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CHAPTER

Qualitative Research m,

Techniques an
an

LEARNING OBJECTIVES an
• To understand basic differences Turning Qualitative Buzz pn
between quantitative and into, Business lnsights sp,
qualitative research techniques
• To learn the pros and cons of
If you have a Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, or
using observation 'as a means of co,
gathering data · Linkedln account, you are already contributing
rDL
• To discover what focus groups to the billions of new social media_ data points
are and how they are conducted that are created every year. Millions of websites
and analyzed
• To become acquainted with
online focus groups and their
advantages
allow users to formally discuss the perceived
pros and cons of specifrc features of individ-
ual brands, as well as to make casual, off the
(
ply
• To become familiar with other Annie Pettit, PhD,
cuff, silly, and random remarks about brands, qu:
qualitative methods used by Chief Research
Officer, Conversition. products, and people. But wheth_er it's a well- ket
marketing researchers
A Research Now • tbought-out essay or a phrase jotted in haste,
too -
partner company. anc
these opinions are a treasure trove of instantly
der
"WHERE WE ARE" available data ready to be min.ed and measured. qui
Social media research offers many advantages to researchers. Be- on
1 Establish the need for marketing - wil
research. cause historical data is readily available, researchers can access pre/
tan-
2 Define the problem. post measurement data even if an event was discovered after the fact.
not
And, though sur,veys have been and continue to be extremely popular cha
3 Establish research objectives.
for eliciting opinions, social media offers people a place to share their twe
4 Determine research design.
as,
unstructured and unelicited opinions, perhaps, at times, in ways that
5 Identify information types and duc
sources. are more honest and heartfelt than surveys. Further, where traditional
tive
research methods must work under responder time and fatigue con- rese
6 .Determine methods of accessing
data. straints, social media researth has no similar barriers. When millions of adv
eau
7 Design data collection forms. people talk about a brand, they invariably touch on thou_sands of tapies,
mai
8 Determine sample plan and size. · something no survey or focus group can manage without causing undue
dise
9 Collect data. strain on their respondents. witl
Fortunately, many companies with social media expertise have made tive
10 Analyze data.
the process ,of collecting_and coding these millions of records.much eas-
11 Prepare and present the final
research report. ier. Basic products are available that allow you to read, monitor, and track
opinions, while more advanced products align themselves with traditional
 market research ·processes, including sampling, weighting, scaling, ...
• •
and coding. The key to success with this methodology is the same as
any other: Begin with a research objective and the results will follow. conversltlon
•
in association wîth Research Now
1

Conversition is a market research company that specializes in social Visit Conversition af www.conversition.com
media /istening. lt applies proven research principles to the collection
and analysis of social media data, including Twitter tweets, Facebook status updstes, Word- Text and images: By
permission, Annie Pettit,
press blogs, and more. Through a mufti-stage process, brand opinions are collected, cleaned of
Conversition.
spam and irrelevant data, scored into a 5-point sentiment scale, coded into category-relevant
variables, and maé:ie available in an easy-to-use web portal. Our listening and survey tools are
cottvpletnetnery to traditional market research methodologies and wi/1 help you develop a we/1-
rounded view of consumer conversations ·about your clients product, service, or brand.

ualitative research · methods are

Q sometimes referred to as the "soft

side" of marketing research sim-
ply because the findings typically are not
quantitative. Most recently, however, mar-
keting researchers have learned how to use
tools such as neuroimaging, eye tracking,
and facial expression recognition to un-
derstand marketing phenomena, so newer
qualitative research techniques are based
on medicaI or other such science. As you
will learn, qualitative research is an impor-
tant tool that provides clients with insights
not found in quantitative research. This
. chapter discusses how to distinguish be-
tween qualitative and quantitative research
as well as the various methods used in con-
ducting qualitative research. Each qualita-
tive method has its place in the marketing
research process, and each has its unique
advantages and disadvantages as well. Be-
cause focus groups are a popular qualitative
marketing research technique, an in-depth
discussion of them is included. We begin
. with a discussion of quantitative, 'qualita- _
tive, and pluralistic research.

Photo: kbuntu/Fotolia
46 CHAPTER 6 • QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES
1e means of data
.llection during the
search process can be
assifiad into two broad
tegories: quantitative
,d qualitative.
rantitative research
::lefined as researèh
-olvinq the
ministration of a set of
uctured questions with
sdetermined response
tions to a large number
·espondents.
alitative research
olves collecting,
lyzing, and interpreting
a by observing what .
.ple do and say.
. tion step would not be necessary if you instructed them to choose predetermined responses
litative research
. niques afford rlch
ht into consumer
ivior,
stic research
1ed as the
nation of qualitative
iantitative research ·
ds to gain the
ages of both.
Quantitative, Qualitative, and Pluralistic Re~earch
The means of data collection during the research process can be classified into two broad
categories: quantitative and qualitative. ·
There are vast differences between these two rnethods; and it is necessary to understand
their spécial characteristics, to make the right sélection. To start, we briefly define these two
approaches, and then we describe pluralistic research.
Pho
Quantitative research is the traditional mainstay of the research industry, and it is some-
pie.
tirnes referred to- as "survey research." For our purposes, quantitative research is defined rien
as research involving the administration of a set of structured questions with predetermined find
response options to a large number of respondents. When you think of quantitative research, is a·
you might envision a panel company whose members cornplete an online survey. That is, eau~ ·
quantitative research often involves a sizable representative sample of the population and a nific
formalized procedure for gathering data. The purpose of quantitative research is specific, and assL
this research is used when the manager and researcher have agreed that precise information is WiH
needed. Data format and sources are clear and well defined, and the compilation and format- info
ting of the data gathered follows an orderly procedure that is largely numerical in nature. and
also
Qualitative research, in contrast, involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by
tian,
observing what people do and say. Observations and statements are free form or nonstandard-
the
ized because questions and observations are open ended. Qualitative data can be quantified, level
but only after a translation process has taken place. For exarnple, if you asked five people to syml
express their opinions on a topic such as gun contrai or promoting alcoholic beverages to peci:
college students, you would probably get five different statements. But after studying each wids
response, you could characterize each one as "positive," "négative," or "neutral." This transla-
such
such as "yes" or "no." Any study that is conducted using an observational technique or un- are r
structured questioning can be classified as quali'tative research, which is becoming increas- port,
mar]
ingly popular' in a number of research situations. 1
Why would you wantto 'use such a "soft" approach? Occasionally, marketing research- 1· whei
ture,
ers find that a large-scale survey is inappropriate. For instance, Procter & GambieTM may be for C
interested in improving its Ultra Tide laundry detergent, so it invites a group of homernakers
duct,
to brainstorm how UltraTide could perform better or how its packaging could be improved or Chin
discuss other features of the detergent. These ideas may have been the origins of Tide Stain nese
Release or Tide To Go. Listening to the market in this .way can generate excellent packag- ln ac
ing, product design, or product positioning ideas. As another example, if the P&G marketing and :
group were developing a special end-of-aisle display for Tide, it might want to test one ver- activi
sion in an actual supèrmarket environment. It could place one in a Safeway grocery store in viola1
a San Francisco suburb and videotape shoppers as they encountered the display. The videos ture
the f<
would then be reviewed to determine what types of responses occurred. For instance, did
shoppers stop there? Did they read the copy on the display? Did they pick up the displayed •
product and look at it? Qualitative research techniques afford rich insight into consumer be-
havior. 2 An exarnple of an application of qualitative research witha global market segment, •
namely, China, is offered in Marketing Research Insight 6.1. 14 ,.~
With the rush to online quantitative research that produces huge amoi.mts of data, qualita-
tive research is sometimes overlooked.3 However, it is our goal in this chapter to emphasize
the value of qualitative research techniques and the need for qualitative research and quantita- understa
tive research to work hand in hand .. tors. Eve,
Although there are proponents of both types of research, many marketing researchers and brin;
have adopted pluralistic research, which is defined as the combination of qualitative and lize the ç
quantitative research methods with the aim of gaining the advantages of both. With pluralistic the resea · ·
research, it is common to begin with exploratory qualitative techniques as, for example, in- for the q1
depth interviews of selected dealers or a series of focus group discussions with customers to hand knc
 QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE, AND PLURALISTIC RESEARCH 147.

MARKETING RESEARCH INSIGHT 6.1 Global Application

using Photo-~licitation to Understand Global Markets

. n is a qualitative research technique where peo-
t0 -elicita t io .
Ph O . cted to take pt,otographs of a consumption expe-
ple are in;~r~hey are later engaged in an in-depth interview to ·
nence. ah . feelings thoughts, and actions for each picture. lt
fnd out t eir , . . . .
.1 construct the complete consurnpnon expenence be- ,
15 a wayhw formant identifies what scenes or activities are sig-
cause t e in . .
. ..,,, deciding to take the pktures. The researcher 1s then ·
n1ficant u1 . t· 1 h .
l!lreo that there is some·mean1ng u ness to eac picture
ass h fl!ll and skillful probes, the researcher encourages the
Wit care • . .
. f nt to divulge the underlyinq mearunq. Venkatraman
in orrna h d h. "Ph 1· . .
d Nels0n describe the met o t 1s way: oto-e «rtation
aln Jicits rich descriptions of the physical layout and emo-
a so e b f ·1· . d
tional reactions to the servicescape y ao rtatinq . eep ives y
d. b
the infoirrnants or helping them go below consoous, surface-
level observations to connect to deeper, submerged feelinqs,
4
syrnb01s, rnyths, and metaphors. " Photo~elicitation is an _es- With photo-elicitation people talk about the P,hotos they
pecially easy-to-irnplernent .research technique because of the took of.a recent consumption experience.
widesprea<d adoption of diqita' photography technology. Photo: Kzenon Shutterstock.com
These authors point out that a great many food companies
such as Staibucks™, McDonald;s®, or Kentucky Fried Chicken® • Starbucks is a place to relax; the seating and décor is
are rapidly penetrating global markets suchas China. lt is im- inviting and calming.
portant that these companies truly understand how their global • Starbucks is a private, yet social, place where young
markets are experièncing their products and services because Chinese people can gather with their close friends and chat.
when a product from one culture is introduced to another cul- • Starbucks is romantic; the furniture arrangement allows
ture, the consumer experience is often. surprisingly different for couples to have intimate "happy chats."
for consurners in the second culture. Thus, these authors con- • Starbucks is a way to lear~ more about America, which is
:ducteo a photo-elicitation · of the experiences of young urban an interesting observation because Starbucks is supposed
hinese consumers with Starbucks. Coffee is nota typical Chi- to embody ltalian espresso bars.
hese drink, and coffee shops are a new phenomenon iri China. • Starbucks is èxotic, lt is very different to Chinese because the
addition, the Chinese culture discourages sharing feelings coffee and other offerings are new and stranqeto them.
opinions with strangers. So, the photographs became focal
That final point has important implications for Starbucks because
Çtivities that the Chinese informants could talk about without
the Chinese informants.expressed that their initial encounter with
olating cultural norrns. The findings of this study paints a pic-
Starbucks was bewildering and frustrating. They did not know
e of the Chinese Starbucks experience, which is outlined in
e following bu Ilets. how to order, what to order, how to drink the coffee, or what to
do with the sugar and milk. They had to seek advice frcim their
Starbu
. c ks ·1s a safe haven from the chaos and noise of crowds friends or watch the behavior of other Starbucks customers. For-
th
m e streets; it orovides warmth, security, and privacy. tunately for Starbucks, its other aspects were strong attractions
Slarbl!lCèks is like home; it is attractive and charming. that countered these negatil(eS of these initial encounters.

