Indian Forestry A Breakthrough

Approach to Forest Service 6th Edition

K. Manikandan
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 I ndian
FORESTRY
^ Hrea^^roujft ^^firoacft To *foresf Service ^

K. Manikandan
S. Prabhu, i.F.s.

Sixth Revised Edition

2016
JAIN BROTHERS (New Delhi)
16/873, East Park Roacl, Near Dr. N.C.Joshi Hospital,
Karol Bagh, New Delhi -110005
Phones:011-23618426,45097398
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Vyebsite: www.thejainbrothers.com
Published by:
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for <
Jain Brothers(New Delhi) 1
16/873, East Park Road, Karol Bagh, New Delhi-110 005
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2. M/s Jain Brothers
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Phone : 01596-242144

© All rights reserved. No part of this book should be produced or translated in any form without
written permission from publisher and authors.

First edition 2010

First reprint with corrections 2010
Reprinted 2011
Second revised edition 2011
Reprinted with corrections 2012
Reprinted with corrections 2013
Third revised edition 2014
Reprinted with corrections 2015
Fourth revised edition April, 2015
Fifth revised edition Jan: 2016
Reprinted May,2016
Sixth revised edition June, 2016
Reprinted Oct., 2016

Price : ? 395.00

ISBN :978.81-8360-174-0

Laser Typesetting by:

Niyati Graphics
754/23, Khajoor Road, Printed by:
Karol Bagh, New Delhi BALAJI OFFSET PRINTERS,New Delhi-110035
 N. Vijai, I.F.S.
.State Forest Department
Bikaner
1 Working Plan Oificer
Stage I, IGNP
Rajasthan-641 301 Bikaner,Rajasthan
Mobile: 9413380809
E-mail: viiaiifs@vahoo.co.uk

Foreword
Forests occupy central position in nature. They restore ecological balance of all ecosystems and
maintain biological diversity.
Forests have since long been looked upon as revenue generation sector, they are fast vanishing
from our country. There is a need for holistic understanding on the relationship between the environ
ment and nation’s development. There is a need for good planning and execution of our rich, diverse
forest resource which is scarce and precious. In this aspect, the foresters play a vital role in attaining
ecological security.
Forestry has always been a successful optional subject for the Indian forest service and other state
forest service exams. Despite its success, there is no single text book that deals with forestry in its
entirety. The present book, “Indian Forestry- A Breakthrough Approach to Forest Service” by
Dr. K. Manikandan and Sri. S. Prabhu is an attempt to fulfill this gap.
The authors have written this book as a way of reaching out to all IFoS aspirants and students of
forestry. All subject matter are made carefully and systematically presented with the requirements of
forest service exams. This simplified, full coverage text book will be easily grasped by any average
aspirant.
I believe that this book would be of great value and give a comprehensive outlook on forestry for
the forest service aspirants in our country.

(N.VIJAI)
 Preface to the Sixth Edition
1 he first edition of this book was an ambitious effort to guide the prospective young talents to
embrace Forestry as an alternate professional course and help them become an integral part of forester
fraternity. 1 would like to thank all my readers, forestry graduates, IFoS aspirants, dear friends,
students, range officers, and forest researchers for their wide acceptance of this book and would like
to express my gratitude for their thoughtful comments, feedback and appreciation.

In the past few years, there has been an incremental development in the quality of forest research
which has led to many new arenas, and also technical developments in various aspects of forestry.
While the first edition of this book was a launch pad to address the concern of forest fraternity that
there was no one single book that provided a 360 degree view of Forestry and the competitive IFoS
exam for the aspirants. It is also worth mentioning that the format of the various competitive exams
have undergone few critical changes in the recent past.

This revised edition is an attempt to address all the recent developments in Forestry. We have also
taken care to address few technical corrections in the previous edition. Most notably, this edition
provides specific answers for previous year IFoS questions and also gives a repository of all the
previous year questions.

We truly hope that the readers shall find this revised edition mere lucid, helpful and enjoyable with
the enriched information. Teaching faculties could also stand to benefit with this revised edition as it
presents a simple approach to teach complex forestry subjects to the young talents aspiring to embrace
Forestry as a career path.

^ We would also welcome our readers to access ancillary educational materials, presentations,
general studies materials, practical manual and other useful information from my google site:
https://sUes.google.com/site/drkanimanikandan/home.

If this revised edition enables our forestry aspirants transform into foresters then would be truly
elated that our years of collective efforts has indeed been rewarded. As always, we would eagerly look
forward for your comments and suggestions so that the future edition of this book could be taken to
a much higher level.

Happy reading!

On behalf of Forester fraternity.

K. MANIKANDAN
 Preface
There are many professionals and students who are seriously thinking of giving a shot at the
Indian Forest Service with Forestry as the optional subject. It is imperative that before starting to
prepare for any exam, the below questions would haunt each aspirant; Where should the preparation
start? Where should it end? and is there any central repository of all material information that one needs
to crack an exam?
Well, this book is precisely the answer for your questions. It is anybody’s guess that there will
be an increasing demand for young hearts and minds that can preserve our forest resources. If you
have decided that you should devote yourself for that cause; then there is no better place than Indian
Forest Service! This book will aid all the proud IFoS aspirants by making their preparation simpler and
easier.
The driving force behind this book is mainly the thoughts of many foresters, successful IFS
candidates and also the striving IFS aspirants for sharing their knowledge that they have gained over
several months and years of dedicated preparation. This book is therefore a collaborative effort of a
focus group of many dedicated professionals who have excelled in this field. The inflow of positive
feedbacks and suggestions from other fellow students is also considered while constructing this work.
This book encompasses of 26 chapters which are thoroughly revised and updated, which covers
most of the forestry aspects including few additional facts relevant to the IFoS interview. The book is
profusely illustrated with simple diagrams and photographs which are easily reproducible at the time of
writing IFS exam. Moreover, the language used in this book is very simple, lively and readable. This
book also contains the questions asked in the previous year examinations. As emphasized earlier, this
book covers the entire syllabus for forestry and hence the aspirants need not depend on any other
extensive individual text books. In addition to IFoS aspirants, we hope that this book will also be useful
to all forestry graduates, foresters, researchers and nature lovers.
If the book is useful for whom it is meant, we would happily feel that our years of collective
efforts has indeed been rewarded. We would look forward for comments and suggestions from the
readers so that the future edition of this book could be taken to the next level.

K. MANIKANDAN
S. PRABHU, I.F.S.
 Contents
1. Silviculture 1-70

2. Silvicultural Systems 71-98

3. Ecology of Mangroves and Cold Desert 99-110

4. Silviculture of Trees 111-122

5. Agroforestry, Social Forestry, Urban Forestry

and Joint Forest Management 123-144

6. Tribology 145-150

7. Forest Soils and their Management 151-191

8. Soil and Moisture Conservation 192-205

9. Watershed Management 206-216

10. Environmental Science 217-239

11, Forest Tree Improvement and Biotechnology 240-262

12. Forest Management 263-291

13. Forest Working Plan 292-298

14. Forest Mensuration 299-344

15. Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS 345-368

16. Forest Buildings 369-380

17. Forest Roads 381-396

18. Forest Surveying 397-412

19. Forest Ecology 413-450

20. Forest Resource Utilization 451-474
21. Wood Technology 475-503
22. Forest Protection 504-536
23. Forest Legislation 537-552
24. Forest Economics 553-559
25. Wild Life Management 560-578
26. Miscellaneous Information 579-626
References 627-628
Index 629-644
 1
Basic facts on plants and silviculture
Plant propagation
Sexual propagation - aerial seeding
Asexual propagation
Cuttage - layering - graftage - budding
Propagation by specialized plant parts
Micro propagation
Nursery
Nursery classification - site selection - containers - medium - nursery beds - polybag and its
maintenance - water budgeting - seedling establishment - grading and hardening of seedlings.
Forest classification
Definition and basis of forest classification - Schemes of forest classification - Champion
and Seth forest classification
Factors influencing forest vegetation
Climatic factors - edaphic factors - topographic factors - biotic factors
Regeneration offorests
Natural regeneration
NR by seeds - factors affecting natural regeneration by seeds - seed production - seed
dispersal - seed germination - seedling establishment
NR by coppices
NR by root suckers
Natural regeneration supplemented by artificial regeneration
Artificial regeneration
Tending offorest crops
Weeding - cleaning - thinning - climber cutting - control burning
Wastelands and its afforestation
Miscellaneous information
2 INDIAN FORESTRY

SILVICULTURE
Silviculture is that branch offorestry which deals with establishment, development, care and
reproduction ofstands oftimber. Silvics is the study oflife history and general characteristics afforest
trees andcrops with particular reference to environmentalfactors as the basisforpractice ofsilviculture.
Silviculture has specific relation with other disciplines such as forestry, forest protection, forest
mensuration, forest utilization, forest economics and forest management etc. The main differences
between silviculture and silvics are given in the below table:
Silviculture Silvic.s

● Silviculture is that branch of forestry which
deals with the establishment, development,
care and reproduction of stands of timber
● It is the science dealing with both theory
and practice
● It is a broader term
● It deals with the procedure of obtaining
natural regeneration under various systems
and methods of tending of young crops
● It is the application of silvics
● Silvics is the study of life history and general
characteristics of forest trees and crops with
particular reference to environmental factors
'● It is the basic theory upon which silviculture
stands
● It is a part of silviculture
● It deals with the study of tree and forests as
biological units, laws governing the growth
and effect of environment on vegetation
● It is the principle for silviculture

Objectives of Silviculture
1. Production of higher volume per unit area
2. Production of superior quality timber
3. Production of economically valuable species
4. Reducing the rotation of species
5. Afforestation
6. Reforestation
7. Introduction of exotics

Plants and their Classification

Plant is defined as any of various photosynthetic, eukaryotic, multicellular organisms of the
kingdom Plantae characteristically having chloroplasts and lacking the power of locomotion. Simply
plant is an organism that belongs to the Kingdom Plantae in biological classification. A complete plant
has a root, stem, and leaves.
The plants in the world are classified in different categories such as herb, shrub and tree. Herb
is defined as a plant whose stem is always green and tender and not more than one meter in height.
Shrub is defined as a woody plant differing from a perennial herb in its persistent and woody stem and
tree definitely from a tree in its low stature and its habit of branching. Tree is defined as a large woody
perennial plant having a single well defined stem and more or less definite crown. Plants, which have
special structure to climb on supports, are called as climbers. Climbers include both twiners and
 SILVICULTURE 3

creepers. Twiners grow spirally around another plant or support and do not possess tendrils, rootlets,
shoots or thorn. E.g., Echites, Chonemorpha, Clerodendron. Creepers cannot grow vertically on their
own Eg.y Morning Glory.

Tree Development
Development of tree starts from germination of seeds up to harvest. The main stages in the
development oftrees are seedling, sapling and tree. Seedling is a plant grown from seed till it reaches
about one meter height. Sapling is the young tree from the time when the rate of height growth begins
to slow down and crown expansion becomes marked. Tree is a plant, which has a well defined single
pole and is more than 6 m in height.

