What is communication and describe information channels and their types?

The word 'Communication' is derived from the Latin word 'Communis', which means
'sharing'. Communication encompasses all methods used by living beings to express or to
convey a kind of thought or feeling. When we communicate with someone, we try to
establish a certain degree of commonness with the person we communicate with.
Communication has been defined in many ways. For example, the Oxford
Dictionary defines it as "The imparting conveying or exchanging of ideas and
knowledge whether by speech, writing or signs". On the other hand, Columbia
Encyclopaedia defines communication as "The transfer of thoughts and
messages as contrasted with transportation of goods and persons. The basic
forms of communication are by signs (signals) and sounds (hearing)".

In the beginning sign languages or expressive body languages were forms of human
communication. With the evolution of language, spoken word became the common form of
communication. The invention of scripts and writing paved the way for the written form of
communication. Written form of communication enabled recording and storing of information
for the future generations. Invention of printing provided major technological breakthrough
for recording knowledge and information in the form of documents. Other.inventions like
telegraphy and telephone systems provided mechanisms for people to communicate over
long distances. Over the last four decades or so electronic and mass media became
commonplace methods of communication.

communication refers to transmission or exchanging of information and that for information

to be transmitted, it has to be first mentally conceived, generated or formed by an individual.
Only then, can information be communicated to another. The transmission process, could,
however, be oral, through visual images or icons, or through written text in any language, or
a combination of all these different modes of communication. From what has been stated
above, it might be inferred that the media and the method used to communicate ideas
through is important. Therefore, let us try to understand the forms and channels of
communication.

Channels of Communication
Basically, there are two ways of communication:
1) Oral communication,
2) Written or Documentary communication.
Oral Communication.
Oral communication is a method of communication through speech. It is
characteristic of its immediacy and personal touch, which might be difficult to
capture in other forms of communication. In this form, there is often an informal
or flexible setting (atmosphere), which allows the sender and receiver, interact
with questions and answers, comments and response. All this takes place in a
given time and results in immediate feedback and permits an instant reaction.
Written Communication
Some basic characteristics of written communication are that it:
• has a more formal perspective, suggesting greater authority and trust
worthiness;
• can be a potential record, capable of extended life and of being used again
and again;
• can be extracted in parts or portions and can be quoted;
• it is suitable for reading at an individual's convenience, speed and place;
and
• is accessible to a large readership which can lead to the benefit of expert
criticism and review by peers.

Total Quality Management-concept, principles and benefits for libraries.

Total Quality Management is a philosophy and not a technique. It is based on two

basic concepts: quality control and employee participation. The concept has gradually
.evolved from the management theories such as Management by Objectives, quality
circles, strategic planning etc. To understand the concept it is better first to understand
the three words constituting the concept i.e., Total, Quality and Management.

Total: Everyone in the organisation is involved in creating and maintaining the quality
of the services and products offered by the organisation. It is a comprehensive way
of dealing with complex sets of interacting issues involving everyone at all levels and
addressing all major issues.
Quality: The organisation through individual and collective actions focuses on meeting
customer's (agreed) needs, at lowest cost, first time 'and every time and hence
recognising that it is the customer's perception that identifies quality. Total quality
therefore, refers to the fact that everyone, at all levels are involved in achieving quality
according to some requirements or laid down standards for everything they do.
Management - While managing the system the emphasis should be towards
continuous improvement and not on quick fixes. Then only Total Quality can be
achieved. This requires everyone in the organisation to be responsible for managing
their own job. TQM portrays a whole systems view for quality management. TQM
builds on the idea that an organisation is an interactive network of communication
and control.

