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1
POWER AND KNOWLEDGE NEXUS: CASE STUDY
OF PAKISTAN

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY

in

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

By

ZAHID YAQUB

Reg. No: 02131711014

SCHOOL OF POLITICS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

QUAID-I-AZAM UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

JANUARY, 2019

2
POWER AND KNOWLEDGE NEXUS: CASE STUDY
OF PAKISTAN

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY

in

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

By

ZAHID YAQUB

Reg. No: 02131711014

SUPERVISED BY
DR QANDIL ABASS

SIGNATURE OF THE SUPERVISOR

SCHOOL OF POLITICS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

QUAID-I-AZAM UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

JANUARY 2019

3
 Dedicated to
The unsung heroes, my all teachers.

4
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to begin with the name of Allah, the most benevolent and compassionate.
I thank Him for all His blessings and for enabling me to accomplish this work. This
research work is an outcome of utmost, sincere and dedicated efforts of my teachers. I
always value their presence for teaching and guiding me with a conviction and zeal.
My supervisor, Dr Qandil Abbas is not an exception. His able guidance and
professional competence has opened new arena of research work for me.

My worthy faculty at School of Politics and International Relations, QAU has put best
efforts to guide me about the dynamics of international politics. Dr Nazir Hussain, Dr
Zafar Nawaz Jaspal, Dr Farhan Hanif Siddiqui, Dr Mujeeb Afzal, Dr Ahmed Ijaz
Malik, Dr Mavara Inayat and Dr Aisha Younus will always be a part of my sweet
memories and will be true source of guidance in my academic pursuits, in years to
come.

I would like to thank my parents, (Haji Muhammad Yaqub and Razia Begum) for
their sincerest prayers. My wife Dr Kanwal Mobarak and my dolls Izma, Rida &
Adeena deserve for approbation to sacrifice their time and allowing me to do this
esteemed task.

I would like to thank my class fellows specially Hassan Khan, Mustansar Hussain
Taseer , my sister Sobia Andleeb and the staff of SPIR for providing me a conducive
learning environment.

I bow to Allah Almighty for his countless blessings and bounties and pray for a
prosperous, growing and well respected Pakistan. (Aameen)

(ZAHID YAQUB)

Reg. No: 02131711014

MPhil International Relations

School of Politics & International Relations
Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad Pakistan (zahid.aamir@yahoo.com)

5
 ABSTRACT

According to Michel Foucault's the power is based on knowledge and it makes use of
knowledge to reproduce power by shaping it in accordance with its anonymous
intentions. Power (re-) creates its own fields of exercise through the knowledge.
Foucault incorporates this inevitable mutuality into his neologism power-knowledge,
the most important part of which is the hyphen that links the two aspects of the
integrated concept together (and alludes to their inherent inextricability). It is helpful
noting that Foucault has a textual understanding of both power and knowledge. Both
power and knowledge are to be seen as de-centralized, relativistic, ubiquitous, and
unstable (dynamic) systemic phenomena. Thus Foucault's concept of power draws on
micro-relations without falling into reductionism because it does not neglect, but
emphasizes, the systemic (or structural) aspect of the phenomenon. However, he does
not actually define knowledge. The term was initially coined in the later works of
Foucault. He replaced his notion of power-knowledge with the term governmentality
which points to a specific mentality of governance. The thesis has explained the
power knowledge nexus in perspective of Pakistan. As a first step it gives the
understanding of power knowledge as a discursive phenomenon and the analyses the
notion of govemmentality (Foucault, 1991) to provide a critique of dominant forms
of rationality or ways of thinking about Pakistani governance. The next part of the
thesis is deliberated with more detail about the concept of 'development' in the
discourses of the global powers, World Bank and some of the other multilateral
development agencies that have their roots in these dominant rationalities and
provide a language, set of motivations and underlying rationale for education policy
and practices in Pakistan . Here it will be argued that taken together, discourses
around education and development have the effect of rendering populations
economically useful and politically submissive in relation to dominant global
interests. The thesis is concluded, however, by briefly setting out some ways forward
within the discursive field for challenging these dominant discourses and creating
space for historically marginalized knowledge and ways of understanding power and
knowledge nexus through the Foucauldian lens of “governmentality” in Pakistan.

6
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Caption for Table 1

Table 2. Caption for Table 2

7
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Caption for Figure 1. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 2. Caption for Figure 2. Error! Bookmark not defined.

8
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ............................................................................................... 5

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................... 6

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... 7

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... 8

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 12

Research Questions............................................................................................... 16

Key Literature and its Limitations ........................................................................ 16

Hypothesis ............................................................................................................ 20

Research Methodology ......................................................................................... 20

Scope of the research ............................................................................................ 20

Organization of research ....................................................................................... 21

Chapter one .................................................................................................................. 23

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: POWER KNOWLEDGE NEXUS OF MICHEL

FOUCAULT ................................................................................................................ 23

1.1 General Overview ........................................................................................... 23

1.2 Power ............................................................................................................. 24

1.2.1 Hard Power ................................................................................................. 26

1.2.2 Soft Power ................................................................................................... 27

1.3 Foucault’s Types of Power ............................................................................ 28

1.3.1 Disciplinary Power ..................................................................................... 28

1.3.2 Sovereign Power ......................................................................................... 28

1.3.3 Bio Power ................................................................................................... 29

1.3.4 Pastoral Power ............................................................................................ 30

9
 1.4 Power and Governmentality ........................................................................... 30

1.5 Knowledge ................................................................................................... 31

1.5.1 Archeological Insight ................................................................................. 31

1.5.2 Genealogical Insight ................................................................................... 32

1.5.3 Discourse Analysis: Language and Practice by Foucault ......................... 32

1.6 Limits and Regulations of Discourse Analysis .............................................. 33

1.6.1 Taboos ........................................................................................................ 34

1.6.2 Madness/Sanity............................................................................................ 34

1.6.3 Institutional Ratification .............................................................................. 35

1.5.4 Conditions of Employment of Discourse .................................................... 36

1.7 Power Knowledge : Knowledge Imperialism Vs Globalization .................. 37

chapter -2 ..................................................................................................................... 39

POWER – KNOWLEDGE NEXUS: LANGUAGE AND PRACTICE IN PAKISTAN

..................................................................................................................................... 39

2.1 Language and Practice : General Overview ................................................. 39

2.2 Language as an Object of Knowledge in Pakistan ....................................... 40

2.3.1 Language and Governmentality in Pakistan ................................................ 42

2.4 Language and Influence in Pakistan ............................................................ 43

2.4.1 Language Imperialism ................................................................................ 46

2.4.2 Language and Power : Institutions in Pakistan ............................................ 49

chapter 3 ....................................................................................................................... 51

POWER AND KNOWLEDGE NEXUS: GOVERNMENTALITY AND PAKISTAN

..................................................................................................................................... 51

3.1 Governmentality in Power and Knowledge Nexus: An Overview................. 51

3.1.1 Governmentality : Economic Policies in Pakistan ................................. 53

3.1.2 Governmentality : Defence and Security Policies of Pakistan .............. 59

10
 3.1.3 Governmentality : Educational Policies, Discourse and Pakistan ......... 63

3.1.4 Governmentality : National Narrative in Pakistan ................................. 64

chapter-4 ...................................................................................................................... 70

POWER AND KNOWLEDGE NEXUX: knowledge IMPERIALISM VS

globalization IN PAKISTAN....................................................................................... 70

4.1 General Overview ........................................................................................... 70

4.2 Educational Philosophy/Theories ................................................................... 73

4.3 Educational Policies ....................................................................................... 73

4.4 Research ( Journals, Dissertations, Thesis) .................................................... 76

4.5 Course, Syllabus, Curriculum ......................................................................... 78

4.6 Degrees Validation ........................................................................................ 80

4.7 Institutional World Ranking .......................................................................... 80

4.8 Education as 'capacity–communication–power .............................................. 85

4.9 Globalization Vs Testing, Measurement & Evaluation .................................. 87

4.10 Literature ...................................................................................................... 88

4.11 Education/Knowledge VS Economic Power ................................................ 89

conclusion .................................................................................................................... 91

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 93

11
 INTRODUCTION

Power and Knowledge are two different phenomenon. In most of the cases, power and
knowledge are discussed separately. However, when we discuss the nexus of Power
and knowledge, the name of Edward Said and Michel Foucault are very famous.
Foucault believes that knowledge and its various forms derive from different
representations of power. Hr further argues that different types of power produce
different forms of knowledge.

For Foucault, power and knowledge are inseparable entities. These are inextricably
related. Knowledge is always an exercise of power and power is always a function of
knowledge. For Foucault, the most known example of a practice of power &
knowledge is that of the confession, as discussed in History of Sexuality. Once solely
a practice of the Christian Church, Foucault explains that it has became the
permanent feature of secular culture specifically the psychology in the 18th and 19th
centuries. With the help of confession (a power) people were motivated or provoked
to “tell the truth” (produce knowledge) about their sexual desires, feelings and
emotions, and temperament. Through the help of confessions, an idea of a sexual
identity at the core of the self became familiar. It is again a form of knowledge and as
an identity it has to be monitored, refined, and often controlled (, back to power). In
the views of Michel Foucault, power/knowledge is productive and constraining at the
same time. Power/knowledge not only confines whatever we can do, but it also makes
understand the new arena of philosophy and practice about ourselves. Foucault
believes that power brings change and transformation in the behavior, conduct and
thought pattern of the individuals. When people come in relation of power to each
other, they change themselves. The example may be the Teacher, to explain the
phenomenon of the relation of power. Teacher is in power to change the mind and
thought pattern of the students through his knowledge and conduct. Foucault
considers that freedom and liberty is the important aspect or condition of power. The
teacher exercises his power with the free will of the students and because of this
acceptance the students re changed. There is a contract between the both which
ultimately there is no problem in the relation of power. Power changes its pattern and
emerge as the domination when it stops or suspends the application of free will. It

12
happens when the transformation of conduct or perception is at the issue. The
dominant role of the teacher emerges when he changes his position through threat.
Here the most important factor is the knowledge of the teacher which provides him a
ground for agreement and necessary component of the relations of power. With
compare to modern societies, in old societies power doesn’t heavily depend upon
knowledge. In modern societies, power is compulsorily associated with knowledge.

