancreas, and with this achieved by performing a dynamic MRCP after the adminis-
imaging technique, many authors have reported that the per- tration of secretin. Benign stenosis dilates after the adminis-
fusion of pancreatic carcinoma is significantly lower, com- tration of secretin, with the so-called duct-penetrating sign,
pared to healthy pancreatic parenchyma [73, 74]; as a while malignant stenosis does not dilate after secretin.
consequence, it has been reported that perfusion CT may be Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) is a relatively new MRI
useful to better delineate pancreatic carcinomas not visible at technique. It seems that DWI is able to differentiate between
6 M. D’Onofrio et al.
normal pancreatic parenchyma and solid tumors in 92% of artery, the splenomesenteric-portal confluence, and the celiac
cases [79], helping also in detecting metastases. trunk. Lesions in the uncinate process tend to infiltrate the
superior mesenteric vein and/or artery. Lesions located in the
body/tail tend to infiltrate the splenic vessels.
Clinical Presentation In more than 95% of cases, regardless of the site, pan-
creatic ductal adenocarcinoma is diagnosed at an
Symptomatic advanced stage, with locally advanced or metastatic dis-
ease [41, 80, 81].
Obstructive jaundice occurs with pancreatic head cancers
that determine infiltration of the common bile duct. This may
be accompanied by other symptoms related to cholestasis, Atypical
such as pruritus, and by other symptoms such as abdominal
discomfort and weight loss. Less commonly, pancreatic adenocarcinoma presents with-
Other clinical presentations of the tumor can be epigastric out a true focal mass, but with a diffuse vessel thickening,
pain and backache, especially for pancreatic body-located which indicates the extension beyond the pancreatic pseudo-
tumors due to the infiltration of peripancreatic vessels and capsule into the perivascular lymphatics [82].
nervous plexus, but also newly onset diabetes, and acute pan- Pancreatic adenocarcinoma can also grow enlarging the
creatitis caused by the infiltration of the pancreatic duct. pancreatic gland without clear signs of infiltration, thus
Nausea and vomiting, resulting from gastroduodenal mimicking inflammatory process, repeating a mild
obstruction, may also be symptoms of this disease. pancreatitis-like morphology.
Asymptomatic Variants
Pancreatic cancer typically presents as a focal mass, which denosquamous Carcinoma (ASC)
A
tends to infiltrate the surrounding structures and the main Malignant epithelial neoplasm with glandular (ductal) and
pancreatic duct, which is upstream dilated. squamous differentiation. The squamous component repre-
The tumor can involve arterial vessels, such as superior sents at least 30% of the neoplasms. They account for 0.9–
mesenteric, splenic, celiac, hepatic, and left renal arteries, in 4.4% of all pancreatic malignancies. Clinical presentation,
descending order of frequency, while venous involvement radiological and gross appearance may completely mimic a
can affect superior mesenteric, splenic, portal, and left renal conventional adenocarcinoma. At the time of symptoms
veins. onset, the majority of patients arrives to clinical evaluation
Typically, lesions located in the pancreatic head tend to with an advanced stage of the disease and generally die early
involve the duodenum, the superior mesenteric vein and/or due to local or systemic dissemination. For those patients
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 7
suffering from locally advanced or metastatic ASC, median The necrotic/fluid part of the tumor is mainly located cen-
overall survival rate is exceptionally dismal, even worse than trally [96]. As mentioned before, this necrosis results from
that of ductal adenocarcinoma, amounting to 4.5 months the difference between tumor growth rate and formation of
[83–86]. new microvessels from neoangiogenesis [24].
In these cases, what appears at imaging to be a cyst (a
olloid Carcinoma (Mucinous Noncystic
C macrocyst) is a solid, necrotic non-viable tissue surrounded
Carcinoma) by a cuff of viable carcinoma.