Principal Objectives
An organisation which adopts the philosophy of total quality, and its principles, is to
be guided by a few general/principal objectives, in addition to its own specific ones.
These are:
• Continuous improvement of the organisation which must be equal to or greater
than that of any competitor;
• Continuous and relentless cost reduction;
• Continuous and relentless quality improvement;
• Total participation i.e., creating an organisation whereby everyone is working
towards making the organisation the best in its area of activity; and to capitalise
on the sense of achievement and working in a world-class organisation.
Continuous Improvement
Any organisation would take a natural and legitimate pride in its progressive
improvement activities, which certainly are laudable and to be encouraged. It is,
however, important for the organisation to perceive how these improvements are
effected in relation to its competitors.
The process of quality improvement of an organisation depends upon its ability to:
• keep a constant vigil on the competitors' quality improvement programmes to
combat them in time;'
• measure its rate of improvement in relation to the competitors' which is very
important and not just the fact of its getting better;
• obtain information about the competitors quality improvement through a
mechanism of commercial intelligence; and .
• monitor the quality improvement process to stay as the best competitor in the
market.
Continuous and Relentless Cost Reduction and Quality Improvement
Cost reduction and quality improvement are not to be seen as conflicting each other
in terms of achievement of both. Such a conflict may sometimes arise due to the
different interpretation of the word quality. The word quality refers not only to the
specification of a product or service but also to the processes which take place to
achieve the quality required. A well run organisation may have everything properly
set viz., the inflow of inputs, perfect processes taking place without hold-ups, hiccups,
or redoing things, properly trained person doing their jobs perfectly and the customers
getting their supply etc. In this situation, the best of both worlds i.e., better quality
and lower cost can be achieved. It should, however, be clear that this is an idealist's
approach.
Total Participation
The behavioural aspect of quality is the total participation of everyone working in
the organisation, cutting across its vertical, horizontal and diagonal structural levels
without any distinction between status, position and controlling power of the staff.
Quality concepts can be differentiated into two distinct groups: i) the hard or logical
aspects of quality that include systems procedures, organisation, measurements,
calculations, problem solving tools, etc. ii) the behavioural aspects that are distinct
from the mechanistic aspects, is the human aspect of Total Quality. Neither of these
two categories on their own can possibly get success to Total Quality, since Total
Quality requires an equal understanding, appreciation and application of both the
aspects .
.While scientific management contributes substantially to the logical aspects of Quality,
the behavioural aspects constitute the human involvement aspects of Total Quality
Management. It is founded on the belief that people produce their best results when
they enjoy their work, in relationship with their colleagues with mutual trust, and
respect. They display faith in the organisation and view their job opportunities as
providing for self development with a feeling that their organisation is the best to
serve. Thus in Total Quality organisation, everyone is working towards making the
organisation the best in its business.

What is attempted in the whole process of TQM is to introduce a new cultural

change, through changing the style of people management which is likely to bring
about greater participation from the employees who would work with the management
to achieve the organisation goals and objectives. Management rewards comes from
the following:
• Work itself becomes more interesting through greater involvement of employees;
• Increase in general productivity;
• Lower absenteeism because of greater job interest and satisfaction to employees;
• Fewer grievances among the employees;
• All round greater team spirit.
Top management must convey to middle management that it believes in TQM
approach with the design of a deliberate policy. Middle management is expected to
conduct the affairs keeping TQM policy in view, conveying the decision to
supervisors. Once the entire organisation is geared to the change, the new culture
would get engrained in the organisation leading to success.
A dramatic change is occurring in the scope and pace of technological advances
that are contributing substantially to a fundamental shift in library and information
products and services. This shift, although slow and halting in our country, is sure to
affect the roles and responsibilities of professionals, alter working relationships and
communication patterns, and a compulsion to provide alternatives to the existing
information organisations. No longer can we talk about just computerisation oflibrary
and information services, but should examine the place of libraries in the context of
information/ knowledge society. Information and communication technology has
various components - microcomputers, telecommunications with local, national and
intemational networks offering electronic mail and conferencing systems, CDROM
and other optical disc formats, offering bibliographic, textual and graphic products
etc., all suggesting major opportunities and challenges for libraries and information
professionals.
The information context in which libraries and information professionals may have to
operate will be far more different than ever in the past, with more complex issues to
be addressed and an environment in which the pace of change is likely to be highly
acceleratedand the risks and competition much greater.
As the shift from an industrial to an information-based economy takes place, there
will be far more aggressive participants in the production, processing, dissemination
and distribution of information than ever before. Competition will be forthcoming
from product designers, computer experts, telecommunication specialists, publishers,
management specialists and many others. There is likely to be an increasing emphasis
on commercialisation of information and pricing of information would be a normal
feature as against the current general view that information is a public good and
should be available at no cost to a user. It must also be remembered that users will
have many options to choose from to access information.
The issues before library and information professionals is how to cope with the
increasing demand for information from a variety of users, use of ICT to redefine
services, roles and responsibilities. In fact the real issue would be to retain and
.reinforce the basic role of the library as a primary provider of information. The
redefinition of the library, however, will have to be in relation to the future opportunities
and challenges. The aim and effort are to transform the library into an institution of
creativity, entrepreneurship, innovation and productivity vis-a-vis the information
provision .
It is against this background that we should examine management of libraries and
information centres. The philosophy of participative management, involving every
group of personnel to achieve total quality in every aspect oflibrary and information
work would now become relevant, meaningful and valuable.
Total Quality Management which blends the principles and practices of scientific
management and participative management has to be given a fair trial. Undoubtedly
it is only with an abiding faith in this philosophy that this culture can take roots in the
country.