d bow they · · ·
en an b perceive your product and service as compared with those of competi-
ging ~ ~rvatwnal .study could be used if it is helpful in understanding the problem
Probie t e surface issues in the research project. These activities often help crystal-
her m
hador otherwme
· t-"
111ghl·1ght factors and considerations that might be overlooked if
llantitati rushed mto a ful!-scale survey. The qualitative phase serves as a fciundation
ledge ~; ~hase of ~he research project because it p1'ovides the researcher with first-
e reseaich problem. Armed with this knowledge, the researcher's design
148 CHAPTER 6 • QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES'

and, éxecution of the quantitative phase are invariahly superior to what they rnight have been compan:
without the qualitative phase. With pluralistic research, the qualitative phase serves to frame to prosp
the subsequent quantitative phase, and in some cases, a qualitative phase is applied after a
Covert
quantitative study to help the researcher understand the findings in the quantitative phase.5 As
being ol
an example, The Arizona Republic newspaper has used online focus groups for brainstorm-
cord and
ing, and the outcomes of these sessions are then used to devise online surveys. Through this
are a fev
pluralistic approach, the Showtime network investigated different lifestyle types of its Nurse
observec
Jackie show viewers: those who watch on demand, those preferring to watch live, those who
they wer
use DVRs, and those using a combination of the viewing platforms.6 The on-dernand and cal beha
DVR viewers really valued the ability to pause; rewind, and reexperience; the Iive watchers he wouk
· eagerly anticipated the prerniere shows; the DVR users had constraints and needed the con- those 60
venience of recorded episodes; and the combination viewers had complicatèd schedules and dren sho
· .used whatever platform worked that week. to say th ·
Son
OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES amples c
1e qualitative method is We begin our description of qualitative research techniques ~ith observation methods, settings,
observe phenomena. which are techniques in which the researcher relies on his or her powers of observation to tached te
searchers observe obtain information. Observation requires something to observe, and researchers typically·use sonal Po
havior and record what
iy see.
' video or audio recorders, photographs, handwritten notes, or some other tangible record of it is.wise
what is observed. As we describe each observation technique, you will see that each is unique
Structu
in how it obtains observations. '
research
rr general ways of . Types of Observation At first glarice, it may seem that observation studies can occur behavior
-anizinq observations without any structure; however, it is important to adhere to a plan so that the observations late the c
(1) direct versus require a
are consistent and comparisons or generalizations can be made without worrying about any
irect, (2) covert versus
conditions of the observation method that tnight confound the findings. There are four general Uns
rt, (3) structured versus
tructured, and (4) in situ ways of making observations: (1) direct versus indirect, (2) overt versus covert, (3) structured in the ep
'ius invented. · versus unstructured, and (4) in situ versus invented. he or shr
area of ]
.ervinq behavior as Direct Versus Indirect Observing behavior as it occurs is called direct observation.7 For' example
:curs is called direct example, if we are interested in finding out how much shoppers squeeze tomatoes to assess
ervàtion.: sites as ,
their freshness, we can observe people actually picking up the tomatoes. Direct observation to how t<
has been used by Kellogg to understand breakfast rituals, by a Swiss chocolate maker to study
the behavior of "chocoholics," and by the U.S. Post Office's advertising agency to corne up ln Situ
with the advertising slogan "We Deliver." It has also been used by General Mills to under- ior exact
stand how children eat breakfast, leading to the launch of Go-Gurt, a rnidmorning snack for buying s
schoo lchildren. 9 place in
indirect observation, Sorne behaviors, such as past actions, cannot be directly observed. In those cases, we quality t
12
esearcher observes must rely on indirect observation, which involves observing the effects or results of the ments.
ffects or results of the behavior rather than the behavior itself. Types of indirect observations include àrchives and a researc
vior rather than the
. physical traces. pharrnac
vior itself. Types
lirect observations feelings;
Archives Archives are secondary sources, such a~ historical records, that can be applied to
fo archives and tors aber
:::al traces.
the present problern, These sources contain a wealth of information and should not be over-
looked or underestimated. Many types of archives exist. For example, records -of sales calls
may be inspected to determine how often salespeople make cold calls. Many companies mine APPRO
scanner data for insight on the effects of price changes, promotion campaigns, or package size Certain :
changes. Scanner data is ail archive of the purchasing behaviors of consumers. marketin
observed
Physi~al Traces Physical traces are tangible evidence of some past event. For example, we
when the
might turn to "garbology" (observing the trash of subjects being studied) as a way of finding
Shoi
out how much recycling of plastic milk bottles occurs. A soft drink company rnight do a lit-
time spa:
ter audit to assess how much ~mpact its aluminu_m cans have on the countryside. A fast-food
 148 CHAPTE_R 6 • QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES
One qualitative method is
to observe phenomena.
Researchers observe
behavior and record what
they see.
Four general way~'. of
organizing observations
are (1) direct versus
indirect, (2) covert versus
overt, (3) structured versus
unstructured, and (4) in .situ
versus invented.
·,
Observing behavior as
it occurs is called direct
observation.
With indirect observation,
the researcher observes
the effects or results of the
behavior rather than the
behavior itself. Types 1
of indirect observations
include archives and
, physical traces.
. looked or underestimated. Many types of archives exist. For example, records_ of sales calls
and execution of the quantitative phase are invariably superior to what they might have been
without the qualitative phase. With pluralistic research, the qualitative phase serves to frarne
the subsequent quantitative phase, and in some cases, a qualitative phase is applied after a
quantitative study to help the researcher understand the findings in the quantitative phase.5 As
an example, The Arizona Republic newspaper has used online focus gr~ups for brainstorm-
ing, and the outcomes of these sessions are then used to devise online surveys. Through this
pluralistic approach, the Showtime network investigated différent lifestyle types of its Nurse
Jackie show viewers: those who watch on demand, those preferring to watch live, those who
use DVRs, and those using a combination of the viewing platforms.6 The on-dernand and
DVR viewers really valued the ability to pause, rewind, and reexperience; the live watchers
eagerly anticipated the premiere shows; the DVR users had constraints and needed the con-
venience of recorded episodes; and the combination viewers had complicated schedules and
used whatever platform worked that week.
OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES
We begin our description of qualitative research techniques with observation methods,
which are techniques in which the researcher relies on his or her powers of observation to
obtain information. Observation requires something to observe, and researchers typically use
video or audio recorders, pbotographs, handwritten notes, or some other tangible record of
what is observed, As we describe each observation technique, you will see that each is unique
in how it obtains observations.
Types of Observation At first glance, it may seem that observation studies can occur
without any structure; however, it is important to adhere to a plan so that the observations
are consistent and cornparisons or generalizations can be made without worrying about any
conditions of the observation method that might confound the findings. There are four general
ways of making observations: (1) direct versus indirect, (2) overt versus covert, (3) structured
versus unstructured, and ( 4) in situ versus invented.
Direct Versus Indirect Observing behavior as it occurs is called direct observation.7 For
example, if we are interested in finding out how much shoppers squeeze tomatoes to assess
their freshness, we can observe people actually picking up the tomatoes. Direct observation
has been used by Kellogg to understand breakfast rituals, by a Swiss chocolate maker to study
the behavior of "chocoholics," and by the U.S. Post Office's advertising agency to corne up
with the advertising slogan "We Deliver.'" It has also been used by General Mills to under-
stand how children eat breakfast, leading to the launch of Go-Gurt, â midmorning snack for
schoolchildren.9 ·
Sorne behaviors, such as past actions, cannot be directly observed. In those cases, we
must rely on indirect observation, which involves observing the .effects or results of the
behavior rather than the behavior itself. Types of indirect observations include archives and
physical traces. ·
Archives Archives are secondary sources, such as historical records, that can be applied to
the present problem. These sources contain a wealth of information and should not be over-
may be inspected to determine how often salespeople make cold calls.Many companies mine
scanner data for insight on the effects of price changes, promotion campaigns, or package size
changes. Scanner data is an archive of the purchasing behaviors of consumers.
Physical Traces Physical traces are tangible evidence of some past event. For example, we
might turn to "garbology" (observing the trash of subjects being studied) ~sa way of finding
out how much recycling of plastic milk bottles occurs. A soft drink company might do a lit-
ter audit to assess how much impact its aluminum cans have on the countryside. A fast-food
 QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE, AND PLURALISTIC RESEARCH 149

company such as Wendy's might measurè the amount of graffiti on buildings located adjacent
~n
to prospective location sites as a means of estimating the crime potential for each site. 10
ne
a Covert Versus Overt With covert observatiori, the subject is unaware that he or she is
\s being observed. An example is a "mystery shopper" who is hired by a retail store.chain tore-
n- cord .and report on sales clerks' assistance and courtesy. One-way rnirrors and hidden cameras
.is are a few of the other ways used to prevent subjects from becoming aware that they are being
se observed. The aim of this approach is to observe typical behaviors; if the subjects were aware
10 they were being watched, they might change their behavior, resulting in observations of atypi-
1d cal behavior. If you were a store clerk, how would you act if the departrnent manager told you
rs he would be watching you for the next hour? You would probably be on your best behavior for
~- those 60 minutes. Covert observation has proved illuminating in studies of parents and chil-
id dren shopping together in supermarkets. 11 With direct questions, parents might feel compelled
to say that their children are always on their best behavior while shopping.
Sometimes it is impossible for the respondent to be unawarethat someone is watching. Ex-
amples of overt observation, all of which require the subjects'. knowledge, include laboratory When the respondent
s, settings, recordings of sales calls, People Meters (Nielsen Media Research's device that is at- knows he or she is being
observed, this form of
:o tached to.a television set to record when and to what station a set is tuned), and Arbitron's Per-
research is known as overt
;e sona! Portable Meter. Because people might be influenced by knowing they are being observed, observation.
>f it is wise to always minimize the presence of the observer to the maximum extent possible.
'.e
Structured Versus Unstructured When using structured observation techniques, the The researcher identifies
researcher identifies beforehand which behaviors are to be observed and recorded. All other beforehand which
rr behaviors are to be
behaviors are "ignored." Often a checklist or a standardized observation form is used to iso-
observed and recorded in
IS late the observer's attention to specific factors. These highly structured observations typically structured observation.
y require a minimum of effort on the part of the observer.
tl Unstructured observation places no restriction on what the observer notes. All behavior ln using unstructured
d in the episode under study is monitored. The observer watches the situation and records what observation, there are no
predeterrnined restrictions
he or she deems interesting or relevant. Of course, the observer is thoroughly briefed on the
on what the observer
,r
area of general concern. This type of observation is often used in exploratory research. For records.
example, . Black & Decker® might• send someone to observe carpenters working at various job
s 1
sites as a means of better understanding how the tools are used and to help generate ideas as
n
to how to design the tools for increased safety. · ·
y
) ln Situ Versus lnvented With in situ observation, the researcher observes the behav-
ior exactly as it happens. For instance, a mother and small daughter are .observed in a store
r , buying sandals for the daughter or a family meal is observed from start to finish as it takes
place in that family's home. Mystery shopping is done in situ. Midas improved its service
quality by having customers make videos of themselves as they made car service appoint-
rnents.F Invented observation occurs when the researcher creates the situation. For example,
a researcher might ask people to make a video as they try out a new toilet bowl cleaner. A
pharmaceutical company that asked osteoporosis sufferers to make collages describing their
feelings about taking their medications found that patients are reluctant to question their doc-
tors about prescribed medications.13

APPROPRIATE CONDITIONS FOR THE USE OF OBSERVATION

Certain conditions must be met before a researcher can successfully use observation as a
marketing research tool: The event must occur during a relativèly short time interval, and the
observed behaviot must occur in a public setting. In addition, observation is typically used
when the possibility of faulty recall rules out collecting information by asking the subject.
Short time interval means that the event must begin and end within a reasonably short
time span. Examples include a shopping trip in a supermarket, waiting in a teller line at a
 CHAPTER 6, • QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