Malignant epithelial neoplasm, characterized by the pres-
ence of mucin-producing neoplastic epithelial cells “float-
ing” in large pools (>80%) of extracellular mucin, without Isodense Mass
stromal attachment. They are rare, accounting for 1–3% of
all pancreatic exocrine malignancies. Their gross appearance Ductal adenocarcinoma can be well vascularized and almost
is that of a soft gelatinous mass, large and better demarcated isovascular to the upstream pancreas, in which reduction of
than the typical ductal carcinoma. The mucin is usually the vascularization is induced by obstructive chronic
dense and thick. Typical colloid carcinoma must be differen- pancreatitis.
tiated from colloid carcinoma associated with intestinal-type It has been reported that up to 11% of pancreatic adeno-
IPMN [87]. carcinomas at CT show no difference in attenuation, com-
pared to the surrounding pancreatic tissue, the so-called
Undifferentiated Carcinoma (Anaplastic isoattenuating pancreatic adenocarcinomas [97–99]. Yoon
Carcinoma) et al. [98] reported that 27% of small (≤20 mm) pancreatic
Malignant epithelial neoplasm without glandular differentia- adenocarcinomas are isoattenuating at CT, and hence not
tion or other features indicating a definitive direction of dif- directly visible without the use of some secondary signs,
ferentiation. Anaplastic carcinoma is a rare high-grade such as upstream dilation of main pancreatic duct, the
pancreatic neoplasm. Macroscopically, it appears as a volu- double-duct sign, an abrupt cutoff of the main pancreatic
minous mass with a variegated aspect on cut section, due to duct. Moreover, small well-differentiated pancreatic adeno-
degenerative changes such as necrosis and hemorrhage. carcinomas, which are associated with a better survival rate
Microscopically, malignant cells are undifferentiated, with- after resection, are isoattenuating in more than 50% of cases
out gland and tubule formation. This neoplasm is composed [98–100].
by pleomorphic large cells, giant cells (anaplastic giant cell Ultrasound, both with transabdominal and––even bet-
carcinoma), or spindle cells (sarcomatoid carcinoma). ter––with endoscopic approach, can be resolutive by directly
Osteoclastic giant cell carcinoma is an uncommon, well- visualizing the lesion, using the differences in the acoustic
circumscribed, large tumor, characterized by abundant non- impedance; CEUS can characterize and better visualize these
neoplastic osteoclastic-type giant cells associated with a lesions as hypovascular masses, due to the differences
sarcomatoid carcinoma. The prognosis of anaplastic carci- between imaging techniques in terms of contrast resolution
noma is worse than that of conventional ductal adenocarci- (suppression of the basal background tissue signals, viewing
noma [88–92]. only the contrast material) and blood pool contrast agent
(microbubbles).
Medullary Carcinoma
Malignant epithelial neoplasm characterized by poorly differ-
entiated cells with a syncytial growth pattern, pushing tumor Pitfalls and Errors
borders without a significant desmoplastic reaction. A rich
T-cell infiltration is present in some cases. From a genetic A ductal adenocarcinoma infiltrating the pancreatic duct
standpoint, it has been estimated that approximately one- may result in mild acute focal pancreatitis epiphenomenon.
fourth of all medullary carcinomas displays microsatellite This epiphenomenon must not be misinterpreted, which
instability, which therefore represents a typical genetic fea- might lead to the wrong final diagnosis of simple focal
ture, rarely observed in conventional pancreatic cancer [93]. pancreatitis.
Pancreatic cancer can also cause ductal obstruction, lead-
ing to either cystic dilation of the upstream ducts or forma-
Cystic Aspect at Imaging tion of small “retention” cysts, usually at the periphery of the
neoplasm [95, 96].
Necrotic/degenerative changes with cavities formation have Pancreatic pseudocysts may also be observed in associa-
been described in 1–8% of pancreatic adenocarcinomas, tion with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, probably as a
typically in poorly differentiated and large lesions [94, 95]. result of episodes of acute pancreatitis [101].
8 M. D’Onofrio et al.
These epiphenomena must not be misinterpreted, which within the lesion often characterizes hypervascular
in fact might lead to the wrong final diagnosis of a cystic masses, while no vessels are usually observed within
lesion. hypovascular tumors, such as pancreatic ductal adenocar-
cinoma. This is even more clear after the administration of
ultrasound contrast medium, as well as at dynamic CT
Imaging-Pathologic Correlation and/or MRI.