Parts of the Tree and its Characteristics

a)Leaf
Leafrefers the green,flattened, lateral structure attached to a stem and functioning as a principal
organ of photosynthesis and transpiration in plants. The leafcolour ofthe plants varies with species and
also under different conditions. Qurcus incana leaves are white in colour whereas Qurcus semicarbifolia
leaves are brown.Pinkish colour observed in young leaves of Q. incana.Schleichera oleosa have bright
red coloured leaves. Dark red colour observed in young leaves of Mango, and Cassiafistula
Autumn tint refers the colour change before the leaffall. The leaf colour changes at the time of
maturation due to various biochemical changes which alter the pigment composition considerably. The
mature leaves of Lannea corromendelica are yellow in colour. Red colour is observed in Anogeissus
latifolia whereas beautiful red, purple or orange colour is observed in Sapium sebiferum.
Based on the presence or absence of leaves, plants can be classified as deciduous or ever green
species. Evergreen species are the perennial plant that is never entirely with out green foliage. In these
species, the old leaves persist until the new leaves are appeared. The common evergreen species are
Abies pindrew, Cedrous deodara, Cuppressus torulosa, Hopea parvifiora, Mchalea champaca, Picea
smithiana, Pinus wallichiana and Mallotus phillipensis. Deciduous species are the perennial plants,
which have distinct leafless period for some part of the year. It includes Adina cardifolia, Ailanthus
exelsa, Bombax ceiba, Holoptelia integrifolia, Lannea and Melia azadirachta.

b)Stem
Stem is the principal axis ofplantfrom which buds and shoots are developed. Bole refers the
lower part ofstem up to a point where main branches are given off. The stem diameter decreasesfrom
base to upwards which is technically called as taper. In general, stem with least taper and cylindrical in
shape is preferable. Fluting refers the irregular swellings and involutions on the stem. This renders the
utility oftimber and reduces the value too.

c)Crown
Crown is the upper branchy part ofthe tree above the bole. Crown development refers the
expansion ofcrown measured as crown length and crown width. Crown ofthe tree is differentiated based
on their shape and size. Phonix, Cocus and Borrassus have cylindrical crown whereas all conifers
comes under conical crown type. Sphericaltype crown includes mango,neem, Terminalia and Madhuca.
Albizzia stipulata has broad and flat topped crown.
4 INDIAN FORESTRY

Based on the crown, the trees in the forests are classified as follows:
1. Dominant trees (Class symbol 1; abb-D)
These are the trees of upper most canopy. Based on the leading shoots, these dominant trees are
further classified as follows:
(0 Predominant trees(abb Dl); The tallest trees which are free from competition.
(/O Codominant trees(abb D2): These are is the trees having 5/6 ofthe height of predominant
species.
These are further classified according to their vigour and soundness;
la - Trees with normal crown development and good stem form
Ib - Trees with defective stem or crown
Ic - Trees with very defective stem or crown
Id - Trees with very thin bole and very constricted crown
2. Dominated trees (Class symbol - II; abb - d)
Trees with a height of of the tallest trees are referred as dominated trees.
Subclasses

la - Trees with normal crown development with good stem form

Ib - Trees with defective crown or stem with good stem form
3. Suppressed trees (Class symbol -III; abb - s)
Trees with 14 to 5/8 ofthe height ofthe tallest trees are referred as suppressed trees. The leading
shoots of these trees are over topped by their neighbours.
4. Dead and moribund tree (Class symbol - IV; abb - m)
This includes bent over or badly leaning trees.
5. Diseased trees (Class symbol - V; abb - k)
This class includes trees that are infected with parasites and hence the growth of these trees are
seriously affected. The subclasses in this category are as follows:
Va - Dominant trees
Vb - Dominated and suppressed trees
In the uneven aged forest, canopy class classification differs from that ofeven aged forest. Here
canopies found in storied high forest are divided on the basis oftheir relative heights v/z., top canopy,
middle canopy and under storey.

d)Branch
Branch refers the shoot or secondary stem growing from the main stem of a tree or other plant.
The branching habits oftrees differ with species. Bombax ceiba and Firms wallichiana produces whorl
type branching. The branches ofPopulus nigra and Cupressus sembervirens make an angle of 20-30°
with main stem. The horizontal type branching is observed in old deodar and Duabanga sonneratioides.
The Anogeissus pendula and Terminalia myriocarba have downward dropping branches.
 SILVICULTURE 5

e) Root
In plants, root is the organ of a plant body that typically lies below the surface of the soil.
However, root can also be aerial (growing above the ground) or aerating (growing up above the
ground or especially above water). Hence,root is defined as a part ofa plant body that bears no leaves,
and lacks nodes.
A true root system consists of a primary root and secondary roots or lateral roots. The
primary root originates in the radicle ofthe seedling which is prominent and has a single, dominant axis.
During its growth it rebranches to number of lateral roots. Lateral roots are more fibrous in nature and
forms diffused branches in all directions.

Specialized roots
The roots, or parts of roots, of many plant species have become specialized to serve adaptive
purposes and some of the specialized roots are as follows:
1. Adventitious roots arise from the stem, branches, leaves, or old woody roots. E.g., willow
{Salix).
2. Aerating roots (or pneumatophores) are the roots raised above the ground, especially
above water. E.g,Avicennia, Sonneratia. These roots facilitates gas exchange under anaerobic
soil conditions.
3. Aerial roots are the roots found entirely above the ground. They function as prop roots or as.
the trunk. E.g, Ficus glomerata, epiphytic orchids.
4. Haustorial roots are the roots of parasitic plants that can absorb water and nutrients from
another plant. E.g, mistletoe {Viscum album) and dodder.
5. Stilt roots are the adventitious support roots that grow down from lateral branches. It is
common among mangrove species.
6. Storage roots are modified roots for storage of food or water, such as carrots and beets.
They include some taproots and tuberous roots.
Buttresses are the out growths formed usually vertically above the lateral roots and thus connect
the base of the stem with roots. This is usually associated with species lacking tap roots system and
shallow soils with rocks.

f)Bark
Bark is the outermost layers ofstem and root of woody plants. It consists of inner bark and outer
bark. The inner bark is a living tissue which/includes the innermost area ofthe periderm. The outer bark
refers to the dead tissues on the surface of the stems. Bark may be smooth or rough in texture. In some
trees, appearance of bark gives an idea about the age of tree.

Plant Propagation
Plant propagation refers to the multiplication or perpetuation of individual or group of plants
which have specific value to human kind. Plants can be propagated by two means viz., sexual or asexual
propagation.
6 INDIAN FORESTRY

1)Sexual propagation
Sexualpropagation is a method ofplantpropagation in which plants are propagated by means of
seed. It is the common and widely used method of propagation.

Advantages ofsexual propagation

1) Plants obtained from seeds are mostly long lived than asexually propagated plants.
2) These plants develops deep root systems and hence hardy in nature.
3) Generally, plants obtained from seeds are better than parent plants.
4) In case of polyembryony, more than one seedling is obtained from a single seed.
5) This is the only way when asexual propagation is not successful.
6) The hybrid vigor can be successfully utilized in many breeding program.

Disadvantages ofsexual propagation

1) The plants obtained are not true to type plants i.e., differ from the parent plants.
2) Seedlings take longjuvenile period.
3) The establishment of plants takes longer time.
4) Seed looses its viability in short period.

Aerial Seeding
Aerial seeding is the process of dispersing the seed aerially.

Sites for aerial seeding

Aerial seeding is suitable for the following conditions;
● Remote and inaccessible areas
● Ragged areas
● Region where labour scarcity or sparse population is available
● Deep ravines where afforestation is not possible through manual mode
● In case of any financial constraint
● Areas denuded by clear cutting or shifting cultivation
● Areas devastated by pest and diseases, volcanoes, earth-quakes and land slides

Choice of Species
The species for aerial seeding should have the following characteristics:
1. Smaller to medium sized seed is preferable
2. Seed should be available in large quantity
3. Frequent and prolific seed availability is essential
4. Seed should have the ability to germinate on the rough soil surface
5. Rapid germination and fast seedling growth is desirable. This reduces grazing injuiy
6. Ability to withstand extreme temperature and prolonged dry periods
 SILVICULTURE 7

7. Seed should be hard enough to withstand the falling impact from higher height
8. Seeds should be non palatable (escape from birds, squirrels and insects)
9. Ability to tolerate a wide range ofsoil condition
10. Seed handling is possible with mechanical devices
Kg., Acacia nilotica. Acacia tortolis, Prosopis juliflora, R cineraria, A. catechu, Dalbergia
sisoo and bamboos.

Mechanism
Ground preparation is necessary for better seed germination and survival. Dry sites should be
suitably disked to obtain the optimum tilth, aeration and moisture retention. Seeds are coated with
chemicals before aerial seeding in order to avoid predation. The treatment of seeds with fungicides
repels birds and insects. Latex is used as binder in coating of seeds. Aluminum powder is used as a
lubricant to prevent the seed from sticking as they pass through the machines.

Advantages
1. Aerial seeding is less expensive than the manual seeding.
2. Large area can be covered in a short time span.
3. It avoids raising of seedlings.
4. The distribution of seed is more uniform.
5. It covers most inaccessible areas.
6. The labour requirement is less.

Disadvantages
1. It needs larger quantity of seeds which is very difficult to procure.
2. It involves wastage of seed.
3. The results are unpredictable.
4. The establishment ofplant population is uneven which makes further management as a difficult
task.
5. The density and spacing of trees can not be worked out in aerial seeding.
6. Grassy sites are not suitable as it obstructs the seeds reaching ground.
7. Washing away of seeds by the monsoon rainfall.

Indian Experience
In India, aerial seeding has been done on experiment basis in Chambal ravines in UP, Rajasthan,
West Bengal and Western Ghats of Maharastra.
The research carried out during 1982 shows that the survival percentage was 97.3 and 2.7 for
Prosopisjuliflora and Acacia nilotica respectively. The survey indicated that 25% of the area has not
responded for aerial seeding at all.
Prosopis juliflora gave a survival percentage 96.06 followed by Acacia nilotica and Acacia
catechu with survival percentage of 2.68 and 1.26 respectively.
8 INDIAN FORESTRY

There has been a mixed reaction about efficiency of aerial seeding amongst foresters and others.
According to theTorest department of UP,aerial seeding will not be of much help for ravine afforestation.
Many problems with aerial seeding have come on the surface of soil. Hard surface, presence of surface
crust, stoniness and excessive weeds decreases the success ofgermination and establishment ofseedlings.
Biotic pressure such as grazing and eating of seeds by rodents are most common problems. The seed
also get washed down during monsoon where the intensity of rainfall is high for a short duration.
Washing away of seedlings have also been reported. Other problem with aerial seedling is lack of
establishment ofseedling after initial germination due to many other factors such as subsurface hardpan,
poor soil fertility, drought, fire, etc.

2)Asexual propagation
Asexualpropagation refers the multiplication or perpetuation ofplantsfrom any vegetative parts
other than seed. Asexual propagation has following advantages:
1) This is the only possibility when the plants are not producing seeds.
2) In some cases, certain rootstocks have tolerance to salinity, pest and disease resistance.
These can be suitably exploited for beneficial uses.
3) Asexually propagated plants are short stature one.
4) Phis facilitates pruning, spraying and harvesting operations.
5) The plants obtained are true to type nature. Hence, it looks uniform appearance.
Methods of Asexual Propagation
1)Cuttage
It refers the method ofpropagation ofplants by the use ofdetained vegetative plant parts which
when placed under conditionsfavourablefor rejuvenation. Cutting is defined as any vegetative plant
part when detainedfrom the plant is capable ofregenerating the missing organs. There are several types
of cuttings:
a) Root cutting: Root cuttings of 10-15 cm are taken from the plant and planted horizontally.
This will give good seedlings. Kg., Seedless Bred fruit.
b) Stem cuttings: These are the detained plant parts taken from the stem.
c) Herbaceous cutting: In this type plant parts of herbaceous succulent plants are used as
cutting. It produces roots easily in quick and short times. E.g., Germanium, Chrysanthemum,
Coleus, carnation,
d) Leaf cutting: Leaf and closely related parts are used as cutting. This is mostly done in
herbaceous plants. E.g. Red begonia, Bryophyllum, Sanseveria.
e) Leaf bud cutting consisting ofleaf blade, petioles and short piece ofthe auxiliary bud rise to
the stem. Roots will arise on the lower part of this portion planted. Eg, Tea, Camellia,
Rhododendron.

Factors Affecting Cuttage

A)Internal factors
I) Food supply: If the cutting has high carbohydrate and low nitrogen contents, it favours
rooting. Reverse conditions will slow down the rooting process.
 SILVICULTURE 9

2) Sex of plant: In case of maple, male plants produce better rooting than the female plant
pans. But it varies with species to species.
3) Age of the root stock: The aged root stock will reduce the possibility of rooting.
4) Time of collection: In case of evergreen trees, it is better to collect cuttings during or after
flush growth has completed, i.e., spring to leaf fall. If cuttings is collected during summer, it
will result in poor germination.
5) Presence of foliage on cutting enhances more evaporation. As cutting has no roots, it is not
able to absorb as fast as evaporation. Hence, reduce the number of leaves in the cutting
leaving few photosynthetically active leaves.
6) Flowering or vegetative wood: This varies with species to species. In case of jasmine,
flowered wood is preferable than the vegetative wood.
7) Type of cutting: Cutting from hard-wood produces less success than the cuttings obtained
from soft woods.
8) Treatment of cutting with growth regulators enhances the rooting and shooting of cuttings.
9) Wounding of cutting increase rooting in Magnolia and Rhododendron.