rvation is used with bank, purchasing a clothing item, or observing children as they watch a television program.
-iors that take place Sorne decision-making processes can take a long time (for example, buying a home), and it
, short time interval,
would be unrealistic to observe the entire process. As a result, observational research is usu-
1s shopping in a
narket and waiting ally limited to scrutinizing activities that can be completed in a relatively short time or to
ink teller line. observing certain phases of those activities with a longer time span.
Public behavior refers to behavior that occurs in a setting the researcher can readily ob-
behavior refers to
serve. Actions such as cooking, playing with one's children at home, or private worship are Mystery
or that occurs in
19 the researcher not public activities and are therefore are not usually suitable for observational studies such Mystery shc
sdily observe such as those described here. by a wide :
::iping in a grocery Faulty recall occurs when actions or activities are so repetitive or automatic that the ob- ganization,
r with children in a served person cannot recall specifics about the behavior under question. For example, people improve th1
ment store.
cannot recall accurately how mariy times they looked at their wristwatch while waiting in a ers by con
. ations should be long line to buy a ticket to a best-selling movie or which brands of cookies they looked at own target
hen consumers while grocery shopping. Observation is necessary under circumstances of faulty recall to full y tors and otl
recall their understand the behavior at hand. Faulty recall is one of the reasons that companies have ex- evaluators ·
irs, such as knowing the nature,
perimented for many years with mechanical devices to observe these behaviors.!" ·
1ny different web ers. These r
hey accessed while
19 online. lnability · .A DVANTAGES OF OBSERVATIONAL DATA
such behaviors is
1s faulty reca/1. Observation of humans in their natural context is the approach that has been used by an-
thropologists for more than 100 years and is an accepted method of conducting market- preferences fo:
ition research has ing research." Typically, the subjects of observational research are unaware they are being
intaqe of seeing ous physical e
studied. Because of this, they react in a natural manner, giving the researcher insight into reactions in pl
rsurners actually
3d of relying on actual, not reported, behaviors. As previously noted, observational research methods also tion atone cam
-report of what mean that there is no chance for recall error. The subjects are not asked what they remember
k they do. about a certain action. Instead, they are observed while engaged in the act. In some cases,
observation may be the only way to obtain accurate information. For instance, children Focus Grc
who cannot yet verbally express their opinion of a new toy will do so by simply playing or A popular qua
not playing with the toy. Retail marketers commonly gather marketing intelligence about brought togeth
competitors and about their own employees' behaviors by hiring the services of mystery for the purpos
shoppers who pose as customers but who are actually trained observers. 16 Of course, mys- groups should
tery shopping should be conducted in an ethicàl manner, as described in the MRA code of discussion is "f
ethics excerpt in Marketing Research Insight 6.2. In some situations, data can be obtained chain periodica
with better accuracy and Jess cost· by using observational methods as opposed to other "freewheeling,'
means. For example, counts of in-store traffic can often be made by means of observational some specific a
techniques more accurately and less expensively than by using survey techniques. Also, traditional resté
pluralistic researchers will use observation techniques to supplement and complement other Focus groi
techniques.17 pie of responde
"vocabulary" ~
LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATIONAL DATA needs and attiti
vantage of The limitations of observation reflect the limitations of qualitative research in general. With qualitative rese
nal research direct observation, typically only small numbers of subjects are studied and usually under city has a numl
persans are most certainly ,
special circumstances, so their representativeness is a concern.18 This factor, plus the subjec-
::i~erved. ager. "Almost n
s must be tive interpretation required to explain the observed behavior, usually forces the researcher
about the issue to consider his or her conclusions to be tentative. Certainly, the greatest drawback of ail ob- executive whos
rrately those servational methods is the researcher's inability to pry beneath the behavior observed and to and Arctic CatŒ
spresent ail interrogate the person on motives, attitudes, and ail of the other unseen aspects of why what with customers
in thé target customer group
was observed took place.
To recap, a limitation of observation is that motivations, attitudes, intentions, and other
internai conditions cannot be observed. Only when these feelings are relatively unimport- HOW FOCUS
ant or are readily inferred from the behavior is it appropriate to use observational research Focus groups ai
methods. For example, facial.expression might be used as an indicator of a child's attitudes or who internet in
 fv{arI.ceting Research Association Code of Ethics

detailed information about their mystery shopping experience

Shopping using questionnaires or narrative reports.
Mys1efY, ing is a long-established research technique used
· MRA considers mystery shopping a legitimate form of mar-
My.;tery sh@PP t of corrimeroal, governmental, and other or-
·d varie Y · keting research when it is ernployed for customer satisfaction·
by a w,_ e urpose is to help such qroups to assess and
I purposes-that is, to determine likely custorner perceptions
ganizat,ons. t s,npdards of service they provide to their custom-
e the sa . . and needs. lt is not considered marketing research when it is
,mprov •ng their achieved performance aqainst their
b comparr . .used fo~ nonresearch purposes such as identifying individu-
ers Y nd against the standards provided by competi-
n targets a . ais for disciplinary actions, falsely elevating sales by creating a ·
o« h r organizations. The approach involves the use of
tor 5 and ot eho are specially trained
.
to observe and measure
demand for products or services that does not really exist in
aluators w . the current markètplace, or obtaining persona! information for
ev nd quality of the services being offered to custom-
the nature a · . nonresearch purposes.
" mystery shoppers ·pose as consumers ·and chronicle
ers. Tnese ·

ferences for•various types of fruit drink flavors because children often react with conspicu- The major disadvantage
physical expressio~s. But adu]ts and even children usually conceal their reasons and true of observation rese.arch is
the inability to determine
lions in public, and this fact necessitates a direct questioning approach because observa- ·
consumers' motives,
n alo.ne cannot give a complete picture of why and how people act the way they do. attitudes, and intentio_ns.

popular qualitative research technique is focus groups, which are small groups of people Focus groups are small
ught together and guided by a moderator through an unstructured, spontaneous discussion groups of people brought
together and guided
r the purpose of gaining information relevant to the research problem.19 Although foêus
through an unstructured,
ps shouJd encourage openness on the part of the participants, the approach ensures that spontar:ieous discussion
di cussion is "focused" on some general area of interest. For example, the Piccadilly Cafeteria for the purpose of gaining
ain periodically conducted focus groups all around.the country. The conversation may seem information relevant to the
freewheeling," but the purpose of the focus group may be to learn what people think about research problem.
orne spécifie aspect of the cafeteria business, such as the perceived quality of cafeteria versus
ttaditional restaurant food. · ,
Information from focus
Focus groups represent a useful technique for gathering information from a limited sam- groups can be used
~le of respondenrs. The infon;1ation can be used to generate ideas, to learn the respondents' to generate ideas, to
VOC.abulary" when relating to a certain type of product, or to gain some insights into basic learn the respondents'
ee~s and attitudes." Focus groups may represent 85% to 90% of the total money spent on "vocabulary" when
21 relating to a certain type of
ualttamve research. They have become so popular in marketing research that every large
product, or to gain some
ty has a number of companies that specialize iri performing focus group research. You Will insights into basic needs
osr ,:ertamly encounter focus group research if you become a practicing marketing man- and attitudes .
..... ~- Almosr nothing gets done without them," says Bill Hillsman, a successful advertising
.-i::cut1ve whose ..
lnd Ar . ® campa1gns .have promoted the Minnesota Twins, the Dales shopping cénters,
-With ctic Car snowmobiles.22 Focus groups are an inval"uable means of regaining contact
customers h . . .
sto w en marketers have lost touch, and they are helpful 111 learmng about new
m.er gi,oups. /

HOWFo
eus GROUPS WORK
Ocus groups . .
ho intera _are of two basic types. 'Iraditional foctis groups select about 6 to 12 persans
et 111 a dedicated room, with. a one-way mirror for client viewing, for about two
 152 CHAPTER 6 • QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES
Traditional focus group
facilities have a one-
way mirror or cameras,
which allow clients in an
· adjoining room to watch
the· focus group without
influencing what its
members say and do.
Focus group participants'
comments are encouraged
and guided by
moderators.
-
Marketing YouTube
Logo:
Learn
about
on YouTubr Focus
Groups with YouTube by
going to www.youtube.com
and search for ''Focus Group
Hesearch: Premium Salad . tive research efforts; that is, a focus group phase may be used to gain a feel for a specific survey
Dressing Packaging."
hours. In recent years, contemporary focus groups23 have emerged that differ in tha
online and the client can observe the online activity from any remote location. t tbey i!re
· Focus group participants are guided by moderators. The training and backgr
0nd of
the moderator is extremely important for the success of the foc us group. 24 Fcic/
moder~tors are respon'sible for creating an atmosphere that is conducive to openns grou
they must make' certain the participants do not stray too far from the central focu:ssf Yet
study. Good moderators have excellent observation, interpersonal, and communii tbe
skills to recognize and overcome threats to a productive group discussion. They
p~red, e_xperienced, and armed with a d~ta!led list of topics to _be discussed.25 It is ~~s~
10
art
helpful 1f focus group moderators can eliminate any preconceptions on discussion to ,
. mm
f rom t h~tr "dT s, .hbe. est mo d e~ators ~re expenence_
. d , ent h. · preparèn, inv lved
usiasnc, ptcs
0
26
energetic, and open mmded. With an mcornpetent moderator, the focus group eau be-
corne a disaster.
Focus group company principals are sometimes referred to as qualitative researc0. con-
sultants (QRCs). The QRC prépares a' focus group report that summarizes the informati
provided by the focus group participants relative to the research questions, Two fact@rs are
crucial when analyzing the data. First, some sense must be made by translating the statements
of participants into categories or themes and then reporting the degree of consensus appare.nt
in the focus groups.27 Second, the demographic and buyer behavior characteristics of focu
group participants should be judged against the target market profile to assess to what degree
the groups represent the target market. '
-The focus group report reflects the qualitative aspect of this research method, It lists ail
themes that have become apparent, and it notes any diversity of opinions or thoughts expressed
by the participants. It ·will also have numerous verbatim excerpts provided as evidence.28 In
fact, some reports include complete transcripts or video recordings of the focus group discus-
sion. This information is then used as the basis for further research studies or even for more
focus groups. If the information is used for subsequent focus groups, the client uses the first
group as a learning experience, making any adjustments to the discussion tapies as needed ro
improve the research objectives. Although focus groups may be the only type of research used
to tackle a marketing problem or question, they are also used as a beginning point for quantita-
that will ultimately generate standardized information from a representative sample.
Active Learning ---------------
Learn More About Qualitativ~ Research
Go to the Qualitative Research Consultants Association website (www.qrca.com). Clic\an
"About Research," then "What ls Qualitative Research," to access the "Wh~n to Use Qwa
. · . d b a uni-
1
t<: ADVAr.
tive Research" page. Now let's consider the example of recornrnendaticns ma e _Yd. te Th~ fü:i ,
.
versity's faculty senate to the administration. For eac h · o f t h ese recommen d.a tiens
1 iri ica
the
'
allow cl
. whether qualitative research should be used to evaluate students' opinions. Whaf are Variety q
pros and cons of usin_g this fcrrn of research in each case? (4) the
1. Require ail students to park at a central parking lot two miles from campus and take (Wherea:
shuttle buses to campus. DISAD
2. Increase tuition by 10%. f tu-
F n·d ay ors 'l'here
3. Schedule classes on Monday/Wednesday or Tuesday/Thursday, leaving
"IUJJ.ples:
dent organization meetings and group project work.
1 depenct~
4. Require students to take at least 18 hours of course work du ring summer schoo ·
results o.
5. Require every. student to purchase and bring an iPad to class. Pants' 8, .
 FO CUS GROUPS 153

NE FOCUS GROUPS
NU "' s group is a form of contemporary focus
O
nline 1ocu · . .
e . . h respondents commumcate via an Internet
up in V.:~c clients can.observe. Typically, online focus
orum, whlc the participants the convenience of being
oups alloW .
i1' b · r own computers, while the moderator operates
seated a~ t ei her office. The online focus group is "virtual"
ut of his or .
. mmunicates electromcally and does not have
that 1t CO ...
e contact For example, Focus Vision World-
(fa,ce-to- fac · .
·cte® (www.focusvision.com) has an online focus group
. g webcams and voice commumcanon that con-
.system u Sm . . .
derator and focus group members m real tune
necte th rno · -
while clients can observe a~d s~nd chat _messag~s to the
moderator during the discussion if they wish. ?~Irnel ffocus Online focus group participants are relaxed, but they can become
in-nu"'s
o-- r have v
the follo_wing advantages over traditiona o_cus , bored or distracted.
oups: (1) no physical setup 1s necessary, (2) transcnpts
Photo: AZP Worldwide/Shutterstock
captuFed on file in real time, (3) participants can be in
widely separated geographic locations, (4) participants are
eomfortable in their home or office environments, and (5) the moderator can exchange private Respondents to an online
lll~sages witb individual participants. Innovative approaches are possible, as somerésearchers focus group communicate
via the internet, and clients
'°mbine online with telephone communications for maximum effectiveness.29 .Nonetheless,
may observe the virtual
re are some disadvantages to online foc us groups: (1) observation of participants' body Jan- chat.
age is net possible, (2) participants cannot physically inspect products or taste food items, and
) participants can lose interest or become distracted"
A variation of the online focus group is conducted in a traditional .setting, but the cli-
t watcbes online. With the use of streaming media and high-speed Internet connections,
ctiveGroup has pioneered this research technique. For example, ActiveGroup (www
tivegroup.net) offers clients the ability to view focus groups online using streaming video.
e fecus group is conducted at a traditional focus group facility with the participants seated
th the moderator. This type of online focus group allows several members of the client firm
observe the focus group at their own location. This· saves the client firm travel expense and
\~ctiveGroup ope_rates in more than_ 1,000 focus group locations i~ 45 countries. .
~ce their entry into the research industry a few years ago, online focus groups have
n m p@pularity. While they will not replace traditional focus groups, they offer a viable
31
ch methocl. A recent article compared traditional in-person focus groups, videoconfer-
g focus gr · · ·
.. oups, onlme focus groups, and "telepresence" focus groups using large high-
uon screens to create a focus group appeai·ance and experience when participants are i.n
rse remote loc t" 'T' · .
a ions. Iable 6.1 reveals how these four types compare on vanous factors.