In modern societies, the structure, innovation, disciplines of knowledge, are an

important stake holders of the power. Michel Foucault has widely discussed the in the
nexus between power and knowledge. The essential debate of Foucault regarding the
nexus between power and knowledge is to question the tradition of the acquiring
knowledge and its relationship with power. He emphasis that knowledge is attained
through the means of reason and experience. He writes that, “we will have to change
the notion that where power and knowledge breaks relationship, the knowledge and
power relationship can be can be explored in various ways. Power should be
subsidiary to the knowledge.

Foucault emphasized that how does power mechanisms affect every day lives. This is
opposite to discuss the power as a commodity, which may be held or possessed,
personified in a person, institution, in a structure, or it may be used for organizational
and individual purposes. Michel Foucault says that “Power is not something that is
acquired, seized or shared, something one holds on to or allows to slip away.’’
(Foucault, 1981, p.94)

After studying power we come to know that how does power operate and the
procedures, practices and techniques which reveal its effect. It is also evident in the
way persons or things are rendered visible politically, i.e. ‘power is exercised by
virtue of things being known and people being seen’. (Foucault, 1980, p.154)

According to Foucault, all those institutions like hospitals, management schools or

clinics where the fields of knowledge are practiced have been transformed into
instruments of social control. The institutions which deal with the management do
not simply impart knowledge but also change the behavior, conduct and the

13
perceptions of students as well. It equally effects the conduct of its employees as
well. Management institutions are run within the certain networks of power relations.

The famous philosopher Edward Said, the epistemic worth of Foucault’s claim is very
much limited to European continent or the regions where power and knowledge are
linked with each other. He denies it as a universal fact.1 There is a strong connection
between knowledge and truth. Knowledge is always about the truth of something.
Usually truth is claimed and announced as the property of knowledge. So truth is not
outside the relations of (managerial) power.

Michel Foucault says that “Every society practices a unique pattern of truth and its
its ‘’general politics’’ of the truth., Discourse which are acceptable and are in
function as true; the mechanisms and instances that enables the distinguish between
true and false statements; all that means by which each is endorsed or certified; the
techniques and procedures which deliver value in the acquisition of truth; the status of
the people or institution which ratify saying what counts as true.”2

Power cannot be exercised without knowledge. It is not further possible that

knowledge can be created without power.” 3 Unavoidable connection of knowledge
with power, according to Foucault, neither questions the validity of, nor supports,
knowledge. The fact that power produces truth does not turn truth into power. Truth
and power are diverse entities. Foucault clarifies his position on power and truth that:
“When I talk about power relations and games of truth, I am absolutely not saying that
games of truth are just concealed power relations- that would be a horrible
exaggeration.” Power & knowledge, support each other. Truth/power never turns into
power/truth. In view of Foucault there is no truth independent of power. 4 Truth can

1
Ali, Zulfiqar. "Birth and rise of management science power and knowledge nexus." The Dialogue 7,
no. 1 (2012).
2
Hall, Stuart. "Foucault: Power, knowledge and discourse." Discourse theory and practice: A reader 72
(2001): 81.
3
Nonaka, Ikujiro, Ryoko Toyama, and Noboru Konno. "SECI, Ba and leadership: a unified model of
dynamic knowledge creation." Long range planning 33, no. 1 (2000): 5-34.
4
Foucault, Michel. "The subject and power." Critical inquiry 8, no. 4 (1982): 777-795.

14
not be concealed or repressed by the power. Truth itself is constituted inside power
relations. Because of the close and inseparable relation of power with the knowledge,
Foucault characterizes power as productive rather than repressive. In the lectures and
writings of Foucault, power does not always make things disappear or forces them to
silence. It produces, explains , adds meaning to discourse, sciences and governance.
During the nineteenth century onwards the productive aspect of power has become
predominant specifically in Western political history.

In the succeeding chapters (Ch-1) a nexus of power and knowledge is discussed in

light of the power knowledge theory of Michel Foucault. The study is primarily
focused on the case study of Pakistan. While taking in consideration, the important
aspects of discourse analysis, its relevance with the power and knowledge is
discussed. How does discourse is given meaning and interpretations through the lens
of power knowledge nexus of Foucault.

The study is divided into four chapters. Chapter one is the discussion of Power
Knowledge nexus under the theoretical perspective of Michel Foucault. Here power
and knowledge is discussed separately. Under the main heading, different types of
power like disciplinary, sovereign, bio and pastoral powers are discussed. Knowledge
is also explained under the archeological and genealogical insight. In power and
knowledge nexus, language and practice, governmentality and process of acquiring,
imparting and practicing knowledge i-e education is very important to discuss. In the
next chapters (Ch-2, Ch-3 and Ch-4 ), all these above mentioned aspects are
discussed, criticized and researched with the help of Foucaldian lens of power and
knowledge in Pakistan. In an article “Education and the new imperialism” Leon Tikly
has exceptionally discussed the concept of Foucault’s governmentality and neo
educational imperialism 5 . In last chapter (Ch-4) the same is discussed in the case
study of Pakistan.

5
Tikly, Leon. "CHAPTER 2: Education and the New Imperialism." Counterpoints 369 (2009): 23-45.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/42980379.

15
Research Questions

The study sets to answer the following research questions:

(a) What is the correlation of Power and Knowledge?

(b) How does Power and knowledge make a nexus in political and social life of
Pakistan?

(c) How does the Power and knowledge nexus affect language, governmentality
and education in Pakistan?

(d) Why Pakistan is influenced through the nexus of Power-Knowledge by the

developed powers?

Key Literature and its Limitations

Power and Knowledge nexus is a widely discussed topic across the globe. Social and
political scientists, practitioners, scholars, philosophers and academicians have
discussed the power and knowledge in different dimensions. Michel Foucault (1926-
1984) is one of the most cited philosophers in social sciences. Power and knowledge
are two inseparable phenomenon. Foucault explains that Power operates at the most
micro levels of social relations. Power is omnipresent at every level of the social
body. The exercise of power is strategic and war-like. When it comes in procession
with the knowledge his thought is different than the others. One of the most important
features of Foucault’s view is that interaction of power produces different types of
discourse, knowledge and practices which bring together information on people’s
practices and existence. The knowledge gathered through this interaction and
practices further add force to the exercises of power. Power and knowledge nexus is
discussed by different scholars. However in this study the question of power and
knowledge nexus is discussed in its relationship to Pakistan. There is a wide range of
concepts associated with power and knowledge nexus. However its relevance with
language and practice, governmentality and educational imperialism in Pakistan will

16
be discussed. The literature on the particular aspect is inadequate. A broad literature
review is done on power and knowledge nexus in Pakistan.

Rafia Zakria in her article “Knowledge, power and Pakistan”6 articulates that west is
dominant on the flow, use and practice of knowledge through the influence. She has
named this influence as the power. Her most of the part of article is purely focused on
the western or developed powers hegemony in research and academic practices for the
achievement of their interest. She says that “all these constructs, like those of the
British, are erected on grains of truth, furthering the strategic positioning of Pakistan
as a country forever in need of imperial disciplining, a virus that can only be
controlled by Western intervention. Knowledge as we all know is power, and to
construct knowledge and its value to suit strategic purposes, domination and conquest
is a tactic more insidious than the usual weapons of war.” This article highlights only
one aspect of power i.e dominance or imperialistic design by the west.

Zulfiqar Ali in his article “Birth and Rise of Management Science Power and
Knowledge Nexus”7 explains that the sciences, especially the management sciences
are the byproduct of certain relations of power and knowledge. These sciences
generate those networks of power from which they originated. He further argued in
the first part that knowledge and power entail each other. In doing so I contest the
claim that knowledge derives from a pure desire to know. In the next part of the
article author explores the nature of the power providing foundation to the creation of
the subjects of management sciences. In the succeeding part of the article the author
explains that from a certain representation of power management sciences arises and
management sciences produce truths and discourses that may not be stretched to serve
the aims that run parallel to them. The article is well written while using the theory of
Michel Foucault. However in this article power is shown more dominant over the

6
Rafia Zakaria, “Knowledge, Power and Pakistan” Daily Dawn, April 22, 2015.
7
Zulfiqar Ali, "Birth and Rise of Management Science Power and Knowledge Nexus." The Dialogue 7,
no. 1 (2012).

17
knowledge. Foucault has told that both are inseparable from each other. Furthermore,
this article is written about a small part of the practice of power and knowledge nexus.

Ayyaz Qadeer and Waseema Shahzad have articulated in an article “Language and
Power Nexus: A Critical Study of Pakistani Political Discourse” 8 that discourse
supported and articulated by the political elite is more influential because of the
power behind it. They have given example of the speech by Prime Minster of
Pakistan. They have further argued that the political discourse is all insidious and
influential due to its strong power to access the public at large. This discourse
generates the influence on the public thought pattern and effects their minds. Due to
the political endeavors of the system, people presume the power of representing the
public sentiments. In this regards, the important events are properly shaped through
the political discourse to influence the mind and intellect of the people. This is a
comprehensive article about the political discourse in the country. It covers only the
political influence and doesn’t explain the power exhibited by the people.