Another important differential diagnosis is between
As previously mentioned, the main characteristic of pancre- ductal adenocarcinoma and mass-forming pancreatitis.
atic ductal adenocarcinoma is its marked desmoplasia, with CEUS can improve this differential diagnosis: while duc-
a large amount of fibrosis. This is associated with a low mean tal adenocarcinoma remains hypovascular during all
vessel density, which is reflected, during dynamic imaging dynamic phases, the inflammatory mass shows a paren-
studies (CEUS, MDCT, MRI), in a markedly hypovascular chymal enhancement, as previously reported [102]. The
appearance. presence of a parenchymal enhancement, somewhat simi-
Furthermore, using CT or MRI, in which contrast lar to that of the adjacent pancreas during the dynamic
media can diffuse into the interstitium, it is possible to see study, is therefore a CEUS finding consistent with an
a delayed enhancement within the pancreatic adenocarci- inflammatory origin. The intensity of this parenchymal
noma, due to the diffusion of the contrast media into the enhancement is related to the length of the underlying
tumor fibrosis. inflammatory process [103]: the more chronic and long-
Moreover, the fibrosis determines the typical appearance standing the inflammatory process is, the less intense is
of pancreatic adenocarcinoma at sonoelastography, giving the enhancement. It is likely that this is related to the
very high stiffness values in the lesion [24]. entity of the associated fibrosis. In contrast, in acute mass-
forming pancreatitis, the enhancement is usually more
intense and prolonged [103].
Differential Diagnosis Mimics of pancreatic adenocarcinoma include mass-
forming inflammatory conditions (autoimmune pancreatitis,
Any solid pancreatic mass must be differentiated from ductal groove pancreatitis), other pancreatic tumors (hypovascular
adenocarcinoma. neuroendocrine tumors, solid pseudopapillary tumor, acinar
The second most frequent pancreatic solid mass is the cell carcinoma), hypovascular metastases, and other rare
neuroendocrine tumor, characterized by a hypervascular pancreatic masses, such as lymphoma, which will be dis-
appearance. At Doppler study, the detection of vessels cussed in a related chapter.
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 9
Image Gallery
a
b c
Fig. 1 Ductal adenocarcinoma. (a) Surgical specimen (pancreaticodu- neoplastic tissue is composed by few glandular structures in abundant
odenectomy): pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (asterisk) presenting fibrous desmoplastic stroma. Immunohistochemical staining with
as a white hard mass with irregular margins. Both the Wirsung duct (W) CD34 (brown traces in c) reveals scant blood vessels within the lesion
and the common bile duct (C) are dilated. (b, c) Histopathology: the (Courtesy of Piccin Editore, Milan, Italy)
10 M. D’Onofrio et al.
a b
Fig. 2 Ductal adenocarcinoma. (a) Conventional US study: typical US within the lesion according to the very low vascular density of the neo-
presentation of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma as a hypoechoic solid plastic tissue. (c) CEUS: the lesion typically shows a markedly hypo-
mass (arrow). (b) Color Doppler analysis: no Doppler signal is visible vascular pattern (arrow)
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 11
b
a
Fig. 3 Ductal adenocarcinoma. (a) Conventional US study: hypoechoic fibrotic mass with irregular margins infiltrating the Wirsung duct (W)
round-shaped lesion (asterisk) with blurred margins located in the pan- and the common bile duct (C). (d, e) Histopathology: the neoplastic
creatic head, with a slight dilation of the Wirsung duct. (b) CEUS: the tissue is typically composed by few glandular structures in abundant
lesion typically shows a markedly hypovascular pattern (asterisk). (c) fibrous desmoplastic stroma. Immunohistochemical staining with
Surgical specimen (pancreaticoduodenectomy): pancreatic ductal ade- CD34 (brown traces in e) reveals scant blood vessels within the lesion
nocarcinoma of the pancreatic head presenting as a white stiff highly
12 M. D’Onofrio et al.
d e
Fig. 3 (continued)
a b
c d
Fig. 4 Ductal adenocarcinoma. (a–e) Complete US study: round- (3.86 m/s in c) is confirmed in respect to the pancreatic body paren-
shaped hypoechoic mass (box in a) located in the pancreatic head, chyma (1.40 m/s in d). At CEUS (e), the lesion typically shows a mark-
resulting stiff, (red) due to the rich desmoplastic stroma in the elasto- edly hypovascular pattern (arrow in e)
gram (b). At the quantitative ARFI elastography, high-velocity value
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 13
Fig. 4 (continued)