B)External factors
1) Moisture retention: Retention of sufficient moisture is necessary for rooting especially for
herbaceous cuttings. It supplies moisture needed for transpiration. Otherwise cutting will dry
quickly.
2) Humidity ofthe surrounding should be humid. This reduces transpirational loss from cuttings
and keeps the cutting as moist and avoids drying.
3) Temperature: The ambient air temperature needed is about 21-27°C. Higher temperature
leads to more moisture loss and enhances bud formation.
4) Light: Optimum sun light both in terms of duration and quality is needed to do sufficient
photosynthesis by the plants.
5) Rooting media: The rooting media may be of soil, peat, vermiculite, sand, etc. But it should
provide optimum pH, nutrients, aeration and good physical support to roots for growth.

2)Layering
Layering is the development ofroots on stems while it is attached to the parent plant. In order to
develop roots from a living stem, girdling or a small incision is made on the bark. This restricts the
downward flow of metabolites, carbohydrates and hormones at this point. Hence, roots are encouraged
to develop at this point. The branches with rooting are removed for eventual planting out.
This is easy to perform compared to other methods. This is useful when the cuttage is
unsuccessful. In this method, any desired size of plant can be obtained.

Limitations
1) This method is limited to certain plants only.
2) This method is suitable to plants that produce low lying branches.
3) The number of plants produced is less.
4) After care of plant is more essential to maintain the plant survival.
5) Special platform and provisions has to be erected which is difficult one.
10 INDIAN FORESTRY

Technique
A)Ground layering
Ground layer is oftwo types v/z., simple ground layering and compound or serpentine layering.
In simple ground layering stems are wounded and partly buried below the soil and top ofthe branches
should be in air. Small stones are kept over the soil. It takes two months to produce rooting. In this
method,one single plant is obtained from the single branch. Hence it limits large scale plant propagation.
E.g., Guava. In compound or serpentine layering,the same branch is buried under different portions.
In this way more number of plants obtained from the single branch of the plant. Kg., Clematis.

(a)Simple layering (b)Serpentine layering

3)Trench layering
Trench layering induces new shoots from length ofburied branch.This is also known as etiolation
layering. The parent plant is planted at an angle(30-40 degrees)so new shoots can be pegged down in
shallow trenches and covered with soil. When rooted, the shoots can be detached from the parent plant
and planted out.

4)Tip layering
To tip layer, dig a small hole several inches deep, insert the tip of a current season’s shoot or
cane, and fill around it with soil. The tip will turn and grow upward, while the bend of the stem that
stays in the soil will grow roots. Care for the layered plant is the same as that used for simple layering.
Eg., Black berry and raspberry.

5)Mound layering
It is also known as stool layering is useful with heavy-stemmed, closely branched shrubs and
rootstocks of tree fruits. Cut the plant back to 1 inch above the soil surface in the dormant season.
Dormant buds will produce new shoots in spring. Mound soil over the new shoots as they grow. Roots
will develop at the bases ofthe young shoots. Remove the layers in the dormant season. Mound layering
works well on apple rootstocks, magnolia, and cotoneaster.
 SILVICULTURE 11

(a)Trench iayering (b)Tip layering (c) Mound layering

Fig. 2

B)Airlayering
It is also called as gootee or marcottage. In this method, roots are produced from aerial stem
where the stem has severed at an upward angle. Normally, 2.5 to 3 cm bark is girdled. This injured
portion is covered with moist rooting medium such as sphagnum moss or vermiculite and wrapped v/ith
polythene sheet. This layered part is sprayed with water at sufficient interval to avoid drying. After
emergence of roots, below portion is girdled by a half cut. This improves the seedling by encouraging
more root development. After 15 days, next halfcut is given and the plant is separated from the mother
tree. E.g.^ Indian rubber, guava, crotons.
4

Peeling of bark Sphagnum moss Wrapped with polythene

Fig.3
I 6)Graftage
' It is the process ofinserting a part ofone plant in to another in such a way that a union will take
place and combination will continue to grow as a single plant. The part of the graft which forms the
upper portion is called as scion and lower portion is called as root stock or under stock or stock.
This method is useful when other methods are not successful. In some cases, plants ofrootstocks
may be undesirable one. But it converts the poor tree in to a desirable one by selecting suitable scion. It
is applicable for development offancy tree and modification of plant growth. This is most suitable for
repairing the damage to trees in a better way.
12 INDIAN FORESTRY

Rootstock is the plant above which scion is inserted. It may be of two types’ viz., seedling
rootstock and clonal rootstock. Seedling root stock is one in which root stock plants are developed
from the seed origin. As the seeds have different genetic constitution, it will produce irregular rootstocks.
Kg., mango, plum, beaches. In case of clonal rootstock, it is obtained from the vegetative sources of
single parent. These are asexual on^^ and produces uniform rootstock. Kg,mango, citrus.

Factors for Successful Graft Union

The rootstock and scion should be botanically closer so that compatibility is better. Secondly,
proper season for grafting is also essential. Winter or early spring season is good for most of the
species. In case ofevergreen species, an active growth season is best suitable for grafting. The rootstock
and scion should be of same thickness. This facilitates intact contact of both scion and rootstock.
Tieing the graftage determines the successful union of scion and rootstock. Scion and rootstock is tied
tightly in order to get the intact contact between tissues. Age of the rootstock and genetic nature of
rootstock also influences the success ofgrafting. Besides all, environmental factors such as temperature,
humidity, wind, etc., also determines the success of grafting.

Methods of Graftage
i)Inarching or approach grafting
In this method, scion is attached to the mother tree itself. First rootstock is brought nearby the
mother tree, then side branches of similar thickness is severed and joined with each other. This is tied
with banana fiber or twine and pasted with cow dung mud mixture. Growth hormones are also applied
if applicable. Sufficient moisture is sprayed frequently. After 6-8 weeks, half cut is given both below as
well as top ofthe cut portion. This improves the hardening ofnew plants. After 10 days,full cut is given
and plant is separated. Scion is cut below the graft point and rootstock is cut above the graft point.
Kg, Mango, sapota.

ii)Side grafting
In this method, terminal shoots of past season growth is used as scion. The scion is removed
from the mother tree and the lower leaves and petioles are removed except for top 10 cm. Both scion
and root stock is cut above the grafting point after scion reaches about 7-10 cm. This is also known as
veneer grafting,

iii) Whip or splice grafting

Scion ofabout 5-9 cm is obtained from the desired plant. A tongue shape cut is made both in the
scion and rootstock. The tonjgue shape enhances grip between scion and rootstock. This method is also
called as whip and tongue grafting. This method produces strong, healthy seedlings in short time.
Kg,Apple and Beach.

iv)Cleft grafting
In this method,the scion base is made like a wedge and rootstock is splitted so as to insert on the
scion. Here,the rootstock and scion is need not to be in same thickness. But root stock thickness should
be about 2-8 cm.
 SILVICULTURE 13

r i

I V' I
,1

I M iiI
ii5.

Side grafting Whip grafting Cleft grafting

Approach grafting
Fig. 4

v)Budding
Budding is an art ofinserting a bud on the rootstock in such a manner that both will unite and
continue to grow as a single plant. In this, parent tree from which bud is taken is called as bud wood.
The bud wood should be matured, past season bud. Parent tree should be defoliated 10-15 days in
advance so as to activate the buds. It will give better establishment.

Methods of Budding
i) Shield or T budding: In this method, T or inverted T shape incision is made on the rootstock.
For this, a transverse cut of 1-1.5 cm is made first. Thereafter, a vertical cut of 2.5-3 cm is made below
or above this point. In this part, bark is lifted using budding knife. Similarly, scion of similar shape is
removed and inserted on the root stock by raising the bark of the root stock. Then this part is tied with
the help of banana fiber except leaving the active bud in the scion. E.g.. Orange, rose, plums and
peaches
X 1.5 cm is removed and
ii) Patch budding: In patch budding, a rectangular sized bark of 3
similar size of desired scion is inserted. E.g., Citrus, mango, rubber, annona.
UP) Flap or forked budding: In this, transverse incision is made in the rootstock and bark peeled
for 5 cm square. Then scion is pushed under the flap till the end of the exposed edge of the rootstock.
Flap is then cut to half and brought to cover the bud shield partially and then wrapped,
/v) Ring budding: In this method, two circular cut are made one above the other with a distance
of 3 cm. Then one vertical cut connecting these two rings are made. Then this ring of 3 cm bud is
removed carefully from the rootstock. In a similar fashion scion is removed from the bud wood and
properly budded with rootstock. E.g., Cinchona.

5)Propagation by specialized plant parts

/) Rhizome: It refers to the specialized stem structure in which the main axis of the plant grows
horizontally at or just below the ground level. E.g., Bamboos, ginger, turmeric,
ii) Offset: It refers to the special type of lateral shoots or branch which develops from the main
stem in certain plants and is characterized by shortened and thickened stem. E.g, Date palm, pine
apple.
Hi) Sucker: Sucker refers to the shoots that arise from an adventious bud or roots of a plant at
below ground. E.g., Dalbergia sissoo.
zv) Buib: Bulb is a specialized underground organ consisting of a short, fleshy vertical stem axis
bearing at its apex as a growing point. E.g, Onion, lily.
 14 INDIAN FORESTRY

v)Cormi The swollen base ofa stem axis enclosed by the dry, scale-like leaves is called as corm.
It is a solid stem structure with distinct nodes and intemodes. E.g.^ Gladiolus, elephant yam.
vi) Tuber: It is a modified stem structure which develops below the ground as a result of
swelling of the siib-apical portion of a stolen and subsequent accumulation of reserve materials.
E.g., Potato, Jerusalem artichoke,

vi) Runner: Runner is a specialized stem which develops from the axis of the leaf at the crown
of the plant. This grows horizontally along the ground. Eg,Mentha spp.
6) Micro propagation: Micro or in vitro propagation refers to the development of new plants
from very small pieces of plants in an artificial medium under aseptic conditions.

Procedurefor micro propagation

1) Collection ofexplants
2) Surface sterilization ofexplants
3) Inoculation of explants in specific growth medium
4) Sub-culturing the callus growth
5) Hardening

Applications ofmicro propagation

1) Rapid multiplication ofplants
2) Production of disease free plants
3) Inoculation of mutants
4) Production of haploids plants

Nursery
Nursery refers to an area from which seedlings are raised for eventual planting out.
Need for nurseries
There are various plantation programs being implemented by the State Forest Departments,Forest
based industries, NGOs,etc. But the availability ofquality planting material is not adequate. The various
needs for the large scale nursery establishment are listed below:
● To meet the afforestation needs for increasing the forest and vegetative cover.
● To meet the demands of reforestation works.
● To meet the growing demands of industrial wood through captive plantations.
● To provide seedlings for avenue, railway and road side plantings.
● To meet the farm as well as social forestry needs.

Kinds of Nurseries

I)Based on the duration of nursery

a)Temporary Nursery: A nursery is said to be a temporary if it is set up for a specific period.
This fulfills the seeding requirements for a smaller area. This nursery is shifted from one place to
 SILVICULTURE 15

another place depending upon the demand and supply of nursery stock. The seedlings from temporary
nurseiy are used for specific afforestation program, gap filling or causality replacement. Whenever the
objectives accomplished,the nursery is closed.The cost involved is less because it needs less infrastructure
and staff.
b) Permanent Nursery: Permanent nursery supplies the seedlings regularly year after year. It
caters the needs oflarger areas for a longer period. This is provided with enough infi^tructure facilities
in a central place.It should have permanent staff,transporting facilities, good water source and availability
of labour.

11)Based on the availability ofwater source

a) Dry Nursery; Dry nursery is one which does hot have any permanent water source for
irrigation. It mainly depends on rainfall for water and hence seedlings are produced only during the
monsoon season.
b) Wet Nursery: Wet nursery is one which have a permanent source of irrigation water such
as bore wells, wells, etc. The seedling production is possible throughout the year.

Site selection for nursery

The following factors are considered for the selection of site for nursery:
1) The nursery should be in central place with easy accessibility from forest
2) The nursery area should be free from permanent shade.
3) Nursery area should have good drainage facilities.
4) Nursery area should have gentle slope.
5) The size of the nursery should be according to the seedling demand and needs.
5) Well drained, sandy loam soil is preferable and heavy clay soils are avoided.
6) The nursery site should have a good source of water.
7) Adequate labour should be available.
8) Nursery site should be free from floods, frost and high wind.

Nursery layout
After proper selection of site, nursery is laid out with the following nursery components such as
fence, office room, store room, water source, mist tent, plant house, nursery yard, working space,
waste pit, foot path, road and entrance.