Michael Moore, in an article “Knowledge, power and politics” 9has explained that in
1579, British Scholar Francis Bacon while meditating on religion and unorthodoxy
recognized the integral relationship between knowledge and power. He gave a
statement that ‘knowledge is power’. The author Michael Moore says that it was a
known fact that politicians try to keep people away from the sources of knowledge. It
gives them a thought of security from the educated people. He has shown a rivalry
between different groups about the use and power of education. With the help of
different examples, the author has argued about the role of politicians to use power to
keep people away from education. However, as per Foucault power is not always
making others to obey unwillingly. It is a relationship to go in parallel.

8
Ayyaz Qadeer & Wasima Shehzad, “Language and Power Nexus: A Critical Study of Pakistani
Political Discourse”, International Journal of English Linguistics; Vol. 8, No. 2; 2018 ISSN 1923-
869X E-ISSN 1923-8703
9
Michael Moore ,Annette Michaux, Ann Sanson " Knowledge, power and politics", Bridging the
'Know-Do' Gap, ANU Press. (2010), https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt24h8zf.14

18
Peter Leonard in his article titled as “Knowledge/Power and Postmodernism:
Implications for the Practice of a Critical Social Work Education”10 reasoned that the
current debate on the knowledge claims of scientific and professional disciplines - the
relation between knowledge and power demands close relevance in the social work
education. If professional education reproduces, through its discourse and practices,
Eurocentric and androcentric claims to universal truth and objectivity and so defines
reality in the interests of normative order, then intellectual and political challenges to
professional education are necessary. Author says that Post modernism and critical
analysis of the point of view of Foucault is difficult, however, because the debate on
modernity is wide ranging encompassing philosophy, sociology, cultural studies,
architecture, literary criticism, and other disciplines. A Foucauldian history of social
work might begin by showing that, before social work could be established as a
modern profession, equipped with institutional ratification and acceptance. This
article is a correlation of the Foucaldian thought of power and knowledge and the
social work. Author has covered an important aspect of the governmentality under the
shade of power and knowledge.

Susanna Hannus & Hannu Simola, articulate in their article "The Effects of Power
Mechanisms in Education: bringing Foucault and Bourdieu together” 11 is a unique
article on the topic. Authors have put reasonable light on the effect of power on
education. Education here explains the process, practices and the sources of
knowledge. The main question in the article is to discuss the role of schools that how
does socio-culturally different areas face new governance and its power mechanisms.
The author has further discussed the Pierre Bourdieu’s and Michel Foucault’s
approaches to power, capitalizing at the same time on Risto Heiskala’s recent
synthesizing theorization of power. The author has concluded the article that Foucault

10
Peter Leonard, "KNOWLEDGE/POWER AND POSTMODERNISM: Implications for the Practice
of a CriticalSocial Work Education", Canadian Social Work Review / Revue canadienne de service
social, Vol. 11, No. 1(Winter/hiver 1994), pp. 11-26
11
Susanna Hannus & Hannu Simola, "The Effects of Power Mechanisms in Education: bringing
Foucault and Bourdieu together", Power and Education, Volume 2 Number 1 2010,
www.wwwords.co.uk/POWER

19
and Bourdieu both the philosophers have a common understanding on the topic of
power and they study if through a network of relations and as a structuring force.

Hypothesis

Power and Knowledge are two important phenomenon for discussion which play a
significant role in the individual, social and international arena. Power defines
knowledge, attaches meaning with knowledge and further shape, manipulate and
redefine it. If we talk about a developing country, the power and knowledge are two
important factors in decision making, policy formulation and governance of the state.
If discourse is attached with power, ultimately its meaning, practice and impact on the
life of the masses will be changed. In a country like Pakistan, most of the knowledge
is influenced, borrowed and forced by the west because of the status of an erstwhile
colonial state and present influence of the developed states on a developing state.

Furthermore, it is also hypothesize that language, governmentality and education are

highly influenced by the local and international governmentality. Different language,
state governance and educational practices are driven with less coercive and mostly
with discursive powers.

Research Methodology

All the issues, debates and discussions pertaining to the subject will be thoroughly
analyzed. The study will cover the basic components of the research i-e literature
review, descriptive, exploratory and prescriptive analysis. In order to fulfill this
purpose, primary and secondary sources of information will be consulted. For the said
purpose, newspaper, books, journals and relevant online resources will be benefitted.
The study would be conducted with the qualitative techniques of research.

Scope of the research

The research is based on the power and knowledge nexus and its relevance as a case
study to Pakistan. This research is a qualitative in nature and covers the power and

20
knowledge nexus under the theoretical framework of famous scholar Michel Foucault.
In his lectures Foucault has not defined power and knowledge; however he has
explained different types of power and knowledge. In this research, power and its four
types are discussed with relevance to the governmentality and discourse analysis.

A country like Pakistan has been an erstwhile colonized state and epistemological
bases, discourse analysis, educational practices and narrative building are still
influenced by the power. This power is mostly discursive in nature. Most of the
research is based on primary and secondary sources of information. This topic is not
much discussed in the academic literature of Pakistan. Available sources are
thoroughly studied and cited with all consideration of research ethics. This study will
cover the role of power knowledge nexus under the topics of power-knowledge nexus
with relevance to language and practice in Pakistan, governmentality and Pakistan and
Power Education/knowledge imperialism vs globalization in Pakistan.

Foucault has explained different type of linkage of power and knowledge with social,
political and individual life. It is very vast in its scope and relevance. However, here
we will only discuss three aspects i-e language (Discourse Analysis),
Governmentality and Power knowledge and its imperialism/globalization.

Organization of research

The research is divided into four main chapters. Each chapter covers the main topic
with a comprehensive critical overview of the topic. In first paragraphs of every topic,
theoretical framework is discussed and correlated with the study.

Chapter No 1 of the research is based on the Power and Knowledge nexus theory of
Michel Foucault. Different types of Power and insights of knowledge are discussed in
this chapter. Chapter one will provide a theoretical framework for the succeeding
chapters as well. Four type of powers ( i-e disciplinary, sovereign, bio and pastoral)
are discussed in the chapter. Foucaldian discourse analysis with relation to power is
given a comprehensive consideration and on the basis of this three important aspects
are taken for the case study of Pakistan. These three important aspects are Discourse

21
analysis and Language practice, Governmentality and Power Knowledge/Education
vs Imperialism and Globalization.

Chapter No 2 is the first case study discussion on the concept of Power- knowledge,
discourse analysis and Language - Practice. This chapter will deal with the existing
language practices in Pakistan and their relation with the power. Different language
issues, influences, narrative building aspects and practices have been discussed in
relation to the power.

Chapter No 3 is based on the Foucauldian concept of Governmentality. After

necessary deliberation upon Governmentality, its relevance with the economic,
foreign policy options, defence and security policies, educational policies and
discourse analysis and its relation with the national narrative building practices will be
discussed.

Chapter No 4 is based on the concept of discourse analysis and its relevance with the
power-knowledge and education. It is pertinent to mention that Michel Foucault's
work is already well-known in the field of education. His detailed studies of madness,
punishment, sexuality, and the human sciences have provided educational theorists
with a whole new array of concepts (like discipline, and problematization), analytical
techniques (such as archaeology, and genealogy) and arguments (as pertaining to the
intimate embrace of knowledge and power, and ways in which human subjects relate
ethically to themselves and others). The concept of imperialism and globalization is
attached to the power and knowledge nexus in education. This chapter will discuss the
associated aspects of educational practice like educational policies, research,
curriculum development, literature, university ranking, degree validation , testing,
measurement and evaluation are discussed as a case study in Pakistan.

At the end, a conclusion is presented with a thorough analysis and some

recommendations.

22
 CHAPTER ONE

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: POWER KNOWLEDGE

NEXUS OF MICHEL FOUCAULT

1.1 General Overview

For the understanding of power and its practice for the creation of knowledge, the
understanding of the associated factors is very important which have shaped this
nexus between power and knowledge. For that, a theoretical framework is utilized by
first looking at the concept of discourse and, more specifically, the colonial discourse
that existed in the Subcontinent (Pakistan) during the colonial era. Thereafter, in
order to understand the close relationship between the two concepts, an analysis of
knowledge and power is provided. To gain deeper understanding, two different
techniques and forms of exercising power are explained. Most importantly, the
concept of narratives is examined, particularly narratives of societal and political
change, and its relevance to the concept of power and knowledge. The starting point
for this theoretical analysis is Michel Foucault’s work on power and knowledge
followed by an analysis of his concepts of bio-power and governmentality. 12 It
becomes apparent through the analysis of Foucault’s work that his theories are
applicable to studies of colonization and globalization even though he does not speak
of it specifically. Through an analysis of these theories and concepts, a theoretical
foundation is set to form the grounds for analysis and nexus between power and
knowledge in Pakistan. While authors such as Robert Young (1995) and Gayatri
Spivak (2014)13 have linked Foucault’s analysis to European imperialism, this thesis
utilizes some of their specific concepts to form the base for an analysis on colonial

12
Michael Peters, "Education, enterprise culture and the entrepreneurial self: A Foucauldian
perspective." The Journal of Educational Enquiry 2, no. 2 (2009).
13
Ambesange Praveen V, "Postcolonialism: Edward Said & Gayatri Spivak", Research Journal of
Recent Sciences E-ISSN 2277-2502 Vol. 5(8), 47-50, August (2016)
www.isca.in/rjrs/archive/v5/i8/9.ISCA-RJRS-2016-051.pdf

23
power and further studying the contemporary power knowledge nexus in Pakistan.