14 M. D’Onofrio et al.
a b
Fig. 5 Ductal adenocarcinoma. (a) EUS study: small tumor (T) lesion and the superior mesenteric vein (smv) and portal vein (pv) wall;
obstructing both the common bile duct (c) and the Wirsung duct (w). (b) c, common bile duct. (d) EUS study: staging of a pancreatic tumor (T)
EUS study: staging of a pancreatic tumor (T) shows a clear interface shows the loss of interface (arrows) between the lesion and the portal
(arrow) with the superior mesenteric artery (sma). (c) EUS study: stag- vein (pv), which is surrounded by the tumor; the Wirsung (w) is
ing of a pancreatic tumor (T) shows the contact (arrow) between the obstructed by the tumor
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 15
Fig. 6 Ductal adenocarcinoma. (a–c) EUS study: elastography (a), sound in low MI mode (c). Stiff structure (blue) in elastography; only a
contrast-enhanced endoscopic ultrasound in high MI Doppler mode few arterial vessels are visible using pulse-waved Doppler mode and
with microvessel analysis (b), and contrast-enhanced endoscopic ultra- markedly low contrast-enhancing effect in low MI mode
16 M. D’Onofrio et al.
Fig. 6 (continued)
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 17
a b
Fig. 7 Ductal adenocarcinoma. (a) IOUS: pancreatic head mass (aster- vein. The wall of the vein appears irregular with deformation of the ves-
isk) not involving the main vessels. (b) IOUS: pancreatic head sel. (c) IOUS: pancreatic head mass (asterisk) involving the superior
hypoechoic mass (asterisk) not separated from the superior mesenteric mesenteric vein (V) and artery (A)
vein with a small neoplastic portion (arrow) within the lumen of the
18 M. D’Onofrio et al.
a b
c d
e f
Fig. 8 Ductal adenocarcinoma. (a–d) dynamic CT: the study demon- mal. (e) Surgical specimen (pancreaticoduodenectomy): the presence of
strates a round-shaped lesion, hypovascular hypodense (arrow) in the a round-shaped ductal adenocarcinoma (asterisk) of the pancreatic head
pancreatic (a) and venous (b) phases with blurred margins located in is confirmed. (f–i) Superimposed drawings on CT images (f–h) and
the pancreatic head. Coronal (c) and sagittal (d) planes show the abrupt specimen (i) better clarify the relationships among the lesion (brown
cutoff of the Wirsung duct, which appears slightly upstream-dilated, circle), the Wirsung duct (yellow line), and the common bile duct (green
and of the common bile duct. The superior mesenteric vessels are nor- line)
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 19
g h
Fig. 8 (continued)
20 M. D’Onofrio et al.
a b
c d
Fig. 9 Ductal adenocarcinoma imaging correlation. (a–c) CT study: e) on T2-weighted images, with diffusion restriction, appearing hyper-
typical appearance of a small pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, pre- intense on high b value DW images (f). At dynamic study, the lesion
senting as slightly hypodense (arrow in a) lesion in the baseline (a) appears hypovascular (arrow in g and h) in comparison to the adjacent
acquisition with blurred margins in the pancreatic head, typically hypo- pancreatic parenchyma in the pancreatic (g) and venous (h) dynamic
vascular (arrow in b) in comparison to the adjacent pancreatic paren- phases. (i, j) MRCP: the neoplasm causes an abrupt cutoff of the
chyma in the pancreatic (b) and venous (c) dynamic phases. (d–h) MRI Wirsung duct (arrow in i), upstream-dilated, not regressing after secre-
study: the lesion typically appears hypointense (arrow in d) on tin stimulation (j)
T1-weighted fat-saturated images and slightly hyperintense (arrow in
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 21
e f
g h
i j
Fig. 9 (continued)