Area requirement
An area of0.25 ha has been considered for a viable nursery wherein 1.25 lakh seedlings can be
raised. The size of the nursery may be increased according to the capacity and demand for planting
material.

Seedling establishments
In nursery, seedlings are established in mother beds or containers such as poly bags, pots, etc.
Seedlings can be established from the seeds or through vegetative means.The vegetative means includes
cutting, grafting,budding,layering,etc.In case ofseedling establishment from seed,preliminary treatment
16 INDIAN FORESTRY

ofseeds is essential to improve germination. The reasons for the delayed or failed germination ofseeds
are as follows:
> Tough and fibrous seed coat or hard shell
> Seeds containing higher lipids
> Presence of germination inhibiting substances
> Immature embryo
> After ripening process
The problem of germination can be overcome through followirig pretreatment measures.
Germination hazard Pre-treatments

Tough seed coat a) Soaking in hot water

b) Acid scarification using HjSO^
Fibrous or hard shell a) Alternate water soaking and shade drying
Seeds with high lipids a) Avoid delayed sowing
Inhibiting chemicals a) Soaking in cold water and leaching
Immature embryo a) Cold or hot stratification

In addition to these, seeds are further treated with pesticides to prevent the eating of seeds by
birds as well as rodents. Some time seeds are hardened by treating with salt solutions of suitable
concentration. Seed pellatization enhances the ease and uniform distribution of seeds during sowing.
Biofertilizer treatments enhances the nutrients availability to growing seedlings.

Containers for plant propagation

Plant containers are defined as the containers in which plants are raisedfrom seed or in to which
they are transferredfrom seed bedfor the purpose ofplanting out. The following are the common plant
containers used in nursery;
1) Earthen pots
2) Polythene bags
3) Plastic pots
4) Fiber pots
5) Paraffined paper
6) Leaf cups (donas)
7) Bamboo baskets
8) Root trainers

Media for Propagating Nursery Plants

Media refers the base on which plants are growing. The common media used are soil, sand,
vermiculite, peat and spaghnum moss. A good media has the following characteristics:
 SILVICULTURE 17

1) It must be firm and dense

2) It must retain sufficient moisture
3) It must have sufficient porosity for proper root aeration
4) It must be free from pathogens and weed seeds

Preparation of nursery bed

A nursery bed is a specially prepared portion ofland put asidefor raising seedlings. It acts as a
temporary home for young plants until they are eventually planted in a permanent garden. Seeds are
sown on raised nurseiy bed or sunken beds consisting of a 10 cm layer of sandy loam, overlaid by a
3 cm thick layer of saw dust. The bed may be supported on sides by wooden planks, bricks or split
bamboo. The standard size ofthe bed is 12 m x 1.2 m. The site chosen for the seed bed should be flat
and should be near a permanent water source. The beds should be protected from heavy rain and direct
sunlight. Heavy rains will chum up seed bed and expose the seeds. This could create a lot ofextra work
when thousands ofseeds are being handled. Shade may be provided with locally available materials such
as palm fronds, grass, etc. In case of permanent nurseries, the use of agronets is advisable.

Polybag nursery
Seedlings will be ready for trans-planting within 21-30 days. So remove the shade a day before
trans-planting as this gives the seedling chance to get used to the strong sun-shine. The site for the
polybag nursery should be near the nursery beds to avoid long distance transportation of polybags. The
size ofthe polybag will vary depending on the species. In general, a size of 16 cm x 12 cm is sufficient
for raising the seedlings up to 9 months. The normal thickness of polybags for seedling production
should be 150-500 gauge depending upon the bag size.
The poly bag nursery should be partially shaded. The optimum shade for raising young seedling
is about 50 percent. Shade can be provided by using agronets, palm leaves or cmshed bamboo strips.
For large scale seedling production, a permanent shelter with agronets is preferred, to provide more
uniform shade. The polythene bags should be arranged in blocks. The length of the block can be
adjusted to suit the nursery. It is better to arrange the bags on a thick polythene sheet spread over
the nursery ground to prevent the penetration of growing roots to the ground. The increase in width of
the nursery bed can result in overcrowding, over shading, rapid spread of pests and diseases, and
interference in carrying out routine weeding, fertilizing and watering.

Hardening of Seedlings
Hardening of seedling is essential before planting out in field. First, the shade to seedling is
gradually removed. Thereafter, watering schedule is altered in such a way that quantum of water is
reduced sequentially. This hardens the young seedlings and improves its adaptability under drought
conditions in the field. In case ofgreen house plants, first plants are taken out from the green house and
kept under shade for some duration and thereafter similar hardening process is carried out.

Forest

Forest is defined as a plant community predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation,
usually with a closed canopy. Legally, it is defined as an area proclaimed to beforest under aforest law.
18 INDIAN FORESTRY

Also it is defined as an area set asidefor the production oftimber and otherforestproduce, or maintained
under woody vegetationfor certain indirect benefits. Forest is composed of many plant species which
may be of principal, accessory or auxiliary species. Principal species of a forest is one which is the
most important species in a mixed forest either by volume and value, etc. Accessory species is a useful
species of less than the principal species. Auxiliary species is a species of inferior quality in the forest.
Stand and forest are different in meaning. Stand is defined as an aggregation oftrees occupying
a specific area sufficiently uniform in composition, age, arrangement and distinguishable from the
adjoiningforests. Hence forest designates aggregation of different stands.

Forest classification
Forest classification is defined as the grouping and arrangement afforests based on defined
criteria such as composition, age, climatic elements, structure, habitat, etc. As like any classification,
forest classification is also based on many basic elements of forest or characteristics. This includes
physiognomy, habitat, species composition, structure of forest, physiography, etc. The objectives and
different schemes of forest classficiation are described here under.

Objectives of forest classification

1) To study and characterize the different forest types
2) To develop suitable silvicultural management techniques for different forests
3) To avoid wastage of resource and save money by avoiding failure

1)Forest classification based on age

a) Even-aged forest or regular forest is a forest composed of even aged woods. A difference
up to 25% is permitted in case of rotation is more than 100 years.
b) Uneven aged forest or irregular forest refers to the forest which is composed of trees of
different ages. The age variation should be more than 25% of the rotation in case of long rotation or
20% of rotation for short rotation.

2)Forest classification based on growing stock

0 Normal forest is a forest which has a normal age gradation, growing stock and increment. It
will give sustained yield and most ideal one. No virgin forests are normal forests.
ii) Abnormal forest is a forest which do not have a normal age gradation, growing stock and
increment. It gives irregular yield and not ideal one.

3)Forest classification based on regeneration

/) High forest-(Forest regenerated from seeds)
ii) Coppice forest (Forest regenerated from coppices)

4)Forest classification based on species composition

i) Pure forest is a forest which is mostly composed of one single species. The proportion of
main species should not be less than 80 percent.
 SILVICULTURE 19

//) Mixed forest is a forest which is composed of two or more species in a storey. At least the
canopy of one species must be more than 20%.

5)Forest classification based on object ofmanagement

/■) Production forest
ii) Protection forest
Hi) Fuel forest
iv) Farm forest
v) Recreational forest

6) Forest classification based on ownership

1) State forest
2) Private forest
3) Community forest
4) Panchayat forest

7) Legal classification of forest

1) Reserve forest
2) Protected forest
3) Village forests

System of forest classification

1) Botanical classification of forest: This system of classification considers vegetation

presence, its\structure, composition, dynamics etc. Kg., Foseberg and Webb classification of forests
2) Climatic classification of forest: This classification is mainly based on temperature in
association with or without other factors. Kg., Schimper classification, Koppen classification, Paterson
classification and Thomthwaite classification.

3) Ecological classification of forest: This system considers climate and vegetation. This is
most widely accepted one. Kg, Gaussean classification. Champion and Seth classification. In India,
Champion and Seth classification is followed and is described hereunder in details.

Forest types of India (Champion and Seth classification-1935)

According to this system of classification, forests in India are classified in to five major groups.
These major groups are further divided in to sixteen groups based on climatic data and vegetation.
Group is further subdivided in to 2 or 3 sub groups viz., Andaman, southern or northern. Sub gropus
are classified in to types based on climax vegetation and series which are finally divided as subtypes.
E.g,, lA - Southern tropical wet evergreen forests.
 mbiANfo’^eiTRy

Table: Forest types of India - Champion and Seth classification

Forest types Distribution Climatic requirement Species composition

1.IVopical wet evergreen forest

lA. Southern Maharashtra, TN, MAT:2TC Top Canopy - Dipterocarpus,

Tropical Wet Kerala, Karnataka, MARF:2000-3000 mm Mesua, Hopea, Artocarpus.
Evergreen Forest Andamans Mangifera, Syzygium
Undergrowth: Canes, Bamboos,
Palms
Ground Coyer: Strobilanthes,
'Epiptytes, Ferns, Orchids

IB Northern Tropical North East India, West MAT:22-26®C Over wood: Dipterocarpus,
Wet Evergreen Bengal, Assam, Orissa MARF:2500-6400 mm Shqrea Artocarpus, Syzygium,
Forest Mesua, Michelia.
Middle storey: Vatica,Garcinia,
Dendrocalamus, Hasmiltoni,
Melocanna, Bambusa
Under growth: Clerodendron,
Ixora, Canes.

2. IVopical semi evergreen forests

2A. Southern Western Ghats, MAT:26®C Over wood: Kylia, Terminalia,

Tropical Semi Karnataka, Kerala, MARF:2000-3000 mm Diptercarpus, Hopea
Evergreen Forest Andamans Middle storey: Schleichera
oleasa, Eleocarpus, Mallotus
Underwood: Strobilanthus,
Clerodendron, Ixora

2B. Northern Assam, West Bengal, MAT:24®C Over wood: Dipterocarpus,

Tropical Semi Coastal parts of MARF:1500-3000 mm Syzygium, Cinnamomum.
Evergreen Forest Orissa Michelia, Artocarpus, Sal
Middle storey: Michelias
Polyalthia
Underwood: Bamboos,
Arundinacea, Deridrocalamus,
Hamiltoni, Melocanna
3. IVopical moist deciduous forest

3A. Andamans Moist Andaman islands MAT:26®C Over wood: Pterocarpus

Deciduous Forest MARF:3b00mm dalbergiordes, Terminalia
Middle storey: Lannea,
Cinnamomum, Bambos
Under growth: Murraya,
Ixora, Mallotus

{Contd...)
 Sli,VICU^.TURE 21
(Table: Contd,.,)
Forest types Distribution Climatic requirement Species composition
3B. South Indian Gujar^, Karnataka, MAT:24-27®C Over wood: Teak, Grewia,
Tropical Moist Maharashtra, TN, MARF:1200-3000 mm Lagerstroemia, Terminalia
Deciduous Forest M.P, Kerala tomentosa, Adina
Middle Storey: Dillenia,
Kydia, Dendrocalamus
Undergrowth: Clerodendron
3C. North Indian U.P., Bihar, Orissa, MAT:21-26®C Over wood: Sal. Schima
Tropical Moist M.P., Bengal, Assam MARF:1000-2000 mm wallichi and Terminalia,
Deciduous forest tomentosa, Michelia
champaca
Middle storey:Dendrocalamus
hamiltoni syzygium

4.Littoral and swamp forest

4A. Littoral Forest Coastal region MAT:26-29®C Over wood: Casuarina,
MARF:760-5000 mm Manilkara, Calophyllum
Middle survey: Pongamia,
Barringtonia

4B. Tidal Swamp Estuaries of rivers Rhizophora, Avicennia,

Forest Ceriops , Xylocarpus

4C. Tropical Fresh Himalayan sub Myristica spp.

Water Swamp montane forest,
Forests Kerala

4D. Tropical seasonal Along Ganga & Over wood: Altingia,

swamp forests Brahmaputra rivers Barringtonia, Syzygium spp

4E Tropical Riparian Along the banks of Terminalia arjuna,

Fringing Forests the largest streams Lagerstromia speciosa,
in hilly tracts Terminalia myriocarpa.