1.2 Power

American author Charles W. Freeman, Jr. described power as the following:

Power can be seen as a unique capability which serves the purpose to influence the
decision and practices of others. Power is associated with strength and will. Strength
is usually emerged from the transformation of resources into capabilities. Strategy
marshals its influence and brings them to bear with precision. Statecraft seeks through
strategy to magnify the mass, relevance, impact, and irresistibility of power. Power
guides, defines and formulates the ways the state deploys and applies its power
abroad. These ways embrace the arts of war, espionage, and diplomacy. The
practitioners of these three arts are the paladins of statecraft. Political scientists,
practitioners and historians, of international relations (diplomats) have used the
following concepts of political power:

Power as a goal of states or leaders;

Power as a measure of influence or control over outcomes, events, actors and issues;

Power as victory in conflict and the attainment of security;

Power as control over resources and capabilities;

Power as status, which some states or actors possess and others do not.

Power is usually considered as a concept of relation. It comes into play through social
relations. It is omnipresent in the sense that the exercise of power and conflicts over
power are aspects of all social relations. Power has a structure and has a fundamental
system of existence by the society. 14Max Weber (1978) says that structures of power
become systems of legitimate social control. In the Weberian conception, authority is
quite different from power and it has a legitimate structure bestowed by an established
system. 15 Peter Blau (1964) argued that the social system of drives and attractions

14
Weber, Max. Economy and society: An outline of interpretive sociology. Vol. 1. Univ of California
Press, 1978.
15
Blau, Peter. "Power and exchange in social life." New York: J Wiley & Sons 352 (1964).

24
amongst the human shapes a system of communication with the expectation of any
associated reward in the shape of material or symbolic. This exchange process gives
rise to the power relations in social life. The element of willingness to follow the will
of others in relation to material benefits is a generic social reward of the willingness.
This situation of willing obedience arises when one finds no other possibility to obey
the will of the one who possesses power. In an exchange or communication, this can be
interpreted that one is rewarding the other with power and control over oneself.

While studying the subject of international relations, power can be defined in different
ways. Modern discourse defines the power in terms of state power with emphasis on
economic and military power. Those states that have significant amounts of power
within the international system are referred to as small powers, middle powers,
regional powers, great powers, superpowers, or hegemons, although there is no
commonly accepted standard for what defines a powerful state. NATO, the G7, the
BRICS nations and the G20 are seen by academics as forms of powerful
governments.

As per the World Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators, during the year 2016,
Pakistan was rankedin 29th percentile for government effectiveness, the 27th
percentile for regulatory quality, the 20th percentile for rule of law, and the 19th
percentile for control of corruption. Pakistan fell from 144th place in 2016 to 148th
place in 2018 in the World Bank’s ease of doing business rankings. The latest United
Nations Development Program Human Development report, published in 2017, ranks
Pakistan 147th. The country improved its position on the World Economic Forum’s
Global Competitiveness Index in 2017, though it was still a lowly 115th out of 137
countries, after coming out 122th in 2016.16 This is the level of economic and political
power of Pakistan, studied through some indicators. Power cannot be seen
independently.

16
World Bank, The Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI) project, 1996–2017
http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/#home

25
Michel Foucault explains that power is omnipresent, not because it embraces
everything uniformly, but because it comes from everywhere. 17 power is also
considered as an instrument of coercion. Even away from the discreet structures in
which those actors operate, power is everywhere’, diffused and embodied in
discourse, knowledge , practices and ‘regimes of truth’ (Foucault 1991; Rabinow
1991).18

If we further explore the concept of power in the eyes of Michel Foucault, we find
that modern society is a “disciplinary society”. It means that power in our time is
largely exercised, practiced and applied through disciplinary means in a variety of
institutions (prisons, schools, hospitals, militaries, etc.).

1.2.1 Hard Power

Hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or
interests of other political bodies. This form of political power is often aggressive
(coercion), and is most immediately effective when imposed by one political body
upon another of lesser military and/or economic power. Hard power contrasts with
soft power, which comes from diplomacy, culture and history, discourse, education
etc.

Foucault has given five proposition/schemes regarding power. 19First, Power is not a
tangible thing which a person has or doesn’t have. It is always exercised from all
stages in any relation. Second, it is not simply applied externally to relationships of
economics, knowledge, or sex. It is inside these relationships and determines their
internal structure. Third, It does not simply come downwards. Power relationships are
formed according to a ruler/ruled model and these relations pop up at all levels of
society. Fourth, Designs and strategies in power relationships can be well understood.

17
Sawicki, Jana. Disciplining Foucault: Feminism, power, and the body. Psychology Press, 1991.
18
Richardson, Tim. "Foucauldian discourse: Power and truth in urban and regional policy
making." European Planning Studies 4, no. 3 (1996): 279-292.
19
Michel Foucault, "The history of sexuality: An introduction, volume I." Trans. Robert Hurley. New
York: Vintage (1990).

26
Power relationship is based on a rationale. Fifth, There will be a resistance in power
relationship . 20

According to Joseph Nye, hard power involves "the ability to use the carrots and
sticks of economic and military might to make others follow your will". The meaning
of "carrots" is the inducement or incentive like the reduction of trade barriers, to offer
an alliance or an agreement of military cooperation or protection. Likewise "sticks" is
associated with threats - including the use of coercive diplomacy, the threat of
military intervention, or the imposition of economic sanctions. Ernest Wilson
describes hard power as the capacity to coerce "and make other to behave or act as he
did not intend to do ". Usually it is the control of practices with a coercive power.

1.2.2 Soft Power

Soft power is the ability to shape or influence the preferences of others through appeal
and attraction. It is non-coercive and it is imposed through culture, political values,
and foreign policies. Recently, the term has also been used in changing and
influencing social and public opinion through relatively less transparent channels and
political and non political organizations are influencing through the soft power.
Joseph Nye from Harvard University has explained soft power as “the best
propaganda is not propaganda", further explaining that during the Information Age,
"credibility is the scarcest resource." Michel Foucault has explained the value role and
imposition of discursive power. This definition of power, however, is still incomplete,
because it does not explain where power comes from or how power is exercised. How
does an individual "exercise" power? The question about the exercise of power is very
significant. Foucault has used the word "exercise" very consciously. One the other
hand, Foucault has chosen the power as "exercised" in order to distinguish the notion
of power from Marxist, pluralist, and functionalist theories of power. These all

20
Gilliam, Christian. "Foucault and the Force of Power-Knowledge." in immanence and micropolitics:
sartre, merleau-ponty, Foucault and Deleuze, 95-130. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2017.
Http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1n7qj2j.7.

27
theories inevitably reify power and confuse the role of power. Foucault elaborates that
power is not an institution and structure. It has a strength that we are gifted with.
Power is never localized here or there and not given in the hands of someone. It is
neither a commodity nor piece of wealth and it is exercised through a net like
organization.21

1.3 Foucault’s Types of Power

1.3.1 Disciplinary Power

It is a type of power exercised by those who represent the sovereign authority in

everyday transactions by their own or the sovereign's rules. "It is more difficult to
ascertain the precise nature of disciplinary power since one of its distinguishing
features is the swiftness and lightness with which it acts, thus rendering it
substantially less visible than sovereign power.

A disciplinary society may not be controlled with direct application of power by the
sovereign or his agent, but through an impersonal and invisible gaze. The efficiency
of disciplinary power is closely related to its invisibility compared with the visible
coercive power. For disciplinary power to be effective, it is the subject, not the power,
which must be seen. Disciplinary power is future oriented, replacing backward-
looking rituals with graduated exercises aiming at an optimal future state. In
disciplinary institutions, power is de-individualized. Through this power, one warden
can replace the another one even by a surveillance camera.22

1.3.2 Sovereign Power

Foucault describes in the first part of “Discipline and Punish”, sovereign power is that
form expressed in recognizable ways through particular and identifiable individuals.
The “nodes” of this form of power are the king, the prince, and the agents thereof. HE

21
Foucault, Michel. "The subject and power." Critical inquiry 8, no. 4 (1982): 777-795.
22
Taylor, Chloë. "Foucault and Familial Power." Hypatia 27, no. 1 (2012): 201-18.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/41328905.

28
has named them the visible agents of power, known by others and by themselves. It
assesses taxes, enforces the law by exacting penalties for violations thereof, raises
armies in time of war, and so on. In all the cases sovereign power is visibly discrete in
nature. Sovereign Power acts in response to certain sets of circumstances and through
a specific and identifiable agent or set of agents.

With sovereign power, there is always a "founding precedence" attached in the past
e.g a battle or royal birth and it justifies the sovereign's power. The authority of the
sovereign power is reaffirmed by rituals that refer back to this original event of
bloodshed or blood-right.23

1.3.3 Bio Power

Bio Power (or biopouvoir in French) is a term originated by French scholar, historian,
and social theorist Michel Foucault. Bio Power is related to the practice of modern
nation states and their regulation of their subjects through "an explosion of numerous
and diverse techniques for achieving the subjugations of bodies and the control of
populations". First time this term was used by Michel Foucault in his lecture at
Collège de France. First time this term was appeared in print in “The Will To
Knowledge”, a Foucault's first volume of The History of Sexuality. This term was
widely used by Michel Foucault in practices of public health, regulation of heredity,
and risk regulation. Foucault has used it with many other regulatory mechanisms with
literal physical health. Subsequent thinkers have used the term biopolitics, which
exclusively explains the examination of the strategies and mechanisms through which
human life processes are controlled through authority over knowledge, power, and the
processes of subjectivation. Foucault describes biopower as a technology of power for
managing humans in large groups. It is a distinctive quality of this political
technology which allows for the control of entire populations. Societal Disciplinary
institutions play a vital role to control human body and exercise biopolitics of the
population. Foucault argues that modern powers are encoded into social practices as
well as human behavior. It is an integral feature and essential to the workings of the
emergence of the modern nation state, capitalism etc. In simple words we can say that

23
Taylor, Chloë. "Foucault and Familial Power." Hypatia 27, no. 1 (2012): 201-18.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/41328905.