Explain preservation and its measures.

In common parlance, the words ‘Preservation’ and ‘Conservation’ are often used
interchangeably to mean: the process of keeping an object safe from harm or loss, damage,
destruction or decay, and maintaining it in a reasonably sound condition for present and
future use.

‘Conservation’ has three aspects:

1) Examination : To determine the nature/properties of materials and causes of
deterioration and alteration.
2) Preservation : Adoption of appropriate prophylactic and prospective measures to
maintain the specimen in as good a condition as possible, and to prolong its life to
whatever extent possible.
3) Restoration : Appropriate remedial treatment of an already affected specimen.
Thus, ‘Conservation’ is an activity of which ‘Preservation’ is one aspect. In common
practice ‘Preservation’ deals with the maintenance aspect and ‘Conservation’ with the
remedial treatment and restoration of the already damaged specimen.
PRESERVATION MEASURES
The delicate nature and the susceptibility to deterioration of library materials have been
briefly described in the preceding paragraphs. That will serve as a guide to our preservation
approach, both prophylactic and prospective. The preservation process will be discussed
in details in the subsequent Units. Here only a general outline is given:
1.4.1 Storage Environment
For long term preservation of documents, the selection of proper storing space is essential.
The Library stack-area should have the following:
i) Adequate ventilation - If necessary the area should be provided with air-circulation
devices like, adequate number of exhaust fans. Air circulation helps removal of
stagnant air pockets, which, coupled with excessive humidity, helps growth of micro
organisms and injurious pests.
ii) The orientation of windows should be such that these regulate sunlight and reduce
the injurious effects of the outside climatic conditions. .
iii) In no case should the stack area be on the basement floor of a building where the
floor and the walls are likely to be damp or subject to flooding, particularly in the
rainy seasons, or due to choked drains.
iv) Entry of rats into the area should be prevented by sealing all joints in the partition
walls, and covering the drain outlets. Hygienic conditions should be maintained in
and around the stack area..
v) To avoid white-ant menace, the building should be isolated by digging a trench
outside the foundation wall and filling it with chemicals like coal tar and creosote ail.
It is always better to take the help of a professional pest-control organisation to
provide a thorough treatment by using Aldrex or other suitable chemicals, to prevent
entry of the queen-ant which can produce 30,000 eggs in a day. Such a treatment
will provide an insect-barrier lasting far 5-6 years at a stretch. The foundation of all
new buildings should be given anti treatment.
vi) The area should have a properly done-up floor and walls, so that these do not
throw dust all the time.
vii) Protection against Fire Smoking, use of heaters and storage of inflammable liquids
in the storage areas should be prohibited. All electric wiring should be through conduit
Need for Preservation
and Conservation
Library Materials:
Preservation and Conservation
18
pipes. Electric wiring should be regularly checked to guard against weakening
insulation. The use oftemporary lights, power connections and over-loading of electric
circuits should be avoided. Proper fuses, circuit breakers and earthing should be
provided. As a precautionary measure all light and power circuits should be switched
off after office hours. Fire detection alarm system as also suitable fire extinguishers
should be provided in the storage area. A reference to Indian Standard IS: 11460 -
1991 “Code of Practice for fire safety of libraries and archives buildings” will be
helpful in this context.
1.4.2 Atmospheric Condition
Adverse environmental conditions, listed in the table at above paragraph “Storage Condition
of the Artefact” require to be eliminated as far as possible.
Temperature between 22°- 25° C and relative humidity between 45% - 55% constitute
the most suitable ambient condition far storing of library materials. This can be achieved
only by air conditioning. But this facility is not available to most ofour libraries. Maintenance
of cool, dry atmosphere and avoidance of too frequent changes in temperature and humidity
in the stack area should be achieved as far as possible by other methods.
1.4.3 Dehumidification
In the absence of air conditioning facility, to minimise the humid condition and dampness,
especially during the rainy season, suitable dehydrating agents like anhydrous calcium
chloride and silica gel can be used. Silica gel in requisite quantity (2-3 Kgs for a room of
20-25 Cu.mts. capacity) may be put in small dishes and the dishes kept in different locations
in the room. When the silica gel gets saturated with moisture, it has to be replaced.
Commercial dehumidifiers