'.ANTAGES OF FOCUS GROUPS

four maj0r ct ·
clie t · a vantages of focus groups are that (1 ). they generate fresh ideas; (2) they Focus groups generate
ty otss to observe their participants; (3) they may be directed at understanding a wide · fresh ideas, allow clients
they an:uefs, _such_ as reactions ta a new food prodù'ct, brand logo, or television ad; and to observe them, are
w a1rly eas . applicable to a wide
eas it m b Y access to special respondent groups, such as lawyers or doctors variety of issues, and allow
ay e very difficult to find a representative sample of these groups). researchers to obtain
VANTAGE . information from "hard-to-
eare S OF FOCUS GROUPS . reach" subpopulations.
rhree major ct·
les; therefor I~advantages to focus groups: (1) They do not constitute representative Focus groups are not
dent on thee, ~a~tion must be exercised in geperalizing findings; (2) success is greatly representative, a;d it is
of focus a ihty of the moderator; and (3) it is sometimes difficult to interpret the . sometimés difficult to
'Staten:ientgroups (the moderator's report is based on a subjective evaluation of partici- · interpret the researcH
8
and Interactions). · results.
 154 GHAPTER 6 • QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

TABLE 6.1 Comparisons of Traditional and Contemporary Focus Groups32

'fo U,

Factor ln-Person Focus Group Video Streaming Online Focus Group

Reduced travel for clients y ✓
Reduced travel for moderators ✓
Increased global diversity without ✓
additional travel J:ilroducts
Available in desired locations ✓ ;J ✓ standing
✓ ✓ ✓ manager:
Real-time client viewing v vices.34 1
High-quality viewing experience ✓ ✓ applicati•
Full view of body language/facial ✓ ✓ Fina
expressions
better co
High quality audio-video recording ✓ ✓ whY the
Video accessibility (e.g., archiving, ✓ ✓ particula .
clipping, replay) research
Simultaneous translations ✓ ✓ with effi.
Femedy 1
War
ail four
WHEN SHOULD FOCUS GROUPS BE USED?
counter 1
Focus groups should be When the research objective is to explore or describe rather than predict, focus groups may be 36
sively.
considered when the an alternative. They work well for the following situations·: A company wants to know "how backgro
research question requires to speak" to its market; what language and terms do its customers use? What are some new to interp
'sornethmq to be explorad
. ideas for an ad campaign? Will a new service we are developing have appeal to customers, groups 1
.or described.
and how can we improve it? How can we better package our product?33 In all these cases, chase pi
focus groups can describe the tenns customers use; their reactions and ideas for ads; the rea-
sons why service, product, or package features are appealing; and suggestions for improving
OPE.RJ
. the company's delivery of benefits. Refer to the following section, "Sorne Objectives ofFocus
Before
Groups.Tfor elaboration on when focus groups are particularly useful:
dressed
they sh:
WHEN SHOULD FOCUS GROUPS NOT BE USED?
gu\delit
Focus groups should not Because focus groups are based on a small number of persans who are not representative of
be used when the research some larger population, care must be exercised in using focus groups. If the research objective How r
questions require a is to predict, focus groups should not be used. For example,.if we show 12 persons in a focus practice
prediction or when a major than si:
group a new product prototype and 6 say they will buy it, it is not defensible to predict thar
decision affecting the
c6mpany's livelihood rests 50% of the population will buy it. Likewise, if the research will dictate a major, expensive truly bt
on the research results. decision, the company should not rel y solely on the use. of focus groups. If a high'.stakes deci- force tl
sion .is at hand, research that is representative of some population and that has some known Similai
margin of error (quantitative research) should be used. , a natur
Those
SOME OBJECTIVES OF FOCUS GROUPS Convei
situati:
There are four main objectives of focus groups: (1) to generate ideas; (2) to understand con-
calling
sumer vocabulary; (3) to reveal consumer needs, motives, perceptions, and attitudes about
products or services; and (4) to understand findings from quantitative studies.
u
the foc
Focus groups generate Focus groups generate ideas for managers to consider. Krispy Kreme has conducted fo-
ideas for managers to invitec
eus groups to help design new product choices and stores. If managers consistently hear that
consider.
their customers prefer their doughnuts but go elsewhere for gourmet coffees, this gives Krispy search
Kreme management ideas for changing their product mix to include gourmet coffee. Mothers metho
talking about the difficulties in strapping children in car restraint seats give designers of these are he
products ideas. Consumers discussing the difficulties of moving furniture give rise to innova- focus
tions in furniture designed for portability. than E

ps32
nline Focus Group
✓ e preparauo~ ~ps structure questions for use in later quantitative research.
✓ 'ons and also ~·ective-to reveal consumer needs, motives, perceptions, and attitudes about
✓ The third vices-involves using a focus group to .refresh the marketing team's under-
✓ tlllldmg
✓ ✓
✓ \llC . · .
✓ appJi~m;;
:r than predict, focus groups may be
s: A company wants to know "how
.ustomers use? What are some new
.eloping have appeal to customers,
: our product?33 In ail these cases,
·eactions and ideas for ads; the rea-
ing; and suggestions for improving
.ection, "Sorne Objectives of Fecus
iarly useful.
sons who are .not representative of
us groups. If the research objective
:, if we show 12 persans in a focu.s
it is not defensible to predict that
:h will dictate a major, expensiv_t
ocus groups. If a high-stakes dect-
nilation and that has some knoW
. d conr
:rate ideas; (2) to understan
perceptions, and attitudes al,Joll
,antitative studies. d fo-
Krispy K.reme bas conducte tbal
f mariagers cpnsistently he:-~ n
. s ~•sr-
. coffees, this giveMoth
,>ourmet
include gourmet coffee. th
raint seats give designers ~f
. . to 1nn°
1ing furniture g1ve nse
d consumer vocabulary entails using a focus group to stay abreast of the Foc
use
To underSfan s consumers use when describing products to improve communications
P~:;:cts
rrls· and
ut those ~
or services. Such informa~ion may help in advertising copy design or i_n
fan instruction pamphlet. This knowledge refines research problem defim-
con
nee
attit
0
0
prod~cts ~ se~at customers really feel or think about a product or .service. Alternatively,
O
w need early customer reactions to changes being considered in products or ser-
,nanag3:rFs may groups are commonly used during the exploratory phase of research.35 This
• es @CUS , ·
is useful in generating objectives to be addressed by subsequent research.
to understand findings [rom quantitative studies requires using focus groups to FocL
usec
Fm y~rehend data gathered from other surveys. Sometimes a focus group can reveal
'f.P.tter corn,,_ . . findi,
r the findings came out a part1c_ular way. For exampl,~, a bank tm~ge s~rvey ,~howed that ·a studi
wiiY_ ular branch consistently received lower scores on employee friendliness, Focus group
partie ch iclentified the problem as being several frontline employees who were so concerned
::fficiency that they appeared to be unfriendly. The bank revised its training program to
rernecly the problem. . .
Warner-Lambert is one company that has successfully used focus groups to accomplish
ail four of these objectives. lts consumer health products group, which markets over-the-
eounter health and beauty products as well as nonprescription drugs, uses focus groups exten-
. eJy.36 In fact, Warner-Lambert uses a combination of qualitative research techniques to gain
packground information, to reveal needs and attitudes related to health and beauty products,
to interpret the results of qualitative studies, and to stimulate brainstorming new ideas. Focus
poups have been useful in understanding basic shifts in consumer lifestyles, values, and pur-
ase patterns.
ERATIONAL ASPECTS OF TRADITIONAL FOCUS GROUPS
efore a tmditional focus group is conducted, certain operational questions should be ad- .
ssed. It is important to decide how man y people should take pait in a fpcus group, who
ey sbould be, how they will be selected and recruited, and where they should meet. General
·ctelines exist for answering these questions. A discussion of each follows.
. Many People Should Be in a Focus Group? According to standard industry The or:
ctt~e, the optimal siie of a traditional focus group is 6 to 12 people. A small group (fewer group
n stX participants) is not likely to generate the energy and group dynamics necessary for a
Y beneficial focus group session. A small group will often result in awkward silences and
. the moderator to take too active arole in the discussion just to keep the discussion alive.
arly, a group with more than a dozen participants may pro~e too large to be ccinducive to
atural ~scussion. As a focus group becomes Iarger in size, it tends to become fragmented.
se Participating may become frustrated by the inherent digressions and side comments.
ver f
atiosa IOns may break out among two or _thrèe pa~ticipants while another is talking. This
• ; plac~s the moderator in the role of disciplinarian, in which he or she is constantly
Ugn·+-or quiet or order rather than focusing the discussion on the issues at hand.
•uortunate] · · · ·
focus - . Y, it 1s often difficult to predict the exact number of people who will attend
• i ~oup interview. Ten may agree to participate, and only 4 may show up; 14 may be
her~a opesfüat 8 will show up, and all '14 may an-ive. Of course, if this occurs, the re-
od to ces a JUdgm en t ca 11 as to·whether or not to send some home.. There 1s
. no guaranteed
elpfuJ :ns;e a _successful participation ratio. Incentives (which will be discussed latet)
group ~t e~mtely n6t a certain way of gaining acceptance. Although 6 to 12 is the ideal
.6 or IllQr:z~ iange, because of the uncertainty of participation, focus groups with fewer
an 12 do take place.
 FOCUS GROUPS

ner vocabulary entails using a focus group to stay abreast of the Focus groups may be
d consUI' · used to understand t
unJerstan urners use when describing products to improve communications
consumers' vocabula
roup and p.11rases consservices Such information may help in advertising copy design or in
~~ . . . needs and motives, a
tbose.pro • struction pamphlet. This knowledge refines research problem defim- attitudes.
. of an Ill
parauon structure questions for use in later quantitative research. . '
and aJso beJpst·ve-to reveal consumer needs, motives, perceptions, and attitudes about
. d obJec I .
'Jbe th u: . -involves using a focus group to refresh the marketing team's under-
r services . . .
ucts O customers really feel or think about a product or service. Alternatively,
· g of what ed early customer reacnons · .to c h anges b emg
· consi"d ere d m. pro d ucts or ser-
ers .r.naY ne ups are commonly used during the exploratory phase of research.35 This
34 Foe~& gro . . .
· . . useful in generating objectives to be addressed by subsequent research.
. ail isto understand findings firom quantitative
canon . . stu d.tes requires
. . f
usmg ocus groups to Focus groups may be
Flll y, "end data gathered from other surveys. Sometimes a focus group can reveal used to better unders1
compFe,,, . - . findings of quantitativ,
,;,fldings came out, a particular way. For example, a bank image survey showed that a
1 studies.
tbe ""
icularbranch ·
consistently rece1ve_ d 1 ower scores o~ " emp 1 oyee fnen. dl"mess." Focus group
h identified the problem as being several frontlme employees who were so concerned
e~cieney that they appeared to be unfriendly. The bank revised its training program to
y the problem. _ .
Warner-Lambe1t is one company that has successfully used focus groups to accornplish
four of these objectives. lts consumer health products group, which markets over-the-
ter health and beauty products as well as nonprescription drugs, uses focus groups exten-
Focus groups may ;y."36 In fact, Warner-Lambert uses a combination of qualitative research techniques to gain
vants to know" round information, to reveal needs and attitudes related to health and beauty products,
What are some n terpret the results of qualitative studies, and to stimulate brainstorming new ideas. Focus
ups have been useful in understanding basic shifts in consumer lifestyles, values, and pur-
e patterns.