29
Biopower is literally having power over bodies; it is "an explosion of numerous and
diverse techniques for achieving the subjugation of bodies and the control of
populations". During the late 1970s, Michel Foucault in his lectures that have only
lately become widely available, he changed his analysis the power of the state, first
through the development of his concept of 'biopower', and than 'governmentality'.

1.3.4 Pastoral Power

Michel Foucault’s concept of pastoral power is an extended form of disciplinary

power, and a substitute viewpoint to the sovereign power. It is concerned about the
domination and concerned with individuals. Pastoral power is not static; it circulates
so that we exercise pastoral power on ourselves and allow it be exercised on us.
(Chapman, 2003). This type of power cannot be exercised on one person or group
over another. Its technologies are exercised continuously by many groups and
organizations e.g schools, churches, and feminist organizations.24

1.4 Power and Governmentality

Governmentality is an approach to the study of power. It elaborates the governing of

people’s conduct through positive means rather than the influence of sovereign power
for formulation the law. Contrary to the disciplinary form of power, governmentality
is generally associated with the willing participation and obedience of the governed.25

24
Leona M English, Foucauldian Pastoral Power and Feminist Organizations: a Research Direction for
Adult Education, SCUTREA 34th Annual Conference, University of Sheffield, 6-8 July 2004.

25
Richard Huff, "Governmentality", Encyclopædia Britannica, inc, May 31, 2013
https://www.britannica.com/topic/governmentality Access Date: January 27, 2019

30
1.5 Knowledge

In the Archaeology of Knowledge by Michel Foucault, explains that discourse

delegates the linguistic conventions, modes of representation, and rules that produce
particular domains of knowledge and it is called ‘discursive formations’.

Whilst the Archaeology is a complex methodological and philosophical exercise,

intent on revealing the conditions of possibility for ‘knowledge’ and meaning wich
can be taught and transfer at a particular time. Foucault has never defined knowledge.
However he has given insights about the knowledge. Foucault’s later work makes use
of a slightly different kind of discourse analysis i-e genealogy. Genealogy is a mean
to investigate the constitution of a given discourse through the rehabilitation of the
counter-discourses that have been actively discarded.26

1.5.1 Archeological Insight

"The Archaeology of Knowledgeis a methodology used by Michel Foucault for giving

meaning to discourse, enunciative modalities, concepts, strategies, statements,
enunciative functions and the archive. Later on he used to word "archaeology",
initially used in unlike to the discipline of "the history of ideas".

In Archaeology of Knowledge the concept of Foucault about archaeology is focused

in discourse and an analysis of the statement. He sees statements as important
indicators of the rules and conditions in a larger field of discourse, institution,
discipline, or "discursive formation". Instead of searching for homogeneity in a
discursive entity, Foucault looks at ruptures, breaks, mutations, and transformations
including marginal or forgotten discourses to understand the production of meaning
and knowledge.27

26
Philippe Fournier, "Foucault and International Relations", E.International Relations,MAY 12 2014
https://www.e-ir.info/2014/05/12/foucault-and-international-relations/
27
Garnet Hertz, "Foucault, Michel - The Archaeology of Knowledge", June 5, 2016,
http://www.conceptlab.com/notes/foucault-archaeology_of_knowledge.html

31
1.5.2 Genealogical Insight

Genealogy and today’s history were not altogether new concerns in Foucault’s work.
For Foucault, Genealogy’ was a method of writing critical history. It was a way of
using historical materials to reveal the “values’’ in the present days. Genealogical
analysis explores that how contemporary practices and institutions emerged out of
specific struggles, conflicts, alliances, and exercises of power. Many of them are
nowadays forgotten. It enables the genealogist to suggest series of troublesome
associations and lineages which played a role to emerge the institutions and practices.
Some of the practices and value we take for granted. The point of genealogy is not to
search for ‘‘origins’’28

1.5.3 Discourse Analysis: Language and Practice by Foucault

Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, can be defined as the approaches to

analyze written, vocal, or sign language use, or any significant semiotic (relating to
signs and symbols) event. As per Michel Foucault, discourses are practices for the
enhancement of our knowledge. Everything that represents discourse is consists of
three important characteristics: (a) authorization (enable), (b) constraint, and
(c) identity (constitute). These are some practices associated with our social
practices If we take the example of experience, it enables us to interpret our
surroundings and make understanding of the perspectives others have. Likewise, it
limits you to aan extend of ignorance or unawareness, for you might not know
something which may others know. IT is pertinent to know that our knowledge is
shaped partially by our experiences. There is always a sense of individuality which
limits us to be agreed with others and it gives you an identity. Foucault’s discourse
produces knowledge, and knowledge is power. Power can be taken as a complex web
of “nonegalitarian and shifting relations”. Power has differnt motives and faces
opposition (Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, 94-96). If we discuss the idea

28
David Garland, " What is a ‘‘history of the present’’? On Foucault’s genealogies and their critical
preconditions", Punishment & Society 2014, Vol. 16(4) 365–384,
www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/r32759.pdf

32
of power, Foucault doesn’t believe that power is absolute and negative, but it can be
said that what Foucault means is that power is a struggle.29

1.6 Limits and Regulations of Discourse Analysis

Foucault's understanding about discourse revolves around the relationship between

truth and power. Foucault argues that truth is not outside of power and doesn’t lack in
power and hence cannot be juxta- posed to it30. It explains that power and truth cannot
be studies linked with each other. Truth can be produced engaged and merged with
power. Foucault explores these power relations which create truth and the power
effects truth creates. For Foucault, discourses are manifestations of a
power/knowledge regime or a regime of truth. In "The Discourse on Language,"
Foucault identifies three types of procedures for producing discourse. 31 Foucault
argues that areas of discourse are not equally clear, open and don’t overlap with each
other. For example, rituals, fellowships, and doctrines select qualified people to speak.
Through education, one becomes qualified and thereby distributes speakers among
kinds of discourse. A variety of constraints are there to explain discourse by which it
produces truth. Power affects how discourses produce truth. Truth also has effects of
power. Foucault says that definite relations of knowledge joins certain types of
powers. In volume one of the book, The History of Sexuality, 32Foucault describes
western man as the "confessing animal." He says that Confession, is the characteristic
discourse of spontaneous subjects. It is a discourse in which subjects discuss
themselves. Confession produces truth in two senses. First, individuals must confess
the truth about themselves. Foucault argues that our Christian heritage, now
secularized, requires individuals to reveal their desires as well as their transgressions

29
Dinh Quoc Nguyen, “ Michel Foucault, from Discourse to Power: A Struggle”, April 6, 2015,
https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/basicproblems002/2015/04/06/michel-foucaults-power-a-struggle/
30
Foucault, Discipline and Punish, p. 3
31
Nancy S. Love, “Foucault & Habermas , Discourse & Democracy”, Polity, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Winter,
1989), pp. 269-293 https://www.jstor.org/stable/3234835 Accessed: 08-01-2019 08:36 UTC
32
Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality: Introduction, vol. 1 (New York: Vintage Books, 1980), p.
57

33
in discourse. In The History of Sexuality, Foucault illustrates how the discourse on
sex displaces, intensifies, reorients or otherwise modifies desire. He concludes that a
multiplication of discourse involves an intensification of interventions of power.
When subjects know and control themselves, they are also known and controlled.33

To Foucault, Discourse has some limitations. Three main limitations are discussed in
the succeeding paragraphs.34

1.6.1 Taboos

The first exclusionary mechanisms Foucault (1981) deals with are the social
procedures of prohibition which correspond roughly to taboos, rituals and privileges
of the speaking subject. These forms of prohibition seem fairly straightforward and
Foucault does not spend much time in elaborating them, noting merely that where the
(intersecting) grid of prohibition is tightest is in the regions of politics and sexuality .
He talks about the truth and taboos. There are social restrictions on certain truths,
which establish the notion of non acceptance or disapproval by the society. The
example he uses to unseat an historical sense of the truth is that of the Greek poets, for
whom truth was that ‘which inspired respect and terror, that to which one submitted
because it ruled, that which was pronounced by men who spoke as of right and
according to the required ritual. This was the discourse "which dispensed justice and
gave everyone his share; the discourse which in prophesying the future not only
announced what was going to happen but helped make it happen" .

1.6.2 Madness/Sanity

Discourse analysis of Michel Foucault on madness is very different where madness is

considered as neither a subject nor an object. The Subject-object distinction creates a
debate in philosophical study in terms of analysis of and discourses on human
experiences. Experiences are often divided in terms of whether they are entities in

33
Michel Foucault, "Two Lectures" in Power/Knowledge, Colin Gordon. Brighton: Harvester ,1972,
p. 9
34
Derek Hook, "Discourse, knowledge, materiality, history: Foucault and discourse analysis."
In Foucault, Psychology and the Analyticsss of Power, pp. 100-137. Palgrave Macmillan, London,
2007.