5. Ttopical dry deciduous forest

5A. Southern M.R, Gujarat, MAT:23 -29«C Over wood: Teak, Terminalia,
Tropical Dry Maharashtra, A.P., MARF:750-1900 mm Anogeissus latifolia, Diospyros
Deciduous Forests Karnataka, T.N.
5B. Northern H.P., U.P., Bihar, Orissa MAT:24-27«C Over wood: Sail, Anogeissus,
Tropical Dry W.B., M.P., Rajasthan MARF:750-1300 mm Diospyros, Adina, Schleichera,
Deciduous Forest Lannea, Acacia catechu.
6.IVopical thorn forest
6A. Southern Tropical Dry peninsular India, MAT:24-28°C Acacia catechu. Acacia nilotica
Thorn Forest M.P. MARF:460-950 mm Albizzia, Prosopis, Acacia
planiferans

iContd...)
22 INDIAN FORESTRY

(Table: Contd...)

Forest types Distribution Climatic requirement Species composition

6B. Northern Tropical Semi arid areas of MAT:25-27«C Prosopis, Acacia spp.
Thorn Forest Punjab, Rajasthan, MARF:750-1250 mm
Gujarat, U.P., M.R

7. Tropical dry evergreen forest

7. Tropical Dry Coastal belt from MAT:28-29®C Over wood: Azadirachta indica,
Evergreen Forests Tirunelveli to Nellore MARF:870-1270 mm Manilkara hexandara,
Canthium, Sy=ygium

8.Sub tropical broad leaved hill forest

8A. Southern sub - South Indian Hills MAT: 17-22°C Wigthtiana, Canthium,
tropical broad leaved MARF: 1500-6600 mm Syzygium cumimi, Manilkara
hill forest haxendra, Mangifera

8B. Northern sub Eastern Himalayas MAT:16-20°C Castonopis, Schima,

tropical broad and Khasi hills MARF:2100-11400 mm Querctis
leaved hill forests

9. Sub tropical pine forest

9. Sub tropical pine Central Himalayas, MAT: 15-22°C Chir, Deodar, Kail, Quercus
forest Nagar and Manipur MARF: 1000-3000 mm incana. Rhododendron
hills
10. Sub tropical dry evergreen forest

10. Sub Tropical Dry Himalayas 01ea cuspidata. Acacia

Evergreen Forest modeSta

11. Montane wet temperate forest

11 A. Southern Hills ofTamil Nadu MAT: 14-\7^C Lagerstroemia, Syzygium,
Montane Wet and Kerala MARF: 1300-6000 mm Rhododendron, Michelia
Temperate Forest
1 IB, Northern Eastern Himalayas MAT: 12®C Machilus, Michelia, Magnolia,
Montane Wet MARF:1900-4000 mm Cinnamomum, Quercus, Acer
Temperate Forest spp.

12. Himalayan moist temperate forest

12. Himalayan Moist Himalayas MAT: 13-16®C Querces incana Q.dilatata,

Temperate Forest MARF:1500-3300 mm chir pine

13. Himayan dry temperate forest

13. Himayan dry Kashmir,H.P.,U.P., Sikkim, MAT:6-17®C Pinus gerardiana. Blue pine,
temperate forest Arunachal Pradesh MARF:80-800 mm Q. ilex. Deodar, J.> macropoda

{Contd...)
 SILVICULTURE^ 23
(Table: Contd...)
Forest types Distribution Climatic requirement Species composition
14. Sub alpine forest
14. Sub alpine forest Himalayas MAT:2-6°C Abies spectabilis, Abies densa,
MARF:10-55 mm Juniperus, Spruce
15. Moist alpine
15. Moist alpine scrub Above 3400 m altitude Rhododendron, birch and other
deciduous trees
16. Dry alpine scrub
16. Dry alpine scrub Xerophytic condition Juniperus wallichiana,
J.communes, Artimisia
MARF: Mean Annual Rainfall MAT: Mean Annual Temperature

Factors Influencing Forest Vegetation and Establishment

Vegetation in every place is not unique. This is due to different factors prevailing in the different
regions. Besides every plant has its unique requirement for its favourable growth and reproduction.
Hence the local factors ofthe site determine the type of vegetation. Thefactors oflocality are defined
as the effective climatic, edaphic, topographic and biotic conditions of a site which influence the
vegetation ofthe site. Knowledge on factors of locality is essential in order to carry out many forestry
practices. It determines the species suitability, adaptability and distribution in any area. The different
factors oflocality are described here under in detail one by one.
I)Climatic factors
Weather refers to the state ofthe atmosphere at a given time and place, with respect to variables
such as temperature, moisture, wind velocity, and barometricpressure. Weather is the atmospheric condition
over a small area for a short period oftime. Climate refers to the average weather conditions ofa place.
Climate is the atmospheric condition over a large area and a long period oftime. Climaticfactors refers
to the climatic elements such as light, temperature,pressure, humidity, wind and otherfeatures ofclimate
that influence vegetation. The different climatic factors are described briefly below.
a)Light: Light is a form ofenergy that affects the eyes so that one is able to see. Simply it refers
the incoming solar radiations. Light influences the vegetation in many ways. The duration oflight as
well as quality oflight determines the extent of influence on vegetation. Duration refers the relative
length oflight available to plants which is technically referred as photoperiod.
According to photoperiod requirements, plants are classified as long day plants, short day plants
and day neutral plants. Under short photoperiod, long day plants will not grow and reproduce and vice
versa. The quality oflight refers the wavelength ofthe incoming radiation as well as intensity oflight.
Green vegetation grows well under visible region ofsolar spectrum along with infrared region. The UV
rays are harmful for many type of plants.
Light influences chlorophyll formation, stomata function, photosynthesis, growth, form and
quality of vegetation, species stratification, etc.
b)Temperature: Temperature refers the relative hotness or coolness ofthe object.Air temperature
of an area varies depending on the altitude, latitude, distancefrom sea, wind, nearness of mountain,
24 INDIAN FORESTRY

cloudiness, etc. Increasing altitude decreases the air temperature whereas increasing latitude shows
decreasing trend ofair temperature. Increasing distance from sea increases the air temperature. Nearness
to mountain decreases the air temperature considerably due to local influence.
Temperature influences the vegetation in many ways. It is the source ofener^for plant metabolic
activities such as photosynthesis,respiration and transpiration. It increases the microbial activities in soil
and enhances degradation oforganic wastes. It activates the enzymes. Extreme heat and cold is sensitive
to enzyme activation in plants. Temperature is inevitable for germination of seeds. Because of these
reasons, plants in arid and humid region differ in their characteristics,
c)Frost; A frost is defined as afuzzy covering ofice crystals thatforms on surfaces at or below
freezing. A frost occurs when a brief dip in temperatures to freezing or just below to that. It is formed
with or without ice crystals. Frost with ice crystals is technically called as hoarfrost whereas black
frost refers to a dry freeze without ice crystals, which kills vegetation, turning it black.”
There are three kinds of frosts. Radiation frost is one, which occurs in night with a clear sky
due to the loss of heat by radiation. Ground frost occurs when freezing confined to ground level. Here,
ice crystals formed on the surface objects, soil and vegetation. Advective frost is a frost produced by
cold air brought from elsewhere.
Frost pockets or frost holes or frost locality is an area where frost are more frequent and
more intense in general. Frostfree season is the period between the last injuripus frost in the spring and
the first injurious frost in the autumn. Frost causes harmful injuries to plants. The extent ofinjury varies
with species, location and other factors.
1) Extreme frost conditions kill young plants or parts of plant due to cell damage.
2) Frost Aeavmg (lifting of young seedlings above soil) occurs as a result of freezing of soil
water.
3) Pole and saplings are highly injurious to frost.
4) A frost crack is a fissure in tree caused by frost, which closes later and is covered with callus
growth.
5) It occurs at the base of old trees.
6) All these favour formation of cankers.

Plant Adaptation for Frost Resistance

A)Internal factors determining frost resistance
0 Size of the cell; Smaller the cell size, bigger the resistance to frost.
If) Water content; Higher the water contents in cell, higher the susceptibility to frost.
Iff) Osmotic concentration; Higher the osmotic concentration, higher the resistance to frost,
fv) Permeability to water; Higher permeability to water means higher the resistance to frost,
v) Water holding colloids; Higher the water holding colloids, higher the resistance to frost.
B)External factors determining frost resistance
i) Temperature; Air temperature influence frost resistance greatly. Lower air temperature
susceptible to more frost damage.
ii) Light; light directly influence air temperature. Poor light conditions augments frost damage
and vice versa.
Hi) Mineral nutrition; Calcium and potassium nutrition improves frost resistance.
 SILVICULTURE 25

(I) Snow: Snow is a type ofprecipitation in theform ofcrystalline ice, consisting ofa multitude
ofsnowflakes thatfall fivm clouds. The process of precipitation is called snowfall. It occurs usually in
winter or when the air temperature is very cold. Snow plays some important role. It determines the
distribution ofsal in North India. Snow itself act as a water source. It influences the vegetation adversely
also. Because of weight added by snow, bending of branches occurs. It increases soil erosion by sliding.
The low temperature associated with snow arrests the plant growth by decreasing the living activity. It
favours fungus and associated microbial diseases.
e) Wind: Wind refers the motion of air due to the difference in air pressure across different
areas. Wind has both positive and negative effects on plants.
I) Positive effects
1) It brings fresh supply of CO,to plants.
2) Wind is the pollinating agent for many plant species.
3) Dispersal of seeds is carried out by winds.
H) Negative effects
1) Bending and breakage of plant branches
2) Uprooting of trees
3) Plant becomes short stature with tapering poles
4) Fast moving winds ruptures the timber and detoriates its quality
5) It spreads the forest fire and increases its intensity
6) Increase evaporation associated with wind causes drying up of plant and soil
7) Soil erosion is increased
y) Moisture: Moisture is obtained from the rain, snow, hail, dew and frost. Plants absorb its
moisture requirement from the soil water.

Importance of moisture
1. Water forms major constituents of plant cell (80-95%)
2. It maintains the cell turgidity
3. It is the medium for absorption of plant nutrients
4. It is the raw material for photosynthesis
5. It is required for translocation of manufactured food
6. It is essential for respiration which cannot take place in absence of water
7. It is necessary for transpiration to dissipate excessive heat
8. It is responsible for various movements of plants
9, It is essential for germination and viability of seeds
10. Water is required for weathering of soil
1 1. It determines the plant growth and distribution in an area
g) Bioclimatc: Bioclimate is the climate defined by the modified or adjusted climatic factors.
. The modified climatic conditions produced by the vegetation which differsfivm the general climate is
called as bioclimate.
26 INDIAN FORESTRY

h)Microclimate: Microclimate is defined as the climate ofsmall areas, whichfor some reason,
differs significantlyfrom the general climate ofthe area more particularly the climate under a plant or
other cover differing in extremes oftemperature and moisture etc.,form the climate outside that cover.