RATIONAL ASPECTS OF TRADITIONAL FOCUS GROUPS

re a traditional focus group is conducted, certain operational questions should be ad-
ed. It. is important to decide how many people should take part in a focus group, who
:Y should be, how they will be selected and recruited, and where they should meet. General
1t representative elines exist for answering these questions. A discussion of each follows.
research objei . Many People Should Be in a Focus Group? According to standard industry The optimal size of a foc
persans in a ~ ~e, the optimal size of a traditional focus group is 6 to 12 people. A small group (fewer group is 6 to 12 people.
ble to predict SIX .. · .
P~cipants) 1s not likely to generate the energy and group dynamics necessary for a
major, expem
:;:cial focus group session. A smal! group_will o_fte~ result in awkw~·d sil~nces ~nd
higb-stakes oderator to take too active arole 111 the discuss10n JUSt to keep the d1scuss10n ahve.
bas sorne kno 1
Y, a group with more than a dozen participants may prcive too large to be conduciveto
se rai d~s~uss~on. As a fo<;:us group becomes larger in size, it tends to become fragmented.
~~icipatmg may become frustrated by the inherent digressions and side comments.
1
·ona ' ts may break out among two or three participants while another is talking. This
ng fop ac~s the moderator in the role of disciplinarian, in which he or she is constantly
lJntoFnquiet or order rather than focusing the discussion on the issues at hand.
unatel · · • .
focus gr . Y, 1t is often d1fficult to predict the exact number of people who will attend
~s conducted oup intervie T:
in ho · w. en may agree to participate, and only 4 may sho~w up; 14 may be
stently heali th
ber fac/es. at 8 Will show up, and ail 14 rnay arrive. Of course, if this occurs, the re-
h is gi ves Kr" s a JUdgment Il .
od to en . ca as to whether or not to send somè home. There is no guaianteed
coffee. Mo
helpiu,J bu~~\a _successful participation ratio. Incentives (which will be discussed later)
,signers of dl
0 li group si e nite!y nota certain way of gaining acceptance. Although 6 to 12 is the ideal
! rise ro in°
6 or ITJ.or/: range, because of the uncertainty of participation, focus groups with fewer
an l 2 do take place.
156 CHAPTER 6 • QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

ldeally, focus group Who Should B~ in the Focus Group? 1t is generally believed that the besr foc'
members should be are composed of participants who share homogeneous characteristics. This requ·us gr
homogeneous. . . Il ~ satis
. fi e d b y t h e researc h er ' s need to have particular types
· trern
~omet1mes. automatica @f
m the focus group. For instance, the focus group may be comprise executives Whou p
lite phones, building contractors who specialize in building homes over $500,000 in :~ &afi
salespeople who are experiencing some common customer service difficulty. With co ue,
products, the focus group's common trait may just be that everyone buys salsa. · ns
The need for similar demographic or other relevant characteristics in focus grou
bers is accentuated by the fact that participants are typically strangers. In most cases th me
not friends or even casual acquaintances, and many people feel intimidated or at leas~ hJ
to voice their opinions and suggestions to a group of strangers. But participants typicaU
more comfortable once they realize they have similarities such as their age (they may alb
their early 30s), job situations (they may ail be junior executives), family compositi@n (~
may ail have preschool children), purchase experiences (they .may <111 have bought a new
• in the past year), or even leisure pursuits (they may al! play tennis): Furthermore, by 0
. 1
ducting a group that is as homogeneous as possible with respect to demographics and 0
characteristics, the researcher is assured that differences in these variables will be less li
to confuse the issue being discussed. ·

·selection of focus group How Should Foèus Group Participants Be Recruited and Selected? As you
members is determined by guess, the selection of focus group participants is determined largely by the purpose of tlie fo
the purpose of the focus eus group. For instance, if the purpose is to generate new ideas on GPS system irnprovemen
group.
the participants must be consumers who own a GPS system. If the focus group is intend
to elicit builçling contractors' reactions to a new type of central air-conditioning unit, it wl
be necessary to recruit building contractors. It is not unusual for companies to provide c~
tomer lists or for focus 'group recruiters to work from secured lists of potential participan
For instance, with building contractors, the list might corne from the local Yellow Pages
a building contractor trade association membership roster.: In any case, it is necessary to inî:-
tially contact prospective participants by telephone to qualify them and then to solicit
cooperation in the focus group. Occasionally, a focus group company may recruit by requ
ing shoppers in a mail to participate, but this approach is rare.
As we noted earlier, "no-shows" are a problem with focus groups, and researchers ha
at least two strategies to entice prospective participants. Incentives are used to encan
recruits to participate in focus groups. These range from monetary compensation for the
'ticipant's time to free products or gift certificates. Many focus group companies use callba
email, or text messages during the day immediately prior to the focus group to remllld P
spective participants they have agreed to take part. If one prospective participant indicates
sème conflict has arisen and he or she cannot be there, it is then possible to recruit a repla
ment. Neither approach works perfectly, as we indicated earlier, and anticipating how _r:n
participants will show up is always a concern. Sorne focus group companies have a p@lic;)'
_overrecruiting, and oihers have lists of people they can rel y on to participate, given rhat
fit the qualifications.
Focus group facilities Where Should a Focus Greup Meet? Since the focus group discussion will last :~e .
should be comfortable, utes or _more, it is im_porta~t that the physical arrangement of the g_roup be comfo:; l!IP in
allow interaction, and not
conducive to group discussion. Focus groups ideally are conducted m lar?e_roo~s to b
have distractions.
format suitable given the research objective. In somè cases; in which it 1s important uit3
face-to-face interaction, a round table format would be ideal. Other formats are _mo~e ~at
15
for tasting foods or beverages or for viewing video. The overriding considerauon a vaJ'Îi
37 111
moderator has good eye contact with every participant. Focus groups are held o@ell
of settings. An àdvertising company conference room, a moderator's home, a_ resp; wbi
home, the client's office, hotels, and meeting rooms af
churches are ail locauons ail
O
focus groups can be held. Aside from a seating arrangement in which participants ca
 157
H recHNJQlJES
OTHER QUALITATIVE-RESEARC .

est fo cus gro ups cond critical requirement in selecting a meeting place is to find one quiet
; requirem ent is !!Ule another, ~e.;ean intelligible audiotaping of the sessions. Marketing research firms with
· types of people enough to peI~J-ties similar to those .we described at the beginning of this section offer ideal
s who use satel- fecus group faci 1 houl d n ,
otbe
,, s groups.
,000 in value, or settings for jocu M oderators l s t fl' \inute
Id the Moderator Become lnvolved in the Research Project? Modera- the 35 5
. W ith consum er hired at rouP
When Shou t be viewed as robots needed to lead a discussion who may be hired at the last focus 9 hlY
;a. to run id thorou9 h
tors should no Th f , d d h · · '· 1 TheY shoU d the reseprc
eus group mem- minute te run rhe focus gro~psh. . e ~eus grod~p s sfucchess_ ep~n s on t e participants mvo ~e-
. discussion and m t eir un erstan mg o w at 1s being asked of them. Productive m- .un derstan
st cases, they are objectives-
ment m the . Jargely a resu I t o f the mo d erator ' s ertectrveness,
cc . w 11·1ch'm tum IS·
. depen dent on h's
1
r at least hesitant velvement IS d b' . f h . .
nts typically feel or her understanding of the purpose an o. jectives o t e interview. Unless the moderator un-
. nfonnation the researcher 1s after and why, he or she will not be able to ph.rase
hey may all be in derstansw d bat l . . f
Jmposition ( they questiens eftfectively. It _is good ?ohcy_ to hav_e the m~d~i:at?r contiibute. to the devel~pment o
• ct's ooals to gmde the d1scuss10n top1cs. By aidmg m the format10n of the top1cs (ques-
Jought a new car th e prnJe o . . . · . .
iennore, by con- tions), be or sb.e will be fam1har w1t~ them and ·w1ll be better prepared to conduct the group. It
is irnpiortant wben formulating questions that they be organized into a logical sequence and that
·aphics and other
the moderater foJJow this sequence to the furthest extent possible. The moderator's introductory
vill be less likely
remarks are influential; they set the tone for the session. All subsequent questions should be
piefü:ed with a clear explanation of how the participants should respond, for example, how they
ed? As you can really feel personally, not how they think they should feel. This allows the moderator to establish
ourpose of the fo- a rapport willh participants and to lay the groundwork for the interview's structure.
m improvements,
,;:,;roup is intended How Are Focus Group Results Reported and Used? As we noted earlier, focus groups
oning unit, it will report s0rne of the subtle and obscure features of the relationships among consumers and prod-
:s to provide eus- uets, adveni.sing, and sales eff01ts. They furnish qualitative data on things such as consumer
ntial participants. Ia11guage; ernotional and behavioral reactions to advertising; lifestyle; relationships; the prod-
l Yellow Pages or uet category and specific brand; and unconscious consumer motivations relative to product de-
; necessary to ini- sign, paclrnging, promotion, or any other facet of the mai·keting_program under study. However,
.en to solicit their focus group results are qualitative and not perfectly representative of the general population.
.ecruit by request- What Other Benefits Do Focus Groups Offer? The focus ·group approach is firrnlY
entrenched in the mai·keting research world as a mainstay technique. Because they are of rea-
i researchers have sooable total cost when compared with large-scale quantitative surveys involving a thoùsand
ised to encourage or more œspondents, adaptable to managers' concerns, and capable of yielding immediatè re-
sation for the par- sul.ts, focus groups are an appealing qualitative research method. Moreover, face-to-faée focus
nies use callbacks, ~IDups are becom.ing common worldwide, and online focus groups are boosting the p9pular-
-up to remind pro- ity 0~ f.ocus groups with new capabilities. 38 They are a unique research method because the Y
.pant indicates that :~11 marketing managers to see and hear the market. Managers become so engrossed · in
. ) recruit a Teplace- ":IT"everyday problems and èrises that they fipd it refreshing to seè their customers in persan.
ipating how many k. ts common for marke t·mg managers to corne. . .
away from a focus group . 11
session observatI0
~s have a policy 0 f Stimulated and en erg1ze
. · d to respond to the ma,rket's desires.
. •
ite, given that they

on will last 90 rnin- Other Qualitative Research Techniques

Althm1gh tme foc . . · h
,e comfortable and techn· . us group 1s clearly the most populai-, it is not the only qualitative researc
e moins set up in a wew.s,tque avarlable t 0
ethn .
k ·
mar etmg rese~rchers. Other such methods include in-depth wte~-
• •
: important to bave ological ogtaphic research, protocol analysis, varions projective techniques, and phJSI-
· ble measurement.
s are more suita
deration is rhat the
re held in a varietY IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS .
me , a responden. h
rs in-depth intervie · . .
sed one w, commonly refeITed to as an IDI, 1s defined as a set of probing questions
locations in whJ.C O
. . t s c an aJl
n one to a subie
ut somethin J c
t b Y a trame
. d mterv1ewer
. . to gain an idea of what the subject t11·1n ks
.icipan . see g or why he or she behaves in a ce1tain way. It is sometimes conducted in the
 OTH ER QUALiTATIVE RESEARCH TECH NIC