22 M. D’Onofrio et al.
a b
Fig. 10 Ductal adenocarcinoma. (a–e) MRI study: small oval-shaped shows the abrupt cutoff (arrow in c) and the upstream dilation of the
nodule of the pancreatic body appearing hypointense (arrow in a) on Wirsung duct. At dynamic study, the lesion appears typically hypovas-
T1-weighted images and slightly hypointense (arrow in b) on cular (arrow in d) in comparison to the adjacent pancreatic parenchyma
T2-weighted images. The upstream portion of the Wirsung duct (W in in the pancreatic (d) and venous (e) dynamic phases
b) is dilated with atrophic pancreatic parenchyma. MRCP study better
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 23
a b
c d
Fig. 11 Ductal adenocarcinoma. (a–d) MRI study: small irregular- (arrow in b) fat-saturated images. At dynamic study, the lesion appears
shaped lesion of the pancreatic head appearing hypointense on typically hypovascular (arrow in d) in comparison to the adjacent pan-
T1-weighted (arrow in a) and slightly hypointense on T2-weighted creatic parenchyma in the pancreatic (c) and venous (d) dynamic phases
24 M. D’Onofrio et al.
a b
c d
e f
Fig. 12 Ductal adenocarcinoma. (a–f) MRI study: small round-shaped MRCP shows a markedly dilated biliary tree, with an abrupt cutoff of
lesion with blurred margins of the pancreatic head, appearing hypoin- the common bile duct (C in d) in the head of the pancreas and a dilated
tense (arrow in a) on T1-weighted fat-saturated images and slightly Wirsung duct (W in d). At dynamic study (e, f), the lesion appears
hyperintense (arrow in b) on T2-weighted fat-saturated images, and almost isovascular in comparison to the adjacent pancreatic
with diffusion coefficient restriction with high b value on DWI (c). parenchyma
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 25
a b
c d
Fig. 13 Ductal adenocarcinoma with double-duct sign. (a–d) MRI hypovascular (arrow in c) in comparison to the adjacent pancreatic
study: pancreatic head-neck round-shaped mass with blurred margins, parenchyma in the post-contrastographic pancreatic phase. MRCP (d)
typically appearing hypointense (arrow in a) on T1-weighted fat- shows a significant dilation of the biliary tree and Wirsung duct (double-
saturated images and slightly hyperintense (arrow in b) on T2-weighted duct sign)
fat-saturated images. At dynamic study, the lesion appears markedly
26 M. D’Onofrio et al.
Fig. 15 Ductal adenocarcinoma with main pancreatic duct dilation. (a) Wirsung duct (W). (b) Surgical specimen (distal pancreatectomy) of
CEUS: the study shows a hypoechoic hypovascular round-shaped different case: hard, whitish round-shaped ductal adenocarcinoma
lesion (arrow) of the pancreatic body, causing upstream dilation of the (arrow) in the pancreatic body with a slightly dilated Wirsung duct (W)
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 27
a b
c d
Fig. 16 Ductal adenocarcinoma with main pancreatic duct dilation. (a, hypovascular hypodense nodule (arrow in d). Multiplanar reconstruc-
b) US study: small round-shaped lesion, hypoechoic (arrow in a) at tion (e) with MinIP algorithm clearly demonstrates the small hypovas-
conventional ultrasound and hypovascular (arrow in b) at CEUS in the cular nodule (arrow in e) in the pancreatic neck, causing upstream
pancreatic neck, with marked upstream dilation of the Wirsung duct (W dilation of the Wirsung duct
in a). (c–e) dynamic CT: dilated Wirsung duct (W in c), stopped in
28 M. D’Onofrio et al.
a b
Fig. 17 Ductal adenocarcinoma with main pancreatic duct dilation. (a) duct (W). (b) Surgical specimen (distal pancreatectomy): small ductal
Ultrasound study: small round-shaped hypoechoic nodule (calipers) in adenocarcinoma of pancreatic body (asterisk) with markedly dilated
the pancreatic body causing marked upstream dilation of the Wirsung Wirsung duct (W)
Fig. 18 Ductal adenocarcinoma with main pancreatic duct involve- Wirsung duct (W). (b) Surgical specimen of different case: small ductal
ment. (a) Surgical specimen (distal pancreatectomy): pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (asterisk) with stenosis (arrow) of the Wirsung duct
adenocarcinoma (asterisk), causing marked upstream dilation of the (W), not upstream-dilated
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 29
a b
Fig. 19 Double-duct sign. (a, b) dynamic CT: the study shows dilation in b) and the Wirsung duct (W in b). (c) Surgical specimen (pancreati-
of the biliary tree and of the Wirsung duct (W in a). Multiplanar recon- coduodenectomy) of different case: ductal adenocarcinoma (asterisk),
struction with MinIP algorithm shows a hypodense mass (asterisk in b) causing dilation of both the common bile duct (C) and the Wirsung duct
in the pancreatic head, causing dilation of both the common bile duct (C (W)