Importance of microclimate
1) Microclimate of different aspects of hills is different which decides regeneration of species.
In temperate Himalayas, fir and spruce regenerates well in northern aspect whereas deodar
prefers southern aspect.
2) It helps regeneration planning.
3) At higher altitude of subtropical zone, northern aspects become too cold for chir which is
replaced by kail in nature. Sowings of chir in such places are not likely to be successful.
4) In valleys, frost is more common and hence clear felling is avoided.
5) Introduction of exotic species needs detailed study of microclimate. Otherwise introduction
of exotic become failure.
II) Edaphic factor
Edaphicfactors refer to the ecological influences ofthe soil brought about by its physical and
chemical characteristics. Forest soil refers the portion of earth surface, which serve as a medium for
the sustenance of forest vegetation. Forest soils have relatively higher organic matter through the
continuous addition of leaf litter. Because of that these soils are darker in colour, better in aggregation
and favourable environment.A soil influences the vegetation through its physical,chemical and biological
properties. The different properties ofthe soil that influences the vegetation are described below:
A)Physical properties
0 Soil texture: Texture refers the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in a soil. Some trees
prefer sandy soil (Thespecia populnea, Casuarina, Anacardium occidentale) whereas some trees grow
well only in clay soils {Acacia nilotica, Prosopisjuliflora).
it) Structure: Structure refers the arrangement ofsoil particles. The arrangement ofsoil particles
determines the porosity ofthe soil thus it influences the water retention which in turn indirectly influences
the vegetation.
Hi) Surface crusting and hardpan: Surface crust refers the hard mass of soil formed on the
surface ofsoils having high silt and clay. Hardpan refers the cemented high density soil layer below the
surface layer due to the accumulation of clay in sub surface. Surface crust reduces the germination
whereas hard pan restricts the root growth.
iv) Soil depth and stoniness: The relative depth is also a factor for distribution of plants.
Different trees needs different soil depth and stoniness,
v)Soil moisture: Soil moisture availability determines the vegetation directly. Humid soil sustains
evergreen vegetation and dry soil supports xerophytes.
B) Chemical properties
i)Soil reaction: Soil reaction refers the acidity or alkalinity ofthe soil. Plant nutrients availability
differs with soil reaction. Similarly,certain plants grow well in acid soil{Xyliaxylocarpa, Dipeterocarpus
spp) whereas certain plants prefer alkaline soils {Tamarix spp, Salvadora persica). In general, most of
the plants yield well under neutral soil conditions.
 SILVICULTURE 27

ii) Electrical conductivity: Electrical conductivity ofthe soil indicates the relative soluble salts
presence in the soil. Only saline tolerant species (Salvadora persica, Tamarix spp, Prosopis juliflora)
survive well in saline soils whereas other plants prefers neutral soils.
Hi)Calcareousness: The soil calcareousness determines the electrical conductivity and availability
of plant nutrients. Thus it differentiates the plant distribution in calcareous and non-calcareous soils.
Examples ofinfluence ofsoil properties on plant distribution are:
> Chir pine prefers quartzite rocks whereas blue pine occurs on mica schist
> Deodar prefers alluvium soils
> Cupressus torulosa and Lcora parviflora performs well in lime stone soils
> Sal absent in Deccan trap whereas teak presents in Deccan trap
> Teak prefers lime rich soils whereas sal avoids this
> Teak avoids black cotton as well as laterite soil
> Xylia xylocarpa and Cleistanthus collinus comes well in laterite
> Red Sanders {Pterocarpus santalinus) occurs on quartzite
> Clay soil is suitable for Acacia leucophloea and Prosopis
spicigera
> Prosopisjuliflora, Acacia arabica Tamarix aphylla,
Salvadora oleoides, Salvadora persica,
Sporolobus marginatus tolerates saline conditions

III)Topographic factors
Topography describes the physicalfeatures ofa place. Topographic factors are the factors
pertaining to the configuration ofland surface viz., altitude, slope, aspect and exposure. Any place can
be described by its topographic elements such as configuration of land surface, altitude, slope, aspect
and exposure and are described hereunder.
0 Configuration of land surface denotes the surface configuration or outer shape ofthe land.
It determines the microclimate such as shade,temperature,etc. and thus influences vegetation.
.^11) Altitude of the place refers its elevation from the mean sea level. Altitude influences solar
radiation, temperature, air density and rainfall. With increasing altitude, the air temperature
decreases whereas solar radiation increases. Air density decreases with increasing altitude.
i7i) Slope refers the slanting nature ofsurface i.e., one end ofthe land is at higher elevation and
other end at lower elevation. It influences drainage and runoff caused by rainfall. In general,
steep slope increases the runoff and soil erosion.
IV) Aspect refers the direction towards which slopes faces. In India, northern and eastern slope
of the mountain have relatively low air temperature whereas western and southern slope
experience slightly warm temperature.
V) Exposure refers the relation of site to weather conditions, especially sun and wind. The site
exposed well to sun light has good weathered soil compared to soils found in polar regions
which are less exposed to sun light. Also the exposure determines the soil moisture presence
and its availability. All these factors has direct relation to plant growth.
28 INDIAN FORESTRY

IV) Biotic factors

Bioticfactor refers to the different influence Obtainedfrom the living organisms. The different
biotic factors are as follows:
A) Influence of plants
At a particular site, there are many numbers of plants. Hence each will influence the one another
in any ofthe following ways:
0 Competition refers the struggle for limited available food between the same species. As a
general rule, survival ofthe fittest rules the habitat,
ii) Parasites are the plants which derive the nutrient on other plants and thereby decrease the
vigour of the host plant. Under extreme conditions, the host plant become died.
Hi) Epiphytes are the plants which live on other plants only for shelter and not for food. It
generally weakens the host and does not kill the host.
iv) Climbers are plants which depend on other plants mainly for physical support. It reduces the
diameter increment of growing trees. The tendrils of certain climbers make a hole on wood
which reduces its value and usability,
v) Weeds are unwanted plants for that area. Simply plants out of place. It competes with main
species for light, water, space and nutrients. It results in poor growth of main species.
vi) Fungi cause many diseases to tree species. In case of mychorrhizae fungus, it augments the
phosphorous nutrition to plant through solubilization and mobilization soil phosphorous.;
B) Influence of insects
Insects feeds plant parts such as leaf, fruit, seed, flower, etc. as their food. Severe defoliation
decreases the plant photosynthesis and reduces the plant growth. Feeding of flowers and seeds by
insects influences the regeneration negatively.
C)Influence of wild animals
Wild animals mainly herbivores feeds on the living plants for their livelihood. Thus population of
palatable plant species depends on the herbivores population.Excess herbivores decreases the palatable
species and vice versa. Bear strips the bark ofcertain trees for its food source. Antlers rub theirs antlers
against the tree to shed it off. This activity exposes the bark which enhances the disease infection.
Elephants breaks and tramples the young seedlings. Thus wild animals influences vegetation in an area.
D) Man and his animals
Man’s influence on the local vegetation is immense.He utilizes the plant for his many needs such
as food, fuel, wood, shelter, medicine and others. Hence, he allows only species that has a more utility
in relation to his wants. In addition to this,the animals owned by him cause many irrecoverable damages
to the ecosystem.

Forest Regeneration
Regeneration is the renewal of forest crops by natural or artificial means. It may be either
natural or artificial regeneration.
 SILVICULTURE 29

Regeneration

L
Natural regeneration Artificial regeneration Natural regeneration
supplemented by
artificial regeneration

(0 by seeds (/) by sowing

{//) by coppices (//) by planting
{Hi) by root suckers
A)Natural regeneration
Natural regeneration is the renewal offorest crop by'selfsown seed or coppice or root suckers.
It also refers to crop so obtained. Seedling crop is a crop consisting of seedling neither of planted nor
of coppice or root sucker origin but originating in situ from natural forest.

\T

Fig. Coppicing Fig. Root suckers

I) Natural regeneration from seed: Seed is the matured ovule which acts as propagule for
propagation of plants. Natural regeneration from seed depends on various factors vfe., seed production,
dispersal, germination, establishment and other external factors.
a)Seed production: Seed production of a species depends on species, age, size of crown and
climate.
1) Species: The silvicultural and genetic characters influence seed production of a species.
Certain species produces seeds every year(Neem),whereas some species produces biannually
or at an interval of 3-5 years.
2) Age: Plant age has direct correlation with seed production. Young and over matured trees
yield poor quality seeds in meager quantity. The middle aged trees give sufficient and good
quality seeds.
3) Size ofthe crown:The bigger the crown means higher the possibility to get maximum seeds
from the trees. This enhances more entrapment of solar energy which helps photosynthesis.
4) Climate: Climatic element has positive correlation with seed yield. The favourable climate
enhances plant establishment, flowering, and seed production. The adverse factors such as
heavy wind and drought decreases seed production.
30 INDIAN FORESTRY

b) Seed dispersal: Seed dispersal refers to the movement of seed materials from one place to
other through various dispersing agents. The various agents involved in the seed dispersal are wind,
water, gravity, birds, animals and human beings.
1) Seed dispersal by wind : Conifers, Acer, Betula, Alnus, Populus, Salix,Holoptelia
integrifolia, Bombax ceiba.
2) Seed dispersal by water . Mangrove spp., Dalbergia, Teak, Jamun, Trewia
3) Seed dispersal by gravity : Oak, Juckulans regia, Aesculus.
4) Seed dispersal by birds : Prunus, Mulberry, Trema, Diospyrous
5) Seed dispersal by animal : Acacia arabica, Prosopis, Zizyphus
c) Seed germination: The growth process of a mature seed, characterized by the emergence of
a stem and root from it is called as germination. It is the process whereby the seed sprouts and begin to
grow. Germination in plants refers to the process by,which a seed begins to sprout and grow into a
seedling under the right growing conditions.
Germinative capacity is the percentage by number of seeds in a given sample that actually
germinate, irrespective of time. Germinative energy is the percentage by number seeds in a given
sample that have germinatecT up to the time when the rate ofgermination reaches its peak. Plant percent
is the percentage by number of seeds in a sample that develop into seedling at the end of first growing
season. Seedling year is defined as a year in which a given species produces abundant first year
seedling

Factors affecting seed germination

i)Internalfactors
1) Permeability to water: The impermeability ofseeds to water prevents seed germination and
vice versa.
2) Permeability to oxygen: The impermeability ofseeds to oxygen prevents seed germination
and vice versa.
3) Development of embryo: In some species, germination immediately after harvest is not
common because of immature embryo inside. It takes some time for embryo development
after its maturation. E.g, Fraxinusflorifunda
4) After ripening processes: Certain seeds requires after ripening process for its fullest
development. In these seeds, germination is possible after completion of this period only.
E.g, Juniperus macropoda.
5) Viability: Viability ofthe seed refers the potential capacity ofthe seed to germinate. Generally,
recalcitrant seeds have less viability whereas orthodox seeds have longer seed viability.
6) Size of seed: Bigger seeds generally give higher germination percentage than small seeds. It
is a general thumb rule but this varies with different species,
li)External factors
1. Moisture: Moisture is very essential in order to initiate the primary biochemical reaction
necessary for seed germination. It is also required for softening ofseed coat and leaching out
of unwanted chemicals in it. Excess soil moisture creates anaerobic conditions and dry
condition causes desiccation of seeds and hence both are not suitable for seed germination.
 SILVICULTURE 31

2. Air; Soil air is essential for the respiration of living seeds. Hence, optimum soil aeration is
essential for seed germination.
3. Temperature:Low temperature inactivates the living cells whereas high temperature destructs
the enzymes and kill the plants. Hence, high and low temperature doesn’t favour seed
germination.
4. Light: Germination is independent oflight mostly. But after germination,light is essential for
food generation through photosynthesis by young seedlings. There are certain species, which
requires light for its germination. Kg., Albizzia procera, Cassiafistula.
5. Seed bed: In order to get better germination, the seed beds are prepared using well drained
loamy soil in such a way that it could provide optimum air, moisture and physical support for
the germinating seed.
d) Seedling establishment: Seedling establishment refers to the development of new crops
naturally or assisted to a stage when the young regeneration, natural or artificial is considered safe from
normal adverse influences such as frost, drought or weeds and no longer needs special protection or
tending operations other than cleaning, thinning and pruning. Seedling establishment period is the
period that elapses between the initiation ofnatural regeneration and the time when it is considered safe
from adverse influences such as frost, drought or weeds. The establishment ofseedling is influenced by
many factors and are given hereunder.
1. Soil conditions and characteristics: Optimum soil conditions such as good drainage,
moisture, aeration and nutrient status facilitates better establishment of seedlings. Shallow
depth, stoniness and erosion has adverse effect on the seedling establishment.
2. Climatic factors: Climatic elements such as rainfall, light, wind etc., determine the
establishment and developmentofvegetation. Optimum light condition in terms oflight duration
and quality is needed for better establishment of seedlings. Extreme temperature is not ideal
for seedling establishment. Rainfall determines the availability ofmoisture to seedling. Hence
sufficient rainfall with uniform distribution is essential for better establishment.
3. Presence of weeds: A severe weed condition prolongs the seedling establishment ofseedlings
because it reduces the availability of moisture, nutrients, light and space.
4. Grazing and browsing: Grazing causes destruction to established seedlings in an area. In
order to reduce the grazing impact, fencing is inevitable.
5. Burning:Forest fire destroy the seedlings and causes seedling mortality. Protection ofplanted
areas from fire is inevitable for any afforestation programs.
6. Drip: It refers the uprooting of seedlings by rainfall drop from the tree crown/leaves. It is
highly harmful for the establishment ofseedlings.
7. Competition of crop: In mixed forest/plantations, competition by the next crop determines
the establishment of seedling concerned. In general, intense competition decreases the
establishment of seedling. Kg., Clerodendron for Sal and Strobilanthus for Teak.
8. Composition of crop; Mixed crop composition enhances better seedling establishment than
the monocropping.
9. Development of roots: After germination, seedlings develop both roots and shoots. Higher
the development of roots facilitates better establishment of seedlings. This depends on the
genetic characteristics of the species concerned.
32 INDIAN FORESTRY

Natural regeneration from the clear felling system

Natural regeneration comes from any one of the following ways:
1) Natural regeneration from adjacent standing crop
2) Natural regeneration from seed lying dormant
3) Natural regeneration from ripe seed fallen during felling
4) Natural regeneration from advance growths

Natural regeneration under shelterwood systems

Natural regeneration is more complex under shelterwood system than in the clear felling system
because of many factors. In order to get good regeneration, the following management practices are
needed:
1) Seed for regeneration is obtained from trees retained in adjacent.
2) Light requirement and canopy manipulations are inevitably so as to facilitate light penetration
to the ground layer where young regeneration is coming up.
a) In over wood, more wood is removed if natural regeneration need more sunlight /.e., the
species is light demanding one. Generally, young crops needs less amount oflight, hence
small opening is enough. But with increasing age, the extent of opening is increased.
b) In middle storey similar light management practices are carried out.
c) In under growth, 1)regular cutting back,2)cpntrolled burning,3)uprooting of unwanted
plants, 4) weed control, 5) control of grass and bamboos are needed to promote the
regeneration.
3) Soil condition: Digging along strips or by tractor ploughing will encourage better regeneration
as it brings favourable soil physical conditions for seed germination.
4) Burning of underground vegetation decreases the weeds and other adverse plants. In certain
cases, seed itself require such heat treatment for breaking its dormancy. But burning after the
regeneration causes death of young seedlings.
5) Slash disposal cleans the local land and provide good physical surface for the regeneration.
6) Weeding reduces the competition for light, moisture and nutrition and hence less competent
young seedlings comes up well in the region.
7) Cleaning removes the unwanted material from the surface and hence augments natural
regeneration.
8) Protection from damage by animals is inevitable in order to save the young seedling form
adverse animal influences such as grazing, browsing, etc.