l-intercept facility,
me. The objective
I help the market-
vell as the reasons
ary report so as to The Laddering Interview
mal messages can Philip Trocchia
estigating complex Associate Professor of Marketing, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg
[Dls are conducted
.me companies use Laddering is a type of one-on-one asked why high fiber is important, and the n
j to é,LS Web-TDJ.41 in-depth interview technique that express health reasons as a benefit of fiber. Fi
erviewers have the seeks to reveal how individuals re- viewer would ask the consumer why good hea
esponses, This en- late the features of products they to her, and the respondent might indicate tha
purchase to their persorially held good health with some persona] value(s), suc
.mses may be more
beliefs. ln laddering interviews, con- freedom, or pleasure. The summary ladder fo
-no questions typi-
sumers are asked to describe why would be: high fiber (attribute or feature) ➔ gc
J consumer behav-
they purchased a particular good or efit or conséquence) ➔ freedom (value). A typh
Iepth interviewing, service. After uncovering relevant series of laddering interviews would contain a ·
trained, the results product attributes or features influ- common attribute-benefit-value linkages am
cially useful when encing their purchase decisions, the dents,. alonq _with demographic characteristic
, details about how · interviewer probes further with the ers who possess common linkage patterns.
.mers' lives.44•45 aim of guiding consumers to reveal helps marketing managers make decisions suc
piipped with a list of what benefits they associate with the product feature(s) identified our cereal has high fi ber" and "Develop prom
of set responses and earlier. The interviewer then attempts to uncover why those product linking freedom derived from good health d ·
;ed to respond in bis benefits are of importance to the consumer subjects. ln this portion fi ber diets." Demographic profiles of this tar
of the interview, consumers' personal values are revealed. be used to buy media targeting this demogra
· such as "Why is that
The term /addering refers to the series of linkages de-
:ific reasons?" These Professor Philip Trocchia is Associate Profe
scribed above: Relevant features of the consumer's described
ask about conscious University of South Florida, St. Petersburg. He r ·
product purchase are related to the perèeived benefits of the
;hts: The interviewer itative research techniques for such organizatic
product. Product benefits are then linked to the individual's
e-to-face IDis, as we lnstitute, Computer Renaissance, and The He ·
personal set of values. For example, suppose a consumer regu-
St. Petersburg. He has a/so written an artic/1
~ widely dispersed.46 larly purchases a particular cereal. The interviewer would ask
technique in tre Journal of Management Educ
nd preparation.47 . her why she buys_ that specific èereal. She might respond that it
pt to discover how is high in fiber, a brand attribute. The consumer would then be Text and images•by permission.
ally, values that are
searchers determine
.ating certain foods,
.ich specific product
1 :. Through in-depth decision-making processes. Often an audio recorder is used to maintain a permanent record
are instrumental in of the person's thinking. After several people have provided protocols, the researcher reviews
hat the researcher is them and looks for commonalities, such as evaluative criteria used, number of brands consid-
to values. We asked ered, types and sources of information used, and so forth.
'ing; his overview is Protocol studies are useful in two different purchase situations. First, they are helpful for
purchases involving a long time frame in which several decision factors must be considered,
r to one written for a such as when buying a house. By having people verbalize the steps they went through; a
everal in-depth inter- resea.rcher can piece together the whole process. Second, when the decision process is very
included in the report short, .recall may be faulty, and protocol analysis can be used to slow down the process. For
nion that are found in example, most people do not give much thought to buying chewing gum, but if Dentyne·
· Project
malyst who is trained wanted to find out why people buy Spearmint gum, protocol analysis might provide some
involve
pth interviews. important insights regarding this purchasing behavio.r. partici]
(projec
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES activiti-
thèy w
. arion and asking him. Projective techniques involve situations in.which participants are placed in (projected into) about
cision. This special- simulated activities in the hopes that they will divulge things about thernselves that they might might
into tht, consumer's not reveal .under direct questioning. Projective techniques aré appropriate in situations in direct
160 CHAPTER 6 • QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECH'NIQUES
' Five common projective techniques are used by marketers: the word-associati,,
, word-association test
ivolves reading words to
respondent who then
1swers with the first word
rat cornes to his or her
,ind.
: search services. Anywhere from 50 to 75 words are given to online respondents as stim
· th a sentence-
mpletion test,
.pondents are g1ven
omplete sentences and
:ec;l to complete them
:heir own words. The
earcher then inspects
.se sentences to identify
-rnes or concepts.
. pressures working to cause high school students to avoid drinking tea. Given this mfonna
1 a picture test, a
ire is provided to
cipants who are
.icted to describe their
:ions by writing a short
· about the picture.
which the researcher is convinced that respondents will be hesitant to relate their
ions. Such situations may include behaviors such as tipping waitstaff, socially u true.
behaviors such as smoking or road rage, questionable actions such as littering, or e~des~
practices such as betting on football games. en '
. . · '"n test,
sentence cornpletion test, the picture test, the cartoon or balloon test, and role-playin ..
A discussion of each follows. g acuv1
Word-Ass.ociation Test A word-association test involves reading words to ares
11
who then answers with the first word that cornes to his or her mind. These tests may cont~?
oon or B
100 words and usually combine neutral words with words being tested in ads or words ::
ve the head ·
ing product names or services. The researcher then looks for hidden meanings or assocj .
attoon wbat th
between responses and the words being tested on the original list. This approach is used 10
d Ol:lt Ji!OW Sli
cover people's real feelings about these products or services, brand names, or ad copy. The •
own a LiEe dr
taken to respond, called "re~ponse latency," and/or t~e respondents' physical reactions may ord ExploFen
measured and used to make inferences. For example, 1f the response latency to the word "duo" ciplllilt is asked
long, it may mean that people do not have an immediate association with the word. the subject ai
Decision Analyst, Inc., uses word-association tests in its battery of qualitative online
Respondents then type the first word, association, or image that cornes to mind. Sarnple 8·
ate typically l 00 to 200 persons, and the en tire process lasts about 30 minutes. Decisi0nAn
.: lyst states that this projective technique is helpful in determining awareness or exploring
, 'imagery or other associations that are linked to brands.49
Sentence-Completion Test With a sentence-completion test, respondents are given Î!r
complete sentences ànd asked to complete them in their own words. The researcher tbe
inspects these sentences to identify themes or concepts. The notion here is that respenden
will reveal something about themselves in their responses. For example, suppose that Lipton
Tea is interested in expanding its market to teenagers. A researcher might recruit high soh
students and instruct thern to complete the following sentences:
Someone who drinks hot tea is ---------------------li
Tea is good to drink when ~-----------------------:--~
Making hot tea is _
My friends think tea is :__ ,
0
The researcher examines the writ ten responses and attempt to identify central thernes ~
instance, the theme identified for the first sentence might be "healthy," which would si
that tea is perceived as a drink for those who are health conscious. The therne for the secon
sentence might be "hot," indicating that tea is perceived as a cold-weather drink, wbereas
theme for the third sentence may turn out to be "messy," denoting the students' reac11.on
using a tea bag. Fina,lly, the last sentence theme might be "okay," suggestin_g ther~ are no :Ji
Lipton might deduce that there is room to capitalize on the hot-tea market ~ith teens._ prO"
Decision Analyst, Inc., also tonducts sentence-completion tests online. Its service
vides 50 to 75 respondents 50 to 60 incomplete s~ntences,50 ·
. . . t" a pic
Picture Test With a picture test, sometimes called a "thematic appercept10n te~: sil
is provided to participants, who are instructed to describé their reactions by wntmg _a fee
. . . to ascertaUl
story about the p1cture. The researcher analyzes the content of these stones . · g pi
ings, reactions, or con.cerns generated by the picture. Such tests are useful when tes~:g. f:
tures being considered for use in brochures and advertisements and on product pack? JiJJÎ
example, a test advertisement might depict a man holding a baby, and 'the ad head ine
 OTHER QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

. des driver and passenger air bags as standard equipment because you love
their tru e opin- 1
.n y undesirahle ay, ''For? 1~c: picture test may well divulge something about the picture that is especially
., or even ill~gal 1our fannly.d.· reful Perhaps unmarried male respondents cannot relate to the ad because
rive
1 or 1snas ·
ega h e childrei:i and have not experienced strong feelings for children. On the other
iciation test, the dtey d~ not a\n ·out that the picture has a much more neutral tone than Ford's advertising
. playing acti:vity. band, tt_may ,.,tud It may be that the picture does not generate feelings of concern and safety
ency mtem,e ·
ag t ï in maITied respondents· with young children. In any case, without the use of a
f~r the arru .{ would be difficult to determine the audience's reactions.
picture test, 1 . .
to a resJ!)an.dent
nay contai,n over Cart0 n or Balloon Test With a balloon test, a line drawing with an ernpty "balloon" With a balloon test, a 1
:e head of one of the actors is provided to subjects who are instructed to write in the drawing with an empt)
~r words inv0 Jv- above "balloon" above the h
s or associations balloon wbat the.actor is saying or th1_· nking.
· T he re~earcher th en inspects
. t h ese th oug h ts to
of one of the actors is
. ch is used to un- find out how subjects feel about the situation descnbed 111 the cartoon. For example, when provided to subjects v-.
d copy. The time shown a line drawing of a situation in which one of the characters is making the statement, are instructed to write
''Ford Explorers are on sale with a discount of $4,000 and 0% interest for 48 months," the par- the balloon what the a
tieipa,nt is asked how the other character in the drawing would respond. Feelings and reactions is saying or thinking.
of the subject are judged based on their answers.
itative online re-
Role-Playing Activity With role playing, participants are asked to pretend they are a "third With role playing,
.dents as stimuli participants are asked
persan," such as a friend or neighbor, and to describe how they would act in a ce1tain situation
nd. Sample sizes to pretend they are a
.s.Decision Ana-
or to a specific statement. B y reviewing their comrnents, the researcher can spot latent reactions,
"third persan," such a
or exploring the positive or negative, conjured up by the situation. It is believed that some of the respondents' friend or neighbor, an,
tnre feelings and beliefs will be revealed by this method because they can pretend to be another describe how they wo
individual. For example, if Ray-Ban® is developing a new "Astronâut" sunglasses model with act in a certain situatic
ents are given in- superior ultraviolet light filtration, space-âge styling, and a cost of about $200, role playing to a specific statemen
: researcher then might be used to fathom consumers' initial reactions. In this use of role playing, subjects could
that respondents be asked to assume the role of a friend or close workmate and to indicate what they would say to
pose that Lipton~ a thircl persan when they learned that their friend had purchased a pair of Astronaut sunglasses.
-eruit high scbool If coasumers felt the Astronaut ~odel was overpriced, this feéling would quickly smface. On
~e other hand, if the space-age constrnction and styling were consistent with these consumerf
lifeseyles and product desires, this fact would be divulged in the role-playing comrnents.
These projective techniques were adapted from psychology by marketing researchers
man.y Y,ctars ago. They J'emain in use today, although some marketing researchers have devel-
~ped new projective techniques, many of which are proprietary. Table 6.2 provides informa-·
tion on five_ such projective techniques that were developed and are used by Talking Business
::w.T~ngBusiness.net), a qualitative research firm that specializes in innovative research
.ntral themes. Fol strategic brand development. , ·
.ich would sigrofy
'Pt fAs_ with in-depth interviews, all of these projective techniques require highly qualified
me for the second
fonk, whereas tho
· idents' reaction to
ln t
~ essi@nals to interpret the results. This increases the cost per respondent compared with
Surve~ methods. Because of this aspect, projective techniques are not used extensively
ommercia] marketing research, but each one has value in its special r~alm of application.51
g there are no ~eer
n this informatiJ0ll,
with teens. ~HNOGRAPHIC RE~EARCH .
re. Its service pro· ographic re · h 1· -
iled d . . searc s an approach borrowed from anthropology; it is defined as a de- Ethnographie rese~rc
' escnptive t d is a term borrowed fr,
hno ref s u Y of a group and its behavior, characteristics, culture, and so on.52
ers to p 1 , anthropology to desc
tion test,"a pic:ture
rt ights into h eop e, and graphy refers to a field of study. Anthropologists have gained
a detailed, descriptiv
by w1iting a sbol fonged _uman behav1or by living with or among their subjects, called immersion, for
penods to stud th . . . . study of a group and
· fee • ~ay events. Eth _ Y eir emot10ns,_behav10rs, and react10ns t?
the ~emands of_ev-
:s to ascertalD . behavior, characteris1
· a plC-
1 when restin,, cipant ob nogiaphy uses .several d1fferent types of research, mcludmg 1mmers10n, ·culture, and so on.
. g for lose attentio servatwn, and informai and ongoing in-depth interviewing. Ethnographers pay
luctpackagHl ··gh
' ad headline [lll Uuicaten to ;0rds, metaphors, symbols, and stories people use to explain their lives and
wit one another.53 Marketers have increasingly used ethnographie research to
 162 CHAPTER 6 • QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

TABLE 6.2 Projective Techniques That Can Be Used with Focus Groups54

Technique Name Description Application

Respondents are given products (or cards with prod- Reveals competitive sets of products a~
uct names) and asked to sort them into groups and Offers segmentation implications
then to provide a descriptive name for each group
Shows how consumers perceive products and b
rands
Sort Me Stralgbt''>' For each attribute, respondents rank cards with Identifies how the target brand performs on spe -
, brands ac 6
brand narnes from most to least attn'b utes with respect to competmg Befor,
Picture This, Picture Respondents are given several pictures that represent Reveals images and emotions that are associated and r
That™ a wide range of erriotions and asked to select pic- with specific brand/category/situations ries tH
tures that repres,ent specific brand/category/situations era,
Color My World™ Respondents are given several color swatches Offers insight into positive and negative imag- signifi
(paint chips) and asked to select color(s) that ery and associations for specific brand/category/ corn
represent specific_ brand/category/situations situations - Mill i
tentia
Dot, Dot, DotTM Respondents are given 10 dot-shaped stickers or Provides a relative ranking for each of the
v1
tokens and asked to allocate thern across flavors, alternatives, Follow-up probing reveals why
book,
brands, advertisements, etc, certain alternatives are favored
cons~
behav
a111d s
shiftin