30 M. D’Onofrio et al.
a b
c d
e f
Fig. 20 Double-duct sign in pancreatic head necrotic adenocarcinoma. shows peripheral diffusion restriction with mild central T2-shine through
(a-h) MRI study: round-shaped pancreatic head mass with regular mar- effect (necrotic component) (e). At dynamic study (f–h), the lesion appears
gins, appearing slightly hypointense (arrow in a) on T1-weighted fat-sat- markedly hypovascular (arrow in f) with avascular portions in the pancre-
urated images and slightly hyperintense (arrow in b and c) on T2-weighted atic (f), venous (g), and late (h) phases. (i, j) Surgical specimen (pancreati-
axial (b) and coronal (c) images. MRCP (d) shows a dilated common bile coduodenectomy) of different case: ductal adenocarcinoma with
duct (C in d) and Wirsung duct (W in d) (double-duct sign). The mass intralesional cystic necrotic portion (asterisk in i and j)
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 31
g h
i j
Fig. 20 (continued)
32 M. D’Onofrio et al.
a b
c d
e f
Fig. 21 CT virtual pancreaticoduodenectomy and pathological corre- (red). Pancreaticoduodenectomy (d), with the vascular bed highlighted
lation. (a, b) CT-pathological correlation: volume-rendering (a) of the (red) on the surgical specimen. (e, f) CT-pathological correlation:
right pancreas after virtual resection with pancreatic neck margin high- volume-rendering (e) of the right pancreas after virtual resection with
lighted (green). Pancreaticoduodenectomy (b), with the pancreatic mar- pancreatic posterior retroperitoneal margin highlighted (black).
gin highlighted (green) on the surgical specimen. (c, d) CT-pathological Pancreaticoduodenectomy (f), with the pancreatic posterior retroperito-
correlation: volume-rendering (c) of the right pancreas after virtual neal margin highlighted (black) on the surgical specimen. Probe in the
resection with the vascular bed, where the superior mesenteric vein/ common bile duct
portal vein and the superior mesenteric artery originally lie, highlighted
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 33
a d
Fig. 22 Resectable ductal adenocarcinoma. (a–c) Ultrasound study: con- hypovascular (arrow). (d) Surgical specimen (pancreaticoduodenec-
ventional examination (a) shows a hypoechoic round-shaped lesion tomy): small adenocarcinoma (arrow), confined in the pancreatic head
(arrow) in the pancreatic head with regular aspect of the superior mesen- periampullary region. Common bile duct (C)
teric vessels (arrows in b). At CEUS (c), the lesion is typically markedly
34 M. D’Onofrio et al.
a d
b e
Fig. 23 Ductal adenocarcinoma with small venous infiltration. (a–c) tration (arrow in c) of the superior mesenteric vein wall. (d, e) Surgical
Ultrasound study: conventional examination shows hypoechoic ill- specimen (pancreaticoduodenectomy): on the posterior surface of the
defined mass (arrow in a) in the pancreatic head with main duct (W) surgical specimen, a small irregularity of the vascular bed (circle) is
upstream dilation. The mass involves the uncinate process infiltrating documented and better visible on the detail image (e). Probes in the
the posterior wall of the superior mesenteric vein (V in b). At longitudi- Wirsung duct and in the common bile duct are visible
nal scan (c) with Doppler clarification is clearly visible the small infil-
Ductal Adenocarcinoma 35
a b
Fig. 24 Ductal adenocarcinoma and vessels infiltration. (a) Surgical bed (green). (b) Surgical specimen: ductal adenocarcinoma (asterisk),
specimen (pancreaticoduodenectomy): on the posterior surface of the involving the main pancreatic duct (W) and the common bile duct (C)
specimen, partial vascular resection (circle) is visible along the vascular with superior mesenteric vein resection (circle)