34
themselves, or whether they are consist of subjective experiences and consciousness.
Foucault rejects the subject-object distinction as outmoded within his discourse on
madness. Rather, discourse is to be thought of as entirely positive as well as in terms
of relations and shifts. Madness is therefore thought of in terms of how it is
continually constructed within discourses of reason; so, it cannot be an object or a
subject. For Foucault, madness could be described as separate from any subject-object
distinction: a wild state. 35

1.6.3 Institutional Ratification

In ‘The Order of Discourse’, Foucault talks of exclusion and exclusionary procedures:

in every society the production of discourse is at once controlled, selected, organized
and redistributed by a certain number of procedures whose role is to ward off its
powers and dangers, to gain mastery over its chance events, to evade its ponderous,
formidable materiality. 36

Discourses, institutions and the social power relations and intra-group tensions and
agreements are all very interesting in discussion. Why discourses and institutions are
important to discuss?

Firstly, discourses and the institutions that produce and propagate are very much
linked with the flow of power and control in society. Most of the discourses that we
come across get dominant positions in society. Conflictive discussion between
discourses, such as with smoking in the second half of the 20th century, reveal
underlying social tensions between those dominant discourses and newly emerged
discourses. discourse and institutions highlight the debatable and silent responses by
certain groups, activities or relationships are framed in particular ways. One
institution or group of people may frame an individual as a terrorist and for another
group or institution he may be a freedom fighter could be revealed by understanding
the institutional background or contextual relation and position of the speakers.

35
Rodrigo, "How can Foucault’s discourse on madness describe “madness” as neither a subject nor an
object?" December 8, 2012, The WritePass Journal
36
Michel Foucault, The Foucault Reader. Pantheon, 1984.

35
Second role of the institutions in discourse analysis is to shape the communicative
process. Media particularly the commercial media acts institutional policies and
restrictions such as policy, copyright, and broadcast practice. Different type of
language, narrative, and even types of signs are encouraged within particular
institutional contexts and other type of concepts and narrative is discouraged.
Discourse in context of institution shape our communication, types of texts and
establishes a system of understanding the text and messages.37

1.5.4 Conditions of Employment of Discourse

As per the lectures of Michel Foucault, delivered at College de France in year

1972, the conditions under which discourse can be employed

o Who is qualified to enter into the discourse on a specific subject?

o Not all areas of discourse are equally open & penetrable.
o Moreover, exchange and communication probably cannot operate
independently of complex but restrictive systems.

Ritual defines the qualifications and role of the speaker, lays down the
gestures to be made, the behavior, circumstances and a whole range of signs, and the
supposed or imposed significance of the words, their effect on those addressed, the
limitation of their constraining validity.

Fellowship of Discourse, whose function is to preserve or to reproduce

discourse, but in order that it should circulate within a closed community, according
to strict regulations, without those in possession being dispossessed by this very
distribution. It functions through various schema of exclusivity and disclosure.

37
Mediatexthack. "Discourse, Institutions, and Power", BCCampus, January 19,2019,
https://opentextbc.ca/mediastudies101/chapter/discourse-institutions-and-power/

36
 Doctrine (religious, political, philosophical, etc)

Doctrine is opposed to fellowship of discourse, which limits class of speakers

Education: the social appropriation of discourse

Most of the time these four conditions are linked together, constituting great edifices
that distribute speakers among the different types of discourse, and which appropriate
those types of discourse to certain categories of subject. These are the main rules for
the subjection of discourse.

1.7 Power Knowledge : Knowledge Imperialism Vs Globalization

Knowledge is no longer the true reflection of objective reality because of the

influence of power; it becomes something non-neutral and powerful. Power exists
everywhere, including all kinds of intellectual fields. “On Foucault’s account, the
relation of power and knowledge is far closer than in the familiar Baconian
engineering model, for which ‘knowledge is power’ means that knowledge is an
instrument of power, although the two exist quite independently. Foucault’s point is
rather than, at least for the study of human beings, the goals of power and the goals of
knowledge cannot be separated; in knowing we control” and in power are something
combined, power exists in knowledge, it is the essence of knowledge. Foucault
regards knowledge and power as an integration, which shows knowledge on the
surface, in fact power is the essence. For him, power has its own special meaning,
power is the base, not the product of superstructure. It spreads in all kinds of social
relations, won’t be a specific topic, which exceeds the topic between the governor and
the ruled. Knowledge is not innocent but profoundly connected with the operations of
power. This Foucaultian insight informs Edward Said’s foundational work
Orientalism, which points out the extent to which “knowledge” about “the Orient” as
it was produced and circulated in Europe. In his opinion, Oriental knowledge is the
same as the knowledge Foucault studies, it is not objective reflection of the true
Orient, it is full of power.

37
38
 CHAPTER -2

POWER – KNOWLEDGE NEXUS: LANGUAGE AND

PRACTICE IN PAKISTAN

2.1 Language and Practice : General Overview

Practices may be defined as the actions or activities that are repeatable, regular, and
decipherable in a given cultural context. In everyday language, practice is often
contrasted with theory, ideas, or mental processes. Practices may be discursive
(practices that communicate meanings through language), visual (practices that
communicate meaning through images), or embodied (practices accomplished
through bodily movement and gesture). All these practices may be studied, seen and
discussed with a power relation.

The concept “discourse” can be seen as multidimensional, broadly perceived and has
different meanings, context and definitions. A plethora of literature notes that in the
study of language, discourse often refers to the speech patterns and usage of language,
dialects, and acceptable statements within a community. Sociologists and
philosophers use this term to explain the conversations and the meaning attached with
it by the others who hold certain ideas in common. In the simplest way discourse may
be defined as conversation or information. For Foucault (1977), it is through discourse
(through knowledge) that we are created; and that discourse joins power and
knowledge, and its power follows from our casual acceptance of the “reality with
which we are presented.38Foucault has done tremendous work about a relationship
between power, knowledge , discourse and language.39 In this chapter we will discuss
the concept of power-knowledge and its application in language-practice of Pakistan.

38
Michel Foucault, Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings, 1972-1977. Pantheon,
1980.
39
Seumas Miller, "Foucault on Discourse and Power." Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political
Theory, no. 76 (1990): 115-25. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41801502.

39
Being an ideologically inspired state, Pakistan gave special importance to Urdu as a
part of its ideology. Urdu remained a symbol of Muslim identity throughout the
freedom movement in subcontinent contrary to Hindi, that was considered as a
symbol of Hindu identity (Brass, 1974: 119- 81)

In order to maintain a social distinction, the influential class in Pakistan always tend
to support the use of English as an official language. They ensure the access of
members of its own class into superior posts, By promoting English as an official
medium they enhance the opportunities into international job market. This support
often comes “off the record” from unauthorized people in nongovernmental positions
and influences the governmental policies.

2.2 Language as an Object of Knowledge in Pakistan

It is important to mention that Pakistan like many others nations of the world is a
home to multi cultures and languages. However, the population with major language
divides are not facilitated with a corresponding multilingual language-in-education
policy. Education policy (NEP, 2009:28) clearly states that ‘The curriculum for all
classes shall include English, Urdu, one regional language, and mathematics along
with a combined subject as compulsory subjects, and for class Four onwards, English
will be used as a medium of instruction except Urdu, Islamiat and local languages.
However, it is noteworthy that the policy (NEP, 2009:8) though describes that the
school language guidelines should be designed in consultation with the both
provincial and local governments, but unfortunately the roles of community, school
management/teachers and the pupils to build out and implement such a policy hasn’t
been given any importance. Currently there is no program for Teacher training and
curriculum revision exists.

The country’s miserable literacy rate is an indication on the effectiveness of such

policies which within the framework of a monolingual language in-education policy
for a multilingual population has been adopted. On the other hand a closer look at the
schools infrastructure buildings and spaces dispensed to schools show us a miserable
state of public schools: about 32.7 percent of basic elementary schools have no
boundary walls; 36.6 percent are deprived of the drinking water; No toilet facilities

40
are provided to 35.4percent; and 60percent are without electricity. With the help of
these statistics one can comprehend that why only 10percent of the school going
children out of 70percent of total enrolled manage to complete their secondary school
education. Apart from this, it appears that 23 percent population of Pakistani lives
below the poverty line.

Now take a look at the status of English in developing countries. English as a popular
world language is influencing the local languages in the developing countries. The
part of English especially in Pakistan is complex. All the state institutions in Pakistan
use English as medium of communication. It is the language of power and the
language of dominant groups and classes. 40

• Elite private schools: The elite schools are following the model of the British
public school system. In these English medium schools education is extremely
expensive with highly criticized fee structure.

• Schools run by the armed forces. They also use English as the medium of
instruction.

• State schools: State schools serve the mass of the population. They provide free
education. The medium of instruction in most parts of the country is Urdu and
English. although local languages are being used as medium of instruction in some
provinces i.e Sindhi in Sindh and Pashto along with other local languages are used in
schools in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In 2010 the Government of Pakistan made it
mandatory to teach the science and mathematics only in English in state schools from
the beginner level. But only a few primary teachers hold the required language skills.

• Non - elite ‘English - medium’ schools: In contrast with the highly expensive elite
schools recent years have seen an increasing trend of private English medium schools
which are less expensive and charge modest fees. Their main selling point is their
claim to be ‘English medium’, but these claims must be treated with care.

• Madrassas: This is a very heterogeneous group of institution where variety of

languages is being used as medium of instruction.

40
Hywel Coleman and Tony Capstick , “Language in education in Pakistan: Recommendations for
Policy and Practice”, 2012, British Council of Pakistan .