Natural regeneration under selection forest

The following management practices are essential to get regeneration under selection forest.
1) Removal ofexploitable diameter: All woods above the exploitable diameter are removed in
order to give better lighting environment for young regeneration.
2) Thinning below exploitable diameter: In case of trees having low exploitable diameter,
thinning is carried out to manage the light conditions. Normally, diseased and malformed
trees are removed from this class.
 nSJtVICULTiURE 33
3) Cultural operations: This includes ground cleaning, Weeding, burning and other practices.
Theses are needed for the better development of seedlings regenerated.

II)Natural regeneration by coppices

Specific plants regenerates themselves by vegetative parts i.e., other than seeds. This kind of
natural regeneration arises either from coppices or root suckers. Vegetative reproduction has its own
advantages and limitations.
Coppice can be of either seedling coppice or stool coppice. Seedling coppice is defined as the
coppice shoots arisingfrom the base ofthe seedlings that have been cut or burnt back. Stool‘coppice
refers to the coppice arisingfrom a living stump or stool. Generally each stump produces many coppices.
These coppices can be reduced in to one or two poles at the end offirst year to obtain a good, clear pole.
Among these two poles, one good pole is retained at the end of second or third year and it can be
retained up to the end of rotation.

Factors affecting the regeneration from coppices

1) Species: Coppicing ability of the species vary according to its genetic makeup or inherent
nature. Based on this, plant species are classified as strong coppicer, fair coppicer, bad coppicer and do
not coppicer.
2)Age of the tree: Young trees and saplings produce good coppices than the older trees due to
the smooth bark in the outside.
3)Season of coppicing: Coppicing little before the start ofspring is better. This provides sufficient
growing period for the coppice produced. Besides this,the stored food anchors the regeneration activities
in plant.
4)Height ofstump: Higher height ofstump is liable to be damaged by wild animals whereas low
stump is susceptible to stump splitting, termite attack and rotting. Hence an optimum stump height of
15-25 cm is ideal. This varies with species. Certain species{Casuarina equisetifolia, Manilkara hexandra)
produce good coppices when high stump is retained.
5) Method of cutting: Smooth clean cut with out splitting along one direction gives better
coppices. This drains the rain water easily and prevents rotting.
6)Rotation: Coppicing vigour decreases with number ofrotation. Hence, with increasing rotation,
the coppicing ability of the tree decreases. In addition to above factors, general climate, soil, fire,
grazing and browsing also affects the coppicing to some extent.

Ill)Natural regeneration by root suckers

A secondary shoot, risingfrom the roots ofa certain tree or shrub species that can grow into a
mature individual is called as rootsuckers. Root sucker method is not commonly applied for regeneration
inside the forest naturally. This is applicable to Dyospyrous tomentosa and Dalbergia sisoo. In this
method, trenches are dug continuously or discontinuously around the tree in such a way that it causes
severing of roots. The root suckers arise from these severed points are cared well to develop in to a
matured plant. The plants produced are poor in root growth and are liable to wind throw.
34 INDIAN FORESTRY

C)Natural regeneration supplemented by artificial regeneration

Natural regeneration is not successful in all times and at all places. Even with in a same forest
some places have good regeneration and other places have poor regeneration or blank areas. The
regeneration period can be prolonged in poorly regenerated areas whereas artificial supplementation is
needed in blank areas due to total failure.

Regeneration survey
Regeneration survey refers to the surveyfor the assessment ofestablished and unestablished
regeneration generally by sampling procedure. It is done at the time of revision of working plan. The
main objectives ofthis survey are as follows:
1. To compare natural regeneration in any regeneration area
2. To evaluate the effects of operation carried out during working plan period
3. To prepare stock map of any area
Regeneration survey is done with enumeration work or independently. In flat terrain, linear plots
are laid out for sampling. In mountains, topographic units are more suitable than linear plots. The
intensity ofsurvey vary from 2-4 percent
For the surveying purposes,first base line is drawn on the map.The base line is the lengthiest line
which covers the most of the forest by cutting across all physiographic conditions. From this survey
lines are drawn perpendicularly at a spacing of 100 to 200 m. Sample plots of desired size is laid on
either side ofthe survey line. Thereafter data is collected and interpreted statistically.

Table: Categories of regeneration

Category of regeneration Symbol Explanation

Established regeneration whose height is
2.5 m or more, dbh is 10 cm
Woody shoot which is not established
but which is large and vigorous. This is
expected become established early
Woody shoots which has been browsed
Whippy unestablished seedlings whose
height is more than SO cm
Whippy unestablished seedlings whose
height is more than 50 cm
Sub-whippy unestablishedw seedlings
whose height is less than 50 cm
Sub-whippy unestablished seedlings
whose height is less than 50 cm
Recruit (current year seedlings)
Blank
e At least one such plant is present which is
sufficient to stock the quadrant
w In the absence of e, at least one such plant is
present which is sufficient to stock the quadrant
Yrt-
u+ The absence of e,w,u'*‘ indicates more than one
such plant is present which is sufficient to stock
the quadrant
u The absence of e,w,u'*’, u indicates at least one
such plant is present which is sufficient to stock
the quadrant
s+ The absence of e,w,u‘^,u, s'*" indicates more than
one such plant is present which is sufficient to
stock the quadrant
s The absence of e,w, u^ u, s^ s indicates at least
one such plant is present which is sufficient to
stock the quadrant
r There are only current year seedlings in the quadrate
0 No vegetation is present in the quadrate
 V-

SILVICULTURE 35

Artificial regeneration
Artificial regeneration is defined as the renewal of a forest crop by sowing, planting or other
artificial means. It is done for reforestation and afforestation works.

Objectives of artificial regeneration

a) To reforest an area
b) To afforest an area
Reforestation is defined as the restocking offelled or other wise cleared woodland by artificial
means. In other words afforestation refers the establishment ofaforest by artificial means on an area
jromwhichforest vegetation has always or long been absent.

Factors affecting choice of regeneration

1) Yield: For better volume and financial yield, artificial regeneration is better.
2) Crop composition: Where crop composition has to be changed to get a better return, artificial
regeneration is favourable.
3) Risk of damage by pests: Where there may be danger of pure crops being attacked by
insects, parasites an^fungi, natural regeneration is preferable.
4) Risk of loss and deterioration of soil: Where the deterioration or loss of soil is likely to be
more serious, natural regeneration is preferable.
5) Genetical considerations: If the quality of trees in the forest is to be improved, artificial
regeneration is essential.
6) Time and cost: Natural regeneration should be preferable over artificial regeneration in
consideration with cost and time.
The artificial regeneration of forest crops is carried out in the following ways:
1) Choice of species
2) Selection ofsite
3) Choice of method of artificial regeneration
4) Spacing
5) Arrangement and organization of work

1)Choice of species
> The tree species are selected according to the human needs such as protection, production,
aesthetic, and other environmental considerations
> The species should have good timber, economic and other useful values
> The species should be adaptable to the climatic conditions prevailing in the area
> The soil ofthe region is considered while selecting
a species for regeneration
> The species should improve the soil fertility and reduce the soil erosion
> It should be resistant to pest, disease and other adverse factors
> It should be easily established with least cost
> It should be fast growing one
i

/
36 INDIAN FORESTRY

> It should consider the prevailing succession stages

> It should not produce any allelopathic effect on other plants
> The species should not alter the floristic composition of the'forest
> It should not become weed in future

2)Selection of site
The species environmental requirement should be matched to site with respect to climatic,edaphic
and local conditions. The consideration of local floral composition gives a good idea about the site
condition. In addition to this, the approachability of the site, topographical conditions and wildlife
considerations are taken in to account while selecting a site for reforestation or afforestation.

3)Choice ofthe method ofartificial regeneration

The artificial regeneration can be done either through sowing or planting. The choice of these
methods depends upon the species to be raised, conditions ofthe site, availability ofseed, cost and other
parameters.

3a)Sowing
Sowing is the process of planting seeds. Simply it refers to the scattering or impregnating the
seed over the groundfor growing plants. However,good quality seeds(clean and healthy seeds)should
be selected to produce a high yield.
Advantages of sowing
1. It consumes less time and costs
2. Roots grow well without any constraints
Disadvantages of sowing
1. It needs huge quantity of seed
2. Birds and animals eat the seeds sown on the surface
3. Seedling mortality is higher than the direct planting
4. Weed problem is higher
5. Rate of growth of seedling^ is very slow and hence seedling establishment period is longer
6. The opening of forest to grazing takes longer time which creates complications with local
peoples

Time of sowing
Time of sowing determines the successful germination and seedling establishment.

Sowingdepth
Deep as well as shallow sowing is not advisable. Deep sowing prevents emergence ofcotyledons
from subsurface to surface. In case ofshallow sowing, seed are liable to be eroded during watering and
are also liable to be eaten by birds. More precisely, seeds can be generally sown into the soil at a depth
of about 2-3 times the size of the seed.
 SILVICULTURE 37

3b)Planting
Planting refers to the act or operation of setting the seedlings in the ground for propagation of
plants.

