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Ayah Freihat

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Ebaa Al Zayadneh
1.Gain of a Control System:
•The degree of effectiveness with which a control system maintains
constant conditions is determined by the gain of the negative
feedback.
•let us assume that a large volume of blood is transfused into a
person whose baroreceptor pressure control system is not
functioning, and the arterial pressure rises from the normal level of
100 mm Hg up to 175 mm Hg.
Then, let us assume that the same volume of blood is injected into
the same person when the baroreceptor system is functioning, and
this time the pressure increases only 25 mm Hg.
•Thus the feedback control system has caused a “correction” of −50
mm Hg that is from 175 mm Hg to 125 mm Hg.
•There remains an increase in pressure of +25 mm Hg, called the
“error,”
•which means that the control system is not 100 percent effective in
preventing change.

•The gain of the system is then calculated by using

the following formula:
Gain= Correction/Error

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2.Positive Feedback Systems::
- Positive Feedback Can Sometimes Be Useful .

•Normal Childbirth :
When uterine contractions become strong enough for the baby’s
head to begin pushing through the cervix, stretching of the cervix
sends signals through the uterine muscle back to the body of the
uterus, causing even more powerful contractions. Thus the uterine
contractions stretch the cervix and the cervical stretch causes
stronger contractions. When this process becomes powerful enough,
the baby is born.
- If it is not powerful enough, the contractions usually die out and a
few days pass before they begin again.
•Uterine contractions pushes baby to cervix • Stretch-sensitive
receptors in cervix send impulse to brain • Oxytocin is released into
the blood • Contractions are enhanced and so Oxytocin release and
baby pushes farther down the uterus • Cycle continues to the birth
of the baby (no stretching).

 BLOOD: bad thing-If the person is suddenly bled 2 liters, the

amount of blood in the body is decreased to such a low level
that not enough blood is available for the heart to pump
effectively. As a result, the arterial pressure falls and the flow of
blood to the heart muscle through the coronary vessels
diminishes. This scenario results in weakening of the heart,
further diminished pumping, a further decrease in coronary
blood flow, and still more weakness of the heart; the cycle
repeats itself again and again until death occurs.

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3. Homeostatic Imbalances:
•Normal equilibrium of body processes are disrupted.

•Moderate imbalance :
• Disorder: any abnormality of structure and function
• Disease: specific term for an illness with recognizable signs and
symptoms.
• Signs are objective changes such as a fever, swelling or high blood
pressure .
• Symptoms are subjective changes such as headache .

•Severe imbalance – Death.

•Another example of feedback system :
is when calcium concentration gets below the normal range, the
body will sense that decrease by certain receptors, these receptors
will send signals to the brain, and the brain will respond to that
signals by stimulating the parathyroid gland to release more
parathyroid hormone (PTH), this hormone will increase the calcium
concentration by:
1. Increasing bone resorption (breakdown).
2. Increasing calcium reabsorption by the kidneys .
3. Stimulating the kidney to transform the inactive form of vitamin D
to the active form, which will increase the absorption of calcium from
the intestine.

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4. Cell & Organelles :
The cell consists of several compartments; for regulation purposes,
i.e. lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and
mitochondria. These organelles contain membranes in their structure
which help in separating their own environment from the cytoplasm
of the cell, this compartmentalization helps in controlling the
function of the cell, for example; the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
contains high concentration of calcium ion in its compartment, which
is important in many processes, like muscle contraction and cell
signalling. So by controlling the permeability of the ER membrane,
you are controlling the cell function.

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5. Components: Plasma Membrane:
(LIPIDS):
• barrier to water and water-soluble substances .
• organized in a bilayer of phospholipid molecules.

(PROTEINS) :
• provide “specificity ” to a membrane.
• defined by mode of association with the lipid bilayer
– integral: channels, pores, carriers, enzymes, etc.
– peripheral: enzymes, intracellular signal mediators.

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Carbohydrates :
• negative charge of the carbo chains repels other negative charges .
• involved in cell-cell attachments/interactions .
• play a role in immune reactions.

Cholesterol :
• Present in membranes in varying amounts .
• Generally decreases membrane FLUIDITY and PERMEABILITY
(except in plasma membrane.)
• Increases membrane FLEXIBILITY and STABILITY.

6. Endoplasmic Reticulum &

• Network of tubular and flat vesicular structures .
• Membrane is similar to (and contiguous with) the plasma
membrane .
• Space inside the tubules is called the endoplasmic matrix.