41
The country (Pakistan) is facing a state of linguistic confusion. Likewise, people
are desperate to be regarded as the proficient English speakers. When they are
actually not. People feel ashamed of while speaking their own language though
that is the only language they can communicate in. The ambiguity of the language
of instruction policy allows schools to make their own choices; ultimately it has
contributed to the present crisis in education sector of Pakistan. The demand for
English as a trend by the privileged elite has put schools, teachers and parents
under pressure. Not many teachers who can teach English or teach in English are
available. Resultantly, educational and language standard is declining with
confused communication in Pakistan.41

2.3.1 Language and Governmentality in Pakistan

Michel Foucault while delivering some lectures at the College de France and other
works like History of Sexuality project was being rethought gave special emphasis to
the notion of power and knowledge and governmentality. His work provokes us to
rethink the narrative told by the both liberalist and Marxist schools of thoughts,
through which we knew that the state is the special place of an immense and magical
power having special rights, advantages, or immunities, unlike a civil society
expected to be away from the power and freedom.33 He called his form of political
rationality "governmental" rationality or "governmentality." It explains that "How to
govern oneself, how to be governed, how to govern others, by whom the people will
accept being governed, how to become the best possible governor-all these problems,
were discussed " written by Foucault.42

To protect the national language in Pakistan, the National Language Promotion

Department (National Language Authority) was established on Obtober 4, 1979 under
Article 251 of the Constitution of Pakistan, 1973. This authority was aimed to
establish to remove difficulties and find a way for the adoption of Urdu, the national
language, as the official language of the country and make recommendations to the
government for its usage as the working medium in all fields of life. It was aimed that

41
Zubeida Mustafa, "Pakistan ruined by language myth", The Guarian, January 10, 2015,
https://www.theguardian.com/education/2012/jan/10/pakistan-language-crisis
42
Scott, David. "Colonial Governmentality." Social Text, no. 43 (1995): 191-220. doi:10.2307/466631.

42
this effort will bring synergy and will promote cooperation among academic,
research and educational institutions. 43

2.4 Language and Influence in Pakistan

We tend to forget that the end of colonial rule from the Indian subcontinent in no way
meant that the culture and customs they introduced would vanish. The British left
their impact on the habitants of Indians subcontinent in every sphere of life ie their
Politics, economics, and society. This influence was abiding and lasting on their
minds to such an extent that the new generations are seemed to be influenced by them.
In a number of instances, People esteemed Western culture and its symbols are still
over native customs and values, leading to the colonization minds.44

The impact of good communication can be very deep for others. By Verbal
communication even uttering a single word and non verbal communication (sometime
just showing a gesture through body language) can send a clear message in a way that
senders intention can be judged through it or it gets the desired results through the
implied message. If we look into the world of advertising, we might have noticed the
importance of the right use of words and how much a power word can trigger and
evoke a reaction.

An emphasis and influence can be seen by the elite of Pakistan for the use of English
as an official language on the assumption that they by this way ensure the access of
members of their own class into superior posts, and promote the opportunities for the
international professional and business classes.45

One of the dilemmas of regional languages in Pakistan is that many of them are in
danger of dying a slow and silent death. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is a home to about 30
regional langaues According to a report, one-fifth of them are at the risk of
destruction, as only a small number of people left to speak them. The languages
include Ushojo, Gawro, Gawarbati, Badeshi and several others. According to

43
National Language Promotion Department of Pakistan, http://nlpd.gov.pk/en/aboutus.php
44
Hamza Sohail, "Effects of Westernization on the culture of Pakistan" February 9, 2015,
https://owlcation.com/social-sciences/Effects-of-Westernization-on-the-culture-of-Pakistan.
45
Rahman, Tariq. "The Urdu—English Controversy in Pakistan." Modern Asian Studies 31, no. 1
(1997): 177-207.

43
Fakhruddin Akhundzada, a Pakistani linguist, Yidhga, a language spoken at the areas
of Chitral, is one of those recently positioned on the in danger of extinction list by the
UNESCO. Next is Ushojo, another language from the same area, struggling to survive
with only 200 speakers.46

In Pakistan, local languages are promoted with misrepresent by the political

dominance and influence or interest. Kalashi, the language of the once celebrated and
now often marginalized Kalash tribe, is gettin little better. Only a few thousand
people speak it any more. These are the people in their age of seventies. It is quite
likely that when they die, the language will die with them.47

It is to be focus on that the greatest impact that western imperialism has had on our
culture is on the language. Our national language Urdu is in the most vulnerable
position with the rise of emphasis on English language. English is becoming a popular
language and Urdu is being replaced by it in everyday conversations. One of the
major reasons behind this societal change is the growing number of English medium
schools and the excessive use of social media and other communication tools like
email and messaging app, which is usually in English. Sometimes a native language is
written in Roman characters, which is devaluing the need of Urdu script. English is
becoming a class and status symbol and People particularly some youth feel ashamed
speaking Urdu. Those who are proficient in speaking English are considered among
the elite class, despite the fact that Urdu was the official language of Pakistan until
English was added only a few years back.48

When it comes to Pakistan Neither of these claims seems valid; Chitral and Kalash
and areas around them have not experienced any gigantic or rapid economic
development or no significant rise in per capita income is noticed but both these
languages are vanishing.

46
Rafia Zakaria, "The imperialism of language", December 31, 2014, Dawn Pakistan
47
ibid
48
Hamza Sohail, "Effects of Westernization on the culture of Pakistan" February 9, 2015,
https://owlcation.com/social-sciences/Effects-of-Westernization-on-the-culture-of-Pakistan

44
Arabic is the language of sacred texts of the Muslims, many Muslims believe that the
first hand knowledge of the faith is attained only by learning that language and this
the right way to avoid the misinterpretations of faith understood through second-hand
mediums and translations. This gives rise in arabisation in Pakistani culture.

The pre existing imperialism of English also gave rise to the imperialism of Arabic. In
the colonial era, the Muslims of subcontinent realized there was little hope to declare
freedom from the colonial masters without mastering their language. Perhaps the
problem began when few Muslims felt their culture in vulnerable position with the
constantly rising trend of English as the global language; So the ontology of the issue,
its roots must be given importance as well.

Nor would the issue have been as complex if after the Partition of subcontinent a
single successor could have been agreed upon the …. Right after the birth of Pakistan
Urdu was given the status of a national language, this irked some groups to an ethnic
war: with linguistic diversity attached to ethnic diversity, it was conceivably
inevitable.

Even as Pakistan chose not to chase the prosperity and development that accompanies
the loss of language diversity, it is nevertheless losing the variety of languages that it
once enjoyed.

It is definitely not to be so. Ross Perlin, who studies language diversity, gives the
example of the Basque language movement in his recent article. In Spain, Basque
language was under the threat of ethnic cleansing when the Basque people were
persecuted under the fascist regime of Spanish dictator General Francisco Franco. But
the Basque people become a symbol of resistance and They did not allow the dictator
to defeat them or destroy their language. By the time the 1960s, the language had
become an upsurge, complete with secret schools, this movement led the way to
language learning programs, cultural festivals and eventually the Spanish government
itself recognized it .

45
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 [Going—returns.

Count (touching guitar).

Good! let it be but one.

Elisabetta.

Hath she return’d thy love?

Count.

Not yet!

Elisabetta.

And will she?

Count (looking at Lady Giovanna).

I scarce believe it!

Elisabetta.

Shame upon her then!

[Exit.

Count (sings).

“Dead mountain flowers”——

Ah well, my nurse has broken
The thread of my dead flowers, as she has broken
My china bowl. My memory is as dead.

[Goes and replaces guitar.

Strange that the words at home with me so long

Should fly like bosom friends when needed most.
So by your leave if you would hear the rest,
The writing.

Lady Giovanna (holding wreath toward him).

There! my lord, you are a poet,

And can you not imagine that the wreath,
Set, as you say, so lightly on her head,
Fell with her motion as she rose, and she,
A girl, a child, then but fifteen, however
Flutter’d or flatter’d by your notice of her,
Was yet too bashful to return for it?

Count.

Was it so indeed? was it so? was it so?

[Leans forward to take wreath, and

touches Lady Giovanna’s hand,
which she withdraws hastily; he
places wreath on corner of chair.

Lady Giovanna (with dignity).

I did not say, my lord, that it was so;

I said you might imagine it was so.

Enter Filippo with bowl of salad, which he places on table.

Filippo.

Here’s a fine salad for my lady, for tho’ we have been a

soldier, and ridden by his lordship’s side, and seen the red of the
battle-field, yet are we now drill-sergeant to his lordship’s
lettuces, and profess to be great in green things and in garden-
stuff.

Lady Giovanna.
 I thank you, good Filippo.

[Exit Filippo.

Enter Elisabetta with bird on a dish which she places on table.

Elisabetta (close to table).

Here’s a fine fowl for my lady; I had scant time to do him in. I
hope he be not underdone, for we be undone in the doing of
him.

Lady Giovanna.

I thank you, my good nurse.

Filippo (re-entering with plate of prunes).

And here are fine fruits for my lady—prunes, my lady, from the
tree that my lord himself planted here in the blossom of his
boyhood—and so I, Filippo, being, with your ladyship’s pardon,
and as your ladyship knows, his lordship’s own foster-brother,
would commend them to your ladyship’s most peculiar
appreciation.

[Puts plate on table.

Elisabetta.

Filippo!

Lady Giovanna (Count leads her to table).

Will you not eat with me, my lord?

Count.

I cannot,
Not a morsel, not one morsel. I have broken
My fast already. I will pledge you. Wine!
Filippo, wine!

[Sits near table; Filippo brings flask,

fills the Count’s goblet, then
Lady Giovanna’s; Elisabetta
stands at the back of Lady
Giovanna’s chair.

Count.

It is but thin and cold,

Not like the vintage blowing round your castle.
We lie too deep down in the shadow here.
Your ladyship lives higher in the sun.

[They pledge each other and drink.

Lady Giovanna.