Advantages of planting Disadvantages of planting

● Seedling establishment and success is higher ● The cost of planting is higher

● Seed requirement is less ● It requires more labour and management
● The seedling establishment period is shorter ● It requires more knowledge and skill
● The forest area can be opened for grazing sooner
● Weed problem is comparatively lesser
● The damage to seeds and seedlings is lesser

Planting time
Climate plays a deciding role in determining the appropriate planting time. Newly planted trees do
best when exposed to moderate temperature and rainfall. Seedlings need time to root and acclimatize
before the onset of intense heat and dryness of summer or the freezing temperatures of winter. Hence,
early spring or onset of monsoon is the best time for planting. In case of localities having severe winter,
it is better to plant before the snow fall. This also varies with location to location and species to species.
Planting may be of any one of the following kinds:
1) Monsoon planting
2) Pre-monsoon planting
3) Winter planting
4) Spring planting

Planting methods
The most common mistake when planting a tree is digging ofa hole, which is both too deep and
too narrow. In deep pits, roots don’t have access to sufficient oxygen to ensure proper growth. In
case of narrow pits, root structure can’t expand sufficiently to nourish and properly anchor the tree. As
a general rule, trees should be transplanted no deeper than the soil in which they were originally grown. The
width ofthe hole should be at least 3 times the diameter ofthe root ball or container. This facilitates root
establishment. Planning is done either by entire planting or stump planting.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
why the Estaminets sell so much bad beer, and so much vin
mousseux under the generic title of Champagne.
Men want to forget about Home, for they dare not think of it too
much. I have never heard a man speak of Home without a little hush
in his voice, as though he spoke of something sacred that was, and
might not be again.
How often one heard the remark, a kind of apologia: “One must do
something.” Yet, in spite of all they do to forget Home, they are least
happy who have none to forget. Fortunately they are few. It is a
strange provision of Providence that lends zest to the attempt at
oblivion, and induces a frame of mind that yearns through that
attempt for the very things it would fain forget!
After all, it is very much like the school-boy who longs for privacy
where he can blubber unseen, and is at the same time very glad that
he has not got it, and can’t blubber, because his school-fellows
would see him!
A superficial observer might think that the men at the Front are
purely callous, intent on seizing lustily on every possible chance of
doubtful and other pleasures that they can obtain. He may think that
war has brutalised them, numbed their consciences, steeled their
hearts. Or he may class them as of low intellect. In all of which he is
wrong, and has utterly failed to grasp the morale of the man who
lives to fight to-day, never knowing of a certainty if he will see
another dawn.
The soldier knows that he may not dwell in his heart on all he holds
most dear. It “takes the stuffing out of him.” So, according to his
lights, he works very hard indeed to keep up his spirits; to forget. Not
really to forget, only to pretend to himself that he is forgetting.
What good is it for the man whose sweetheart ran away with the
other fellow to think about it? Therefore, Tommy rises above his
thoughts, he puts them away from him—as best he can. And if that
best is not all that people at home might wish it to be, surely some
allowance may be made for what may be called the exigencies of the
military situation!
Perhaps it is the last thing some people would imagine, but
homesickness is a very real disease at the Front, and he may count
himself lucky who escapes it.
“Wot price the Hedgeware Road?” says Bill, ruminatively, as he
drinks his glass of mild—very mild—beer.
And his pal sums up his feelings in the one word “Blimey!”
If you have seen men go into action, not once, but many times; if you
have heard them sing, “Oh my, I don’t want to die; I want to go
Home,” “My Little Grey Home in the West,” and many other similar
ditties, then you will understand.
The very trenches shout it at you, these universal thoughts of Home.
Look at some of the names: Oxford Street, Petticoat Lane, The
Empire, Toronto Avenue, Bayou Italien—even the German trenches
have their Wilhelmstrasse! Each nation in arms is alike in this
respect. Every front-line soldier longs for Home.
A singer whose voice was chiefly remarkable for its sympathetic
quality, gave a concert within sound of the guns. A battalion, just out
of the trenches, went to hear her. She sang several bright little
songs, every one encored uproariously, and finally she sang one of
those beautiful Kashmir love songs which go straight to the depths.
There was a moment’s tense silence when she had finished, and
then the “house” rocked with applause, followed by a greater
trumpeting of handkerchiefed noses than was ever before indulged
in by any regiment en masse. She had awakened memories of
Home.
There are many who rest beneath foreign skies for whom all earthly
homes are done with. They have been gathered to the greatest
Home of all.
 ACTION
“Message from Head-quarters, sir.” The runner was breathing hard,
and his eyes were strained and tense-looking. He had not shaved for
days. Fritz’s “thousand guns on the Somme,” that the papers talk of
so glibly, were tuning up for business.
Major Ogilvie took the message, read it, and handed it on to me.
“Zero hour will be at 6.30 p.m. aaa. Our artillery will bombard from
5.30 to 6.20 p.m., slow continuous, and from 6.20 to 6.29 p.m.
hurricane fire aaa. You will give all possible assistance, by means of
rifle and machine-gun fire to ultramarine, and arrange to reinforce,
if necessary, in case of heavy counter-attack aaa. ultramarine will
indicate that objective has been gained by firing two red rockets
simultaneously aaa. Please render situation reports every half-hour
to B.H.Q., a.21.d.1.4½.aaa.”
We looked at each other and smiled a little grimly. To be on the flank
of an attack is rather worse than to attack, for it means sitting tight
while Fritz pounds the life out of you.
“You stop here,” said Ogilvie, “in this glory-hole of ours, while I go up
and see Niven. He will have to put his men in those forward saps. If
you get any messages, deal with them, and make sure that Townley
keeps those bombers of his on both sides of the road. They must
stop there, as long as there are any of them left, or the Hun might try
to turn our flank. So long.”
He set out towards the north, leaving me in “AK” Coy.’s “head-
quarters.” The latter consisted of a little niche, three feet wide, ran
back a foot, and was four feet high, cut in the parapet of the front
line. The runner, Thomson, one of our own company, was curled up
in a little cubby-hole at my feet, and had fallen asleep.
It was lonely in that trench, although there were invisible men, not
thirty feet away, on both sides of me.
The time was 5.25 p.m.
Our guns were still silent. Fritz was warming up more and more. He
was shelling our right most persistently, putting “the odd shell”
around head-quarters.
Punctually to the minute our artillery started in. Salvos of heavies,
way back, shrapnel all along the front line and supports.
A wickedly pretty sight along a thousands yard front: Fritz began to
get irritated, finally to be alarmed. Up went his red lights, one after
the other, as he called on his guns, called, and kept on calling. They
answered the call. Above us the air hissed unceasingly as shells
passed and exploded in rear. He was putting a barrage on our
supports and communication trenches. Then he opened up all along
our trench. High explosive shrapnel, and those thunder-crackling
“woolly bears.” I wondered where Ogilvie was, if he was all right, and
I huddled in close to the damp crumbling earth.
It was 5.50 p.m.
“Per-loph-uff.” An acrid smell of burnt powder, a peculiar, weird
feeling that my head was bursting, and a dreadful realisation that I
was pinned in up to my neck, and could not stir. A small shell,
bursting on graze, had lit in the parapet, just above my head,
exploded, and buried me up to the neck, and the runner also. He
called out, but the din was too great for me to hear what he said. I
struggled until my hands were free, and then with the energy of pure
fear tore at the shattered sand-bags that weighed me down. Finally I
was free to bend over to Thomson.
“Are you hurt?”
“No, sir, but I can’t move. I thought you was dead.”
I clawed him out with feverish haste. The air reeked with smoke, and
the shelling was hellish. Without any cessation shells burst in front
of, above, and behind the trench; one could feel their hot breath on
one’s cheek, and once I heard above the din a cry of agony that
wrung my torn and tattered nerves to a state of anguish.
“Get out of here,” I yelled, and we crawled along the crumbling
trench to the right.
“Hrrumph!” A five-nine landed just beyond us. I stopped a second.
“Stretcher-bearer!” came weakly from a dim niche at my side.
Huddled there was one of my boys. He was wounded in the foot, the
leg, the chest, and very badly in the arm. It took five minutes to put
on a tourniquet, and while it was being done a scout lying by my side
was killed. He cried out once, turned, shivered, and died. I remember
wondering how his soul could go up to Heaven through that awful
concentration of fire and stinging smoke.
It was 6.15 p.m.
There were many wounded, many dead, one of those wonderfully
brave men, a stretcher-bearer, told me, when he came crawling
along, with blood-stained hands, and his little red-cross case. None
of the wounded could be moved then, it was impossible. I got a
message, and read it by the light of the star shells: “Please report at
once if enemy are shelling your area heavily aaa.” The answer was
terse: “Yes aaa.”
Suddenly there was a lull. One of those inexplicable, almost terrifying
lulls that are almost more awesome than the noise preceding them. I
heard a voice ten yards away, coming from a vague, shadowy figure
lying on the ground:
“Are you all right, ‘P.’?” It was Ogilvie.
“Yes. Are you?”
We crawled together, and held a hurried conversation at the top of
our voices, for the bombardment had now started in with violent
intensity from our side, as well as from Fritz’s.
“We’ll have to move to the sap, with Niven ... bring ... runners ... you
... make ... dash for it.”
“How ... ’bout Townley?”
“’S’all right.”
Then we pulled ourselves together and went for it, stumbling along
the trench, over heaped-up mounds of earth, past still forms that
would never move again. On, on, running literally for our lives. At last
we reached the saps. Two platoons were out there, crowded in a
little trench a foot and a half wide, nowhere more than four feet deep.
Some shrapnel burst above it, but it was the old front line, thirty
yards in rear, on which the Germans were concentrating a fire in
which no man could live long.
The runners, Major Ogilvie, Niven, and myself, and that amazing
Sergeant-Major of ours, who would crack a joke with Charon, were
all together in a few yards of trench.
Our fire ceased suddenly. It was zero hour. In defiance of danger
Ogilvie stood up, perfectly erect, and watched what was going on.
Our guns opened again, they had lifted to the enemy supports and
lines of communication.
“They’re over!” we cried all together.
Machine-guns were rattling in a crescendo of sound that was like the
noise of a rapid stream above the roar of a water-wheel. The enemy
sent up rocket upon rocket—three’s, four’s, green and red. Niven, as
plucky a boy as ever lived, watched eagerly. Then a perfect hail of
shells began to fall. One could almost see our old trench change its
form as one glanced at it. It was almost as light as day. Major Ogilvie
was writing reports. One after another he sent out the runners to
head-quarters, those runners every one of whom deserves the
Victoria Cross. Some went never to return.
All at once two red rockets burst away forward, on the right, falling
slowly, slowly to earth.
ultramarine had attained the objective.
It was then 6.42 p.m.
Curious, most curious, to see the strain pass momentarily from
men’s faces. Two runners took the message down. It proved to be
the earliest news received at H.Q. that the objective was reached.
But the bombardment did not cease, did not slacken. It developed
more and more furiously. Niven, one of the very best—the boy was
killed a few weeks after—lay with his body tucked close to the side of
the trench. I lay with my head very close to his, so that we could talk.
Major Ogilvie’s legs were curled up with mine. Every now and then
he sent in a report.
My conversation with Niven was curious. “Have another cigarette?”
“Thanks, Bertie.” “Fritz is real mad to-night.” “He’s got a reason!”
“Thank the Lord it isn’t raining.” “Yes.” Pause. “Did you get any
letters from home?” “Two.... Good thing they can’t see us now!” “Jolly
good thing!” “Whee-ou, that was close!” “So’s that,” as a large lump
of earth fell on his steel hat. Pause. “I must get a new pair of
breeches.” “When?” “Oh, to go on leave with.” “So must I.” We
relapsed into silence, and from sheer fatigue both of us fell asleep
for twenty minutes.
I was awakened by Ogilvie, who kicked me gently. “I have had no
report from Townley or Johnson for nearly two hours”—it was past
eleven. “I want you to go up to the right and see if you can establish
communication with them. Can you make it?” “I’ll try, sir.” Our guns
had quieted down, but Fritz was still pounding as viciously as ever,
and with more heavy stuff than hitherto. My experience in travelling
perhaps a quarter of a mile of trench that night was the most awful
that has befallen me in nearly two years of war at the Front.
The trench was almost empty, for the men had been put in advance
of it, for the most part. In places it was higher than the level of the
ground, where great shells had hurled parapet on parados, leaving a
gaping crater on one side or the other. Fear, a real personal, loathly
fear, ran at my side. Just as I reached the trench an eight-five
exploded on the spot I had crossed a second before. The force of
the explosion threw me on my face, and earth rained down on me. I
knelt, crouching, by the parapet, my breath coming in long gasps.
“Lord, have mercy on my soul.” I rushed a few yards madly, up,
down, over; another pause, while the shells pounded the earth, and
great splinters droned. I dared not move, and I dared not stay. Every
shadow of the trenches loomed over me like the menacing memory
of some past unforgettable misdeed. Looking down I saw a blood-
stained bandage in a pool of blood at my side, and I could smell that
indescribable, fœtid smell of blood, bandages, and death. As I went
round a traverse, speeding like a hunted hare, I stumbled over a
man. He groaned deeply as I fell on him. It was one of my best
N.C.O.’s, mortally wounded. An eternity passed before I could find
his water-bottle. His face was a yellow mask, his teeth chattered
against the lip of the water-bottle, his lips were swollen and dreadful.
He lay gasping. “Can I do anything for you, old man?” With a
tremendous effort he raised his head a little, and opened wide his
glazing eyes. “Write ... sir ... to my ... mother.” Then, his head on my
arm, he died.
On, on, on, the sweat streaming from me, the fear of death at my
heart. I prayed as I had never prayed before.
At last I found Johnson. He gave me his report, and that of Townley,
whom he had seen a few moments before. I went back, another
awful trip, but met Major Ogilvie half-way.
After nine and three-quarter hours, during which they threw all the
ammunition they possessed at us, the German gunners “let up.” And
Ogilvie and I went to sleep, along the trench, too weary to care what
might happen next, to wake at dawn, stiff with cold, chilled to the
bone, to face another day of “glorious war!”

The Temple Press

Letchworth England
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