•Rough Granular ER:

-Outer membrane surface covered with ribosomes.
• Newly synthesized proteins are extruded into the ER matrix.
• Proteins are “processed” inside the matrix - crosslinked - folded -
glycosylated (N-linked) – cleaved.

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•Smooth ER:
• Site of lipid synthesis - phospholipids – cholesterol.
• Growing ER membrane buds continuously forming transport
vesicles, most of which migrate to the Golgi apparatus.

7. Golgi Apparatus:
• Membrane composition similar to that of the smooth ER and
plasma membrane.
• Composed of 4 or more stacked layers of flat vesicular structures.
• Receives transport vesicles from smooth ER.
• Substances formed in the ER are “processed” - phosphorylated –
glycosylated.
• Substances are concentrated, sorted and packaged for secretion.

8. LYSOSOMES:
•Vesicular organelle formed from budding Golgi.
• Contain hydrolytic enzymes (acid hydrolases) - phosphatases -
nucleases - proteases - lipid-degrading enzymes - lysozymes digest
bacteria.
•Fuse with pinocytotic or phagocytotic vesicles to form digestive
vesicles.

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9. Peroxisomes
• Similar physically to lysosomes.
• Two major differences:
• formed by self-replication.
• they contain oxidases.

10. The Nucleus: “Control Center” of the Cell:

•The double nuclear membrane and matrix are contiguous with the
endoplasmic reticulum.
•The nuclear membrane is permeated by thousands of nuclear
pores.
•Chromatin (condensed DNA) is found in the nucleoplasm .

11. Receptor-mediated :
• Molecules attach to cell-surface receptors concentrated in clathrin-
coated pits.
• Receptor binding induces invagination.
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• Also ATP-dependent and involves recruitment of actin and myosin.

12. These pictures show the endoplasmic reticulum which contains

ribosomes, the vesicle formation process, and the translation process
done by ribosomes.

13. the mitochondria which is a double membranous structure

(the inner and the outer membrane) , and it also contains a high
concentration of protons (H+) in the intermembrane space due to the
electron transport chain.
 Primary function: extraction of energy from nutrients.

•while the electrons are moving from the higher energy state to
the lower energy state throw the complexes in the electron
transport chain, the difference in energy are used to pump
protons from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane
space .

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 14. ATP production:
Step 1. • Carbohydrates are converted into glucose .
• Proteins are converted into amino acids .
• Fats are converted into fatty acids.
Step 2. • Glucose, AA, and FA are processed into AcetylCoA
Step 3. •AcetylCoA reacts with O2 to produce ATP.
•A maximum of 38 molecules of ATP are formed per molecule
of glucose degraded.
•The Use of ATP for Cellular Function :
1. Membrane transport.
2. Synthesis of chemical compounds.
3. Mechanical work.

15. The cells also contain cytoskeletal structures:

like microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules.
These structures are responsible for determining the shape of
the cell and other functions will be discussed later on.

 Microtubules are responsible for vesicular transport in the cell,

Also microtubules helps in cell division by forming what is
known as mitotic spindle.

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16.Cells also have small filaments projecting from their surface
called cilia :
•Each cilium is an outgrowth of the basal body and is covered
by an outcropping of the plasma membrane.
•Occurs only on the inside surfaces of the human airway and
fallopian tubes.
•Ciliary movement is ATP-dependent (also requires Ca2+ and
Mg2+).
•moving the mucus as seen in epithelial cells , Cilia consists of
microtubules, the movement of these microtubules leads to
the movement of cilia .

•Actin filaments help in cell movement by forming pseudopods

, these pseudopods will attach to a sight near the cell by
polymerizing actin filaments, and when it reaches it, it will
detach from that sight by depolymerizing actin filaments and
that will make the cell move . Also, actin filaments help in
muscle contraction as they are part of the muscle cell (the thin
filaments).

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So, these cytoskeletal structures are important in cell shape,
and the shape is important for cell structure as in the neuron
cells, the dendrites are shaped like this to increase the surface
area of the cell so they can collect as much as possible trophic
factors (these factors are allow neurons to develop).

•So, the shape is really important for the cell function and that
is also seen in muscle cells which are elongated cells, this
elongation of the cells makes the contraction process more
efficient ,another example: is red blood cells, as they need to
circulate in the body for long distance and be loaded with
oxygen in a short period of time, so if they are spherical in
shape, they won't be able to diffuse to a long distance and can't
be loaded with oxygen sufficiently, so the most compatible
shape for RBC is disk shaped cell.

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‫تم بحمد هللا‬

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