-
, Marketing Learn about, study consumer behavior, such as how subjects act during "shop-alongs" or in restaurantsé and e
Consumer soda]
One interesting finding of ethnographie research is that American consumers are transforming
ln-Depth prese,
their kitchens into HIVEs (highly interactive+ virtual environments), offering significant op-
Interviews inforn
on Youlube™ with portunities for electronics comparues."
YouTube by going to Here are some examples of ethnographie marketing research provided by the Qualitative
www,youtube,com and Research Consultants Association."
search for "IMG Ethnography
sample." ■ Moms at home making dinner for the household PHYSIQ
■ Men at breakfast to observe what they eat and why Physiolo
■ Shopping with people at supermarkets and retail stores to observe how they shop and keting st
how they make brand decisions brain wa•
■ "Hanging out" with teen girls as they shop and socialize in' the mali Research
■ Walking with seniors in their walking groups and listening to them discuss their hopes. of the te>
fears, worries, health, and family/friends tian is fe;
■ Watching people use a product they have been given days ago to find out how it fit into The
their routine (test product or a competitive product) C0Mciou
■ Observing the "before and after" someone takes a medication and how it makes or d@es unwillin!
not make a difference in his or her life situation
factor an,
THE "NEW" QUALIÎATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES We 1
There are many new The varions techniques described thus far are in no way a complete list. Other tec?niques ai; rt:searcb:
to a J,Jers<
qualitative research used to study human behavior, and there are promising analytical techniques for 111terpretJJJh
techniques in addition to in the p~
the marketing strategy implications of qualitative data.i'' However, each qualitative resear:_
those we have identified in be view,
technique that is new to marketing research brings with it a need to understand the theCJ~t
this chapter. image th:
cal and practical aspects of that technique to apply it properly, so it is best to hire aspect nter Wbere th,
with expertise in the particular qualitative research technique, As you would expect, coiarrna Aî&JTM
technology and Internet access have allowed a number ofcompanies, such as Good an dO its custot
Consulting, to adapt projective and qualitative research techniques so that subject~ c pbe-- ana1yzin1
them quickly and easily online,59 Finally, the rapidly growing soci~l media marke~tn!s are The
nomenon is an especially active area where innovative qualitative research techntq:digital acti.vity it
0
being developed and used. Marketing Research Insight 6A reports on the emergence h0cty ta r
journals as a means of gathering qualitative data from online community members,
 OTH ER QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES 163

Using Digital Diaries in Marketing Research:

·ands From "Dear Diary" to "Hey, Check Me Out!"
cific
Before the advent of social media, some people meticulously The door is open, according to Mr. Leiman, for marketinc
:d and routine/y wrote persona/ and private thoughts in their dia- researchers to capitalize on the new comfort levels evident ir
ries that they locked away from prying eyes ln the social media social media exchanges: He hàs four .recommendations:
era, people think nothing of divulging ail kinds of trivial and
• Don't hesitate to ask consumers to tweet or post their
significant information about themselves and their thoughts to
reflections about mundane or persona/ habits.
complete stranqers. Burt Leiman, managing director of Firefly
{! • Create an affinity group social network so that new
Millward Brown, believes that digital diaries have immense po-
. digital journal users will feel immediately comfortable
tential as marketing research tools. 60
with sharing information.
With the incredible popularity.ot social media such as Face-
• Use technology to build a platform for rich digital journa
book, Twitter, Orkut, and Mixi, consumers-especially.younger
. ing, such as· pictures, video, and so on, and encourage
consumers-alm'ost obsessively post views and divulge théir
frequent and spontaneous use of it.
behaviors on mundane and seriously persona/ tapies to friends
• Be aware that unless agreements are in place, consumer
and strangers. Moreover, the concept of "private" topics is
who participate in a marketing research social digital jou
shifting so that illnesses, body functions, sexual performance,
nal study may share these experiences with their other
ants." and even criminal behavior are now public knowledge in some
social media outlets and thus alert competitors to the cli
inning social networks. The opportunity to digital/y journal is omni-
ent's activities.
present with.mobile apps and automatic postinq of ail kinds of
mt op-
information, including pictures and video, to social media.

litative

PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT
. Physiological measurement involves studying an individual's involuntary responses to mar-
and
keting stimuli via the use of equipment that monitors eye dilation, respiration, voice pitch,
brain waves, or some other body processes. We asked Courtney Murphy, Master of Marketing,
Research candidate, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville, and a former student of one,
opes,
of the textbook authors, to describe brain wave research, which she is studying. Her descrip-
. tian is featured in Marketing Research Insight 6.5. .
t into Physiological
The notion behind neuromarketing research is that physiological reactions cannot. be
consciously controlled, so they possibly reveal reactions that the individual is unaware of or measurement involves
r does monitoring a responden
unwilling to divulge. With most physiological measures, people who are monitored find the involuntary responses te
situation strange, and they may experience uneasiness during the monitoring. Because of this marketing stimuli via the
factor and the necessary equipment, these techniques are rarely used in marketing research. use of equipment that
We briefly describe two physiological measures to round out this chapter on qualitative monitors body processs
ues are research: the pupilometer and the galvanometer. The pupilometer is a device that attaches The pupilometer is a
preting to a person's head and determines interest and attention by measuring the amount of dilation device that attaches
esearch in the pupil of the eye. lt actually photographs the movement of a persan 's pupil when he or to a person's head and
ieoreti- she views different pictures. Theoretically, a person's pupil enlarges more with an interesting determines interest anc
ecialist image than when an uninteresting one is viewed. Eye tracking is a technique for measuring attention by measuring
· rnputer amount of dilation in th
where the eyes are looking. Which parts of an ad "catches the consumer's eye?" For example, pupil of the eye.
Karma AT &T™ has begun to use eye tracking cou pied with in-depth interviewing to understand how
can do its customers internet with its customer service website.?' Eye tracking is especially useful in
1g phe- analyzing how consumers process advertisements.62 •
ues are The galvanometer is a device that determines excitement levels by measuring the electrical
'digital activity in the respondent's skin. It requires electrodes or sensing pads to be taped to a person's
body to monitor this activity. When a persan encounters an interesting stimulus, the electrical
CHAPTER 6 • QUALI TATIVE RESEARCH TECH.NIQ UES

MARKETING RESEARCH INSIGHT 6.5 : -

',,

· Practical Application
neu
Neurofocu
subsidiary
Qualitative Research Can Involve Observing Brain Activity! Company;
Courtney Murphy .
as the glob
Master of Marketing Research Candidate, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville neuromark
By permis:
ln this chapter you are learning
about qualitative research. While sion recog1
quantitative. research primarily recognitior
. involves asking·consumers ques- facial expn
tions, qualitative research relies being obse
on observing consumers. One can be ex
qualitative technique is called
neuroimaging, which uses sev-
eral techniques to measure brain impulses in tl
activity; Neuroscience helps us to
stances, such
understanr] what it means when
may not tell tl
different parts of the brain show
disadvantages
activity. The medial prefrontal
, for example, contrais' higher-level cognitive processing ral, and subjec
1s brand associations. By showing a consumer a stimulus the responden
s an ad or a brand name, and then observing where brain Eye trac
t occurs, marketinq researchers can gain insights about search is mo
s going on in the subconscious mind. consumers prefer Pepsi over Coke. His research concluded that electroencepl
metimes the interpretation of the subconscious- differs there was more activity in the medial prefrontal cortex. a por- interpretation
vhat consumers tell us when we ask them direct ques- tion of the brain that contrais higher-level cognitive process- As you lé
fraditional methods of data collection rely on the con- ing like brand association, when participants knew they were may aid mark
; conscious recollections. Yet, while the brain spends 2 % drinking Coke'.64 He concluded that consumers have a strong are being teste
nergy on conscious activity, the remaining 9?% is largely brand relationship with Coke. Another experirnent confirms researchers m
d to unconscious processing. Neuroimaging allows us to this strong brand linkage to preference. When consumers_were
he subconscious brain activity, which can provide addi- ferent from w
given an unlabeled cup of Coke and a labeled cup of Coke,
1sights into consumer behavior. The inteqration of neuro- ample, suppos
the majority preferred the labeled cup of Coke. A consumer's
and marketing is often called neuromarketing. Dr. A. K. relationship with a brand can override true taste preferences. 65
drink displays
) of Neurofocus®, a neuromarketing research firm in Neuromarketing research is constantly evolving, and several walking throu
y, California, describes his work as the "comput[ing] the different approaches are used to observe the consumer's brain react to the dé
1bconscious response to stimuli. "63 ·
activity. The brain functions through the transmission of electrical various displa
an example of neuromarketing, neuroscientist Re~d impulses, and this electrical activity can be measured. Electroen- confusion, an)

8
rue was interested in knowing why Pepsi did not cephalography (EEG) measures the changes in electrical activity \
dominant market share over Coke because Pepsi con- at the scalp. Consumers wear a device similar to a headband,
iromotes taste tests showing that, in a blind test, most
Syr.
and researchers can determine exactly wherr brain activity begins
after exposure to a stimulus. By taking many samples, research- . This exercise
ers can determine exactly which part of the brain is "firing" due lowing chap1
'·E·S..O.· ir:-<_o_l. '_1-,\\'H,_)·ir_,E to the stimulus. Knowledge of that brain part's fonction allows
ltl;r.;()1~.. Che
· DWA!sQSVfLL for better interpretation of the meaning of the brain activity 66
ScHOOL OF Bus1,ass Che
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is another
method of neuromarketing research. Because active brain cells Lucy Betcher

MMR
require more oxygen and glucose than less active brain cells, of years. He
fMRI tracks blood flow to determine which parts of the brain are renew friend
most active in reacting to a certain stimulus. Just like a normal Reynolds ha,
MRI scan, the participant must be lying down on or sitting up in tioned to Lu•
the fMRI machine. Unlike the EEG, fMRI can locate almost exactly
Adele overh•
Master of Marketing Research where neural activity is taking place within a millimeter of its ac-
well .. Could L
tuai location. 67
 OTHER QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

neoro=ocus
-
Several biometric tech- expressed by the consumer according to 'the relative size
niques may b~ used in
A Nielsen Company tian, and position of a consùmer's cheekbones, eyes, nos
neuromarketing research. jaw. Other measures of emotion such as electroœrdioqre,
Neurofocus is a wholly owned Eye-tracking is used to al- measure heartbeat and measures of respiration and GS/
subsidiary of The Nielsen low researchers to know vanic skin response) are used to measure anxiety.
Company and is recognized exactly what stimulus the Neuromarketing is still in its early stages. However, if
as the global leader in. consumer is viewing to neuromarketing research can help us gain only srnall incrs
neuromarketing. associate brain activity tal increases in our understanding of consumer behavior
By permission. with the correct stimulus.' knowledqe can be valuable. Though some critics would hë
Automatic facial expres- bèlieve marketers have the ability to train consumers as ro
sion recognition is being used to help interpret emotions. Facial marketers know ·there is far more about consumers we 1
recognition software compiles hundreds and even thousands of understand than we understand.
facial expressions to remgnize the expression of the consumer
Tex/ and images: By permission, Courtney Mùrphy, MMR
being observed. The algorithms used in these software programs
can be extremely complex, matching up the exact emotion

impulses in the body become excited. Physiological measures are useful under special circum-
stances, such as testing sexually oriented stimuli about which many people are embarrassed or
may not tell the truth, and they require special skills to be administered correctly. There are two
disadvantages to using physiological measurement techniques. First, the techniques are unnatu-
ral, and subjects may become nervous and ernit false readings. Second, even though wé know that
the respondent reacted to the stimulus,. we do not know if the response was positive or negative.68
Eye tracking and galvanometers are now considered "old" methods as marketing re- The galvanomet.er is a
search is moving into neuroscience techniques with difficult-to-pronounce names, such as device that determines
ed that ex_citement levels by
electroencephalcgraphy and topography.''? However, these techniques suffer from the same
a por- measuring electrical .
interpretation difficulties as the old methods, activity in the responden
rocess- As you leamed in Marketing Research Insight 6.5, neuroimaging, or viewing brain activity, skin. ·
y were
may aid marketing researchers to better understand consumers' unconscious activity when they
strong
are being tested. By using neuroimaging and understanding the neuroscience behind it, marketing.
nfirms
.were researchers may be able to more accurately posit what consumers really want (which can be dif-
Coke, ferent from what they say they want), what appeals to them, and what drives them to buy. Fot ex-
imers a.tnple'. suppose an advertising company wants to observe a college student's responses to energy
ces, 65 drink displays at a grocery store during finals. The student could be fit with an EEG device before
sveral walking through the store; the device rnight be. hidden beneath a hat so that other shoppers will not
brain reac~ to the device and make the student insecure or nervous. While the student is exploring the
trical various displays, data collected from the EEG.device could measure variablessuch as happiness,

a
oen- confusion, anger, and other emotional responses."
tivity
snd,
gins
·synthesize Your Learning
rch-
This exercise will require you to take into consideration concepts and material from the fol-
::!ue
lowing chapters:
>Ws
Chapter 5 Second Data and Packaged Information
1er Chapter 6 Qualitative Research Techniques
,Ils Lucy Betcher had worked as a consultant for the Small Business Administration for a number
ils,
of years. Her old high school classmates and their spouses gather at least once a year to
re
renew friendships. Judy Doyle, Mike Fuller, Adele Smith, Nancy Egolf, Joy Greer, and Jackie
,al
in Reynolds had diffèrent careers and several were retiring. At their last reunion, Jackie men-
ly tioned to Lucy that she was interested in doing something else after retiring from teaching.
Adele overheard this conversation and said she was interested in trying something nevy as
well. Cou Id Lucy, with ail her years of helping others get started in business, assist her friends?
 OTHER QUALITATIVE RÉSEARCH TECHNIQUES 1(

neurorocus . Severa! biometric tech- expressed by the consumer accordinq to the relative size, kx