If I might send you down a flask or two

Of that same vintage? There is iron in it.
It has been much commended as a medicine.
I give it my sick son, and if you be
Not quite recover’d of your wound, the wine
Might help you. None has ever told me yet
The story of your battle and your wound.

Filippo (coming forward).

I can tell you, my lady, I can tell you.

Elisabetta.

Filippo! will you take the word out of your master’s own
mouth?

Filippo.
 Was it there to take? Put it there, my lord.

Count.

Giovanna, my dear lady, in this same battle

We had been beaten—they were ten to one.
The trumpets of the fight had echo’d down,
I and Filippo here had done our best,
And, having passed unwounded from the field,
Were seated sadly at a fountain side,
Our horses grazing by us, when a troop,
Laden with booty and with a flag of ours
Ta’en in the fight——

Filippo.

Ay, but we fought for it back,

And kill’d——

Elisabetta.

Filippo!

Count.

A troop of horse——

Filippo.

Five
hundred!

Count.

Say fifty!

Filippo.

And we kill’d ’em by the score!

 Elisabetta.

Filippo!

Filippo.

Well, well, well! I bite my tongue.

Count.

We may have left their fifty less by five.

However, staying not to count how many,
But anger’d at their flaunting of our flag,
We mounted, and we dashed into the heart of ’em.
I wore the lady’s chaplet round my neck;
It served me for a blessed rosary.
I am sure that more than one brave fellow owed
His death to the charm in it.

Elisabetta.

Hear that, my lady!

Count.

I cannot tell how long we strove before

Our horses fell beneath us; down we went
Crush’d, hack’d at, trampled underfoot. The night,
As some cold-manner’d friend may strangely do us
The truest service, had a touch of frost
That help’d to check the flowing of the blood.
My last sight ere I swoon’d was one sweet face
Crown’d with the wreath. That seem’d to come and go.
They left us there for dead!

Elisabetta.

Hear that, my lady!

 Filippo.

Ay, and I left two fingers there for dead. See, my lady!
(Showing his hand).

Lady Giovanna.

I see, Filippo!

Filippo.

And I have small hope of the gentleman gout in my great toe.

Lady Giovanna.

And why, Filippo?

[Smiling absently.

Filippo.

I left him there for dead too!

Elisabetta.

She smiles at him—how hard the woman is!

My lady, if your ladyship were not
Too proud to look upon the garland, you
Would find it stain’d——

Count (rising).

Silence, Elisabetta!

Elisabetta.

Stain’d with the blood of the best heart that ever

Beat for one woman.
 [Points to wreath on chair.

Lady Giovanna (rising slowly).

I can eat no more!

Count.

You have but trifled with our homely salad,

But dallied with a single lettuce-leaf;
Not eaten anything.

Lady Giovanna.

Nay, nay, I cannot.

You know, my lord, I told you I was troubled.
My one child Florio lying still so sick,
I bound myself, and by a solemn vow,
That I would touch no flesh till he were well
Here, or else well in Heaven, where all is well.

[Elisabetta clears table of bird and

salad: Filippo snatches up the
plate of prunes and holds them to
Lady Giovanna.

Filippo.

But the prunes, my lady, from the tree that his lordship——

Lady Giovanna.

Not now, Filippo. My lord Federigo,

Can I not speak with you once more alone?

Count.

You hear, Filippo? My good fellow, go!

 Filippo.

But the prunes that your lordship——

Elisabetta.

Filippo!

Count.

Ay, prune our company of thine own and go!

Elisabetta.

Filippo!

Filippo (turning).

Well, well! the women!

[Exit.

Count.

And thou too leave us, my dear nurse, alone.

Elisabetta (folding up cloth and going).

And me too! Ay, the dear nurse will leave you alone; but, for
all that, she that has eaten the yolk is scarce like to swallow the
shell.

[Turns and curtseys stiffly to Lady

Giovanna, then exit. Lady
Giovanna takes out diamond
necklace from casket.

Lady Giovanna.
I have anger’d your good nurse; these old-world servants
Are all but flesh and blood with those they serve.
My lord, I have a present to return you,
And afterwards a boon to crave of you.

Count.

No, my most honour’d and long-worshipt lady,

Poor Federigo degli Alberighi
Takes nothing in return from you except
Return of his affection—can deny
Nothing to you that you require of him.

Lady Giovanna.

Then I require you to take back your diamonds—

[Offering necklace.

I doubt not they are yours. No other heart

Of such magnificence in courtesy
Beats—out of heaven. They seem’d too rich a prize
To trust with any messenger. I came
In person to return them.

[Count draws back.

If the phrase
“Return” displease you, we will say—exchange them
For your—for your——

Count (takes a step toward her and then back).

For mine—and what of mine?

Lady Giovanna.

Well, shall we say this wreath and your sweet rhymes?

 Count.

But have you ever worn my diamonds?

Lady Giovanna.

No!
For that would seem accepting of your love,
I cannot brave my brother—but be sure
That I shall never marry again, my lord!

Count.

Sure?

Lady Giovanna.

Yes!

Count.

Is this your brother’s order?

Lady Giovanna.

No!
For he would marry me to the richest man
In Florence; but I think you know the saying—
“Better a man without riches, than riches without a man.”

Count.

A noble saying—and acted on would yield

A nobler breed of men and women. Lady,
I find you a shrewd bargainer. The wreath
That once you wore outvalues twentyfold
The diamonds that you never deign’d to wear.
But lay them there for a moment!
 [Points to table. Lady Giovanna
places necklace on table.

And be you
Gracious enough to let me know the boon
By granting which, if aught be mine to grant,
I should be made more happy than I hoped
Ever to be again.

Lady Giovanna.

Then keep your wreath,

But you will find me a shrewd bargainer still.
I cannot keep your diamonds, for the gift
I ask for, to my mind and at this present
Outvalues all the jewels upon earth.

Count.

It should be love that thus outvalues all.

You speak like love, and yet you love me not.
I have nothing in this world but love for you.

Lady Giovanna.

Love? it is love, love for my dying boy,

Moves me to ask it of you.

Count.

What? my time?
Is it my time? Well, I can give my time
To him that is a part of you, your son.
Shall I return to the castle with you? Shall I
Sit by him, read to him, tell him my tales,
Sing him my songs? You know that I can touch
The ghittern to some purpose.
 Lady Giovanna.

No, not that!

I thank you heartily for that—and you,
I doubt not from your nobleness of nature,
Will pardon me for asking what I ask.

Count.

Giovanna, dear Giovanna, I that once

The wildest of the random youth of Florence
Before I saw you—all my nobleness
Of nature, as you deign to call it, draws
From you, and from my constancy to you.
No more, but speak.

Lady Giovanna.

I will. You know sick people,

More specially sick children, have strange fancies,
Strange longings; and to thwart them in their mood
May work them grievous harm at times, may even
Hasten their end. I would you had a son!
It might be easier then for you to make
Allowance for a mother—her—who comes
To rob you of your one delight on earth.
How often has my sick boy yearn’d for this!
I have put him off as often; but to-day
I dared not—so much weaker, so much worse
For last day’s journey. I was weeping for him;
He gave me his hand: “I should be well again
If the good Count would give me——”

Count.

Give me.

Lady Giovanna.
 His falcon.

Count (starts back).

My falcon!

Lady Giovanna.

Yes, your falcon, Federigo!

Count.

Alas, I cannot!

Lady Giovanna.

Cannot? Even so!

I fear’d as much. O this unhappy world!
How shall I break it to him? how shall I tell him?
The boy may die: more blessed were the rags
Of some pale beggar-woman seeking alms
For her sick son, if he were like to live,
Than all my childless wealth, if mine must die.
I was to blame—the love you said you bore me—
My lord, we thank you for your entertainment,

[With a stately curtsey.

And so return—Heaven help him!—to our son.

[Turns.

Count (rushes forward).

Stay, stay, I am most unlucky, most unhappy.

You never had look’d in on me before,
And when you came and dipt your sovereign head
Thro’ these low doors, you ask’d to eat with me.
I had but emptiness to set before you,
No not a draught of milk, no not an egg,
Nothing but my brave bird, my noble falcon,
My comrade of the house, and of the field.
She had to die for it—she died for you.
Perhaps I thought with those of old, the nobler
The victim was, the more acceptable
Might be the sacrifice. I fear you scarce
Will thank me for your entertainment now.

Lady Giovanna (returning).

I bear with him no longer.

Count.

No, Madonna!
And he will have to bear with it as he may.

Lady Giovanna.

I break with him for ever!

Count.

Yes, Giovanna,
But he will keep his love to you for ever!

Lady Giovanna.

You? you? not you! My brother! my hard brother!

O Federigo, Federigo, I love you!
Spite of ten thousand brothers, Federigo.

[Falls at his feet.

Count (impetuously).

Why then the dying of my noble bird

Hath served me better than her living—then
 [Takes diamonds from table.

These diamonds are both yours and mine—have won

Their value again—beyond all markets—there
I lay them for the first time round your neck.

[Lays necklace round her neck.

And then this chaplet—No more feuds, but peace,

Peace and conciliation! I will make
Your brother love me. See, I tear away
The leaves were darken’d by the battle——

[Pulls leaves off and throws them down.

—crown you
Again with the same crown my Queen of Beauty.

[Places wreath on her head.

Rise—I could almost think that the dead garland

Will break once more into the living blossom.
Nay, nay, I pray you rise.

[Raises her with both hands.

We two together
Will help to heal your son—your son and mine—
We shall do it—we shall do it.

[Embraces her.

The purpose of my being is accomplish’d,

And I am happy!

Lady Giovanna.

And I too, Federigo.

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