1 Neurofocus is a wholly owned

subsidiary of The Nielsen
niques may be usëd in
A Nielsen Company

neuromarketing research.
Eye-tracking is used to al-
low researchers to know
tian, and position of a consumer's cheekbones, eyes, nase, a1
jaw. Other measures of emotion such as.electrocardiography
measure heartbeat and rneasures of respiration and GSR (g.
vanic skin response) are used to measure anxiety.
Company and is recognized exactly what stimulus the Neuromarketing is still in its early stages. However, if ush
as the global leader in consumer is viewinq to , neuromarketing reséarch can help us gain only small increme
neuromarketing. associate brain activity tal increases in our understanding of consumer behavior, tr
By permission. with the correct stimulus. knowledqe can be valuable. Thouqh some critics would have
Automatic facial expres- believe marketers have the ability to train consumers as roba
sion recognition is being used to help interpret emotions. Facial marketers know there is far more about consumers we dor
recognition software compiles hundreds and even thousands of understand than we understand.
facial expressions to recognize the expression of the consumer
Text and images: By permission, Courtney Murphy, MMR.
bein.9 observed. The algorithms used in these software programs
can be extremely complex, matchinq up the exact emotion

impulses in the body become excited. Physiological measures are useful under special circum-
stances, such as testing sexually oriented stimuli about which many people are embarrassed or
may not tell the truth, and they require spécial skills to be administered correctly. There are two
disadvantages to using physiological measurement techniques. First, the techniques are unnatu-
ral, and subjects may become nervous and emit fàlse readings. Second, even though we know that
the respondent reacted to the stimulus, we do not know if the response was positive or negative.68
Eye tracking and galvanometers are now considered "old" methods as marketing re- The galvanometer is a
search is moving into neuroscience techniques with difficult-to-pronounce names, such as device that determines
excitement levels by
:J that electroencephalography and topography.69 However, these techniques suffer from the same
l po'.-
measuring electrical
interpretation difficulties as the old methods. ' activity in the respondent
lŒSS-
As you learned in Marketing Research Insight 6.5, neuroimaging, or viewing brain activity, . skin.
were
may aid marketing researchers to better understand consumers' unconscious activity when they
trong
are being tested. By using neuroirnaging and understanding the neuroscience behind it, marketing.
,firms ,
were
researchers may be able to more accurately posit what consumers rea/.ly want (which can be dif-,
.oke, ferent from what they say they want), what appeals to them, and what drives them to buy. Por ex-'.
.mers ample, suppose an advertising company wants to observe a college student's responses to energy
:es. 6s . drink displays at a grocery store during finals. The student could be fit with an EEG device before
'Veral walking through the store; the device might be hidden beneath a hat so that other shoppers will not
brain react to the device and make the student insecure or nervous. While the student is exploring the
:trical various displays, data collected from the EÈG device could measure variables such as happiness,
roen- confusion, anger, and other emotional responses."
:tivity
iand,
c,gins
(1 Synthesize Your Learning ·~-------------~
arch-
This exercise will require you to take into consideration concepts and material frorn the fol-
due
lowing chapters:
lows
66 Chapter 5 Second Data and Packaged Information
rther Chapter 6 Qualitative Research Techniques
cells Lucy Betcher had worked as a consultant for the Srnall Business Administrationfor a number
:ells,
of years. Her old high school classmates and their spouses gather at least once a year to
., are
renew friendships. Judy Doyle, Mike Fuller, Adele Smith, Nancy Egolf, Jay Greer, and Jackie
rmal
Reynolds had different careers and several were retiring. At their last reunion, Jackie men-
rp in
actly tioned to Lucy that she was interested in doinq sornethinq else after retiring from teaching.
. , ac- Adele overheard this conversation and said she was interested in trying something new as
well. Cou Id Lucy, with all hèr years of helping others get started in business, assist her friends?
6 CHAPTER .6 • QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

The next morning, while sitting on Todd and Joy's comfortable balcony overlooking requi
boats in a canal, Lucy asked thé entire group: "Jackie and Adele are interested in getting into not k
some sort of business opportunity. Do any of you have any thoughts on this?" ,1
Mike, having spent a successful career in pharmaceutical sales, said, "There are opportuni- are,
ties for services for senior citizens in terms of prescription drug management and administration." task
Mike noted that many older people still in their homes or living in retirement centers had difficulty corm
keeping track of getting their prescriptions fiiled and taking their medications on schedule. Trad
"lt's a real problem when people get to be 85 and over," Mike said. "I see a growing dedi.
need_for a persona! service that would provide this type of care." ing.
Nancy and Judy talked about a unique coffee shop they had patronized. Not only was clud,
the staff knowledgeable about different types of coffees and helpful in guiding custorners to frorr
sample different flavors, but the shop also sold a variety of coffee markers ~nd tea makers terne
and books on coffee and teas. However, what they really liked was the atmosphere. lnstead of top:
the placid and contemplative ambience that most coffee shops offer. this shop featured dif- whei
ferent "learning" exhibits where you could interact and discover something new .. The topics . 'chat
changed weekly-local history, coffee making, art, music, and readings by authors. ( 1) t
The two women were fascinated with the shop and had talked to the· owner about fran- serv
chising the concept so they could each start one in their home towns in Pennsylvania and undi
New York. The owner told them he had several successful franchises operating. The biggest inch
challenge the prospective coffee shop owners would face initially would be in finding a loca- of tl
tion .. that would attract the clientele who would embrace the product and atmosphere and parti
return regularly. The owner obviously couldn;t help them make those décisions in their home · neec
towns, so they would need help finding the best locations there. be 1
· 1. Looking .back at Chaptér 5, what secondary data cou Id identify the number of persons in sucl
different age-groups in each CBSA? a fo
2. Based on what you learned in Chapter 5, identify a packaged services firm that would to g
be helpful in locating a successful coffee shop in diffèrent locales. Assume that since the reve
coffee shop owner has several successful coffee shops, he 'has a data base of current eus-
tomer information. Ke
3. Considering either the prescription service or the coffee shop venture, what qualitative Qua
research techniques would ·you now recommend that the prospective business owners Qua
use? Why would you recommend these qualitative techniques?_ Plur
Obs
Din
Indi
Arc
Phy
rmmary Cov
Ove
s chapter described the various qualitative research Observation is a qualitative research technique in which
Strt
rniques used by marketing researchers. Quantitative researchers observe what consumers do rather than commu-
Um
earch uses predetermined structured questions with nicate with them. Observation techniques can be direct or
determined structured response options. lt is also nor- or
indirect, covert overt, structured or unstructured, and in
Re
.ly characterized by the use of large sarnples. Quali- situ or invented. Circumstances most suited to observational
ve research is much less structured than quantitative studies involve ·a (1) short time interval, (2) public behav- 1.
roaches. Qualitative research involves collecting, ana- ior, and (3) the likelihood of faulty recall ifrespondents are
.ng, and interpreting data by observing what people do . asked about previous experiences, The primary advantage of 2.
.ay. The observations and statements are in an unstruc- observation is that researchers record what respondents ac- 3.
:d, nonstandardized form. The advantage of qualitative . tually dei instead of relying on their recall of what they think
:arch is that it allows researchers to gather deeper, richer they do. The limitations of observation studies are that they
irmation from respondents. Pluralistic research involves often rel y ~n small samples, so representativeness is a con- 4.
1g both qualitative and quantitative research methods. cern. Another disadvantage is the subjective interpretation 5
 REVIEW QUESTIONS/APPLICATIONS 167

required to explain the behavior observed. Researchers do
not know consumers' motives, attitudes, or intentions.
'Focus groups, or moderated small-group discussions,
are a popular: form of qualitative research. The major
task of the' moderator is to ensure freewh~eling and open
communication that stays focused on the research topic.
Traditional focus groups use about 6 to 12 persons in a
dedicated room, with a one-way mirror for client view-
ing. Recent innovations in contemporary. focus groups in-
clude online focus groups in which clients may observe
from a distant location via video streaming over the In-
ternet. Another form of online focus group allows people
to participate from their homes or any rernote location
where they observe and respond to other participants 'via
chat rooms. Focus groups have the following advantages:
(1) they generate fresh ideas; (2) they.allow clients to ob-
serve their participants; and (3) they rnay be directed at
understanding a wide variety of 'issues, Disadvantages
include Jack of representativeness, subjective evaluation
of the meaning of the discussions, and high costs per
. '
participant. Focus groups should be used when there is a
need to describe marketing phenomena. They should not
be used when there is a need to predict a phenomenon
such as projecting sales for a new product evaluated by
a focus group. Four main objectives of focus groups are
to generate ideas; to understand consumer vocabulary; to
reveal consumer needs, motives, perceptions, and attitudes
on products or services; and to better understand findings
from quantitative studies.
To convene a focus group, marketing researchers
should have 6 to 12 participants. sharing similar charac-
teristics and corne up with a plan for potential "no shows."
Focus group facilities exist in most major cities, but any
large room with a central table can be used. The modera-
tor's role is key to a successful focus group, and he orshe
should become involved early on in the research project.
Another qualitative technique involves in-depth inter-
views (IDis) to examine consumer motivations and hidden
concerns. Protocol analysis induces participants to "think
aloud" so the researcher can map the decision-making
process a consumer uses in making a purchase decision.
Projective techniques, such as word association, sentence
completion, or role playing, are also useful in unearthing
motivations, geliefs, and attitudes that subjects may not
be able to express well verbally. Ethnographie research in-
volves observing consumers in near-natural settings to mon-
itor theirbehaviors, relations with others, andemotions.
New qualitative research techniques have emerged with
advances in computer, Internet, and communications tech-
nologies. Sorne physiological measurements, such as pupil
dilation or eye movement and electrical activity in the skin or
brain, may also offer clues to consumer reactions to products
, and messages. Neuromarketing is an emerging field that may
offer additional qualitativeinsights into consumer behavior.

KeyTerins
Quantitative research (p. 146)
Qualitative research (p. 146)
Pluralistic research (p. 146)
Observation methods (p. 148)
Direct observation (p. 148)
Indirect observation (p. 148)
Archives (p. 148)
· Physical traces (p. 148)
Covert observation (p. 149)
Overt observation (p. 149)
Structured observation (p. 149)
Unstructured observation (p. 149)
In situ observation (p. 149) Word-association test (p. 160)
Invented observation (p. 149) Sentence-complétion test (p. 160)
Focus groups (p. 151) Picture test (p, 160)
Traditional focus group (p. 151) Balloon test (p. 161)
Contemporary focus group (p. 152) Role playing (p. 161)
Moderators (p. 152) Ethnographie researoh (p.
161)
Focus group report (p. 152) Physiological measurement (p. 163)
Online focus group (p. 153) Pupilorneter (p·. 163)
In-depth interview (p. 157) Eye Tracking (p. 163)
Laddering (p. 158) Galvanometer (p. 163)
Protocol analysis (p. 158) Neuroimaging (p. 165)
Projective techniques '(p. 159)

Review Questions/Applications
1. With regard to the purpose and the characteristics,
when are quantitative and qualitative studies used?
2. List some of the techniques used for qualitative study.
3. What are the conditions that must be met before
a researcher can use observation as a marketing
research tool?
4. Describe a traditional focus group.
5. What is the photo elicitation technique?
6. Why do researchers prefer pluralistic research? .
7. How are focus group participants recruited, and
what is a common problem associated with· this
recruitment?
8. Should the members of a focus group be similar or dis-
similar? Why?
9. Describe what a focus group setting looks like and
how a focus group would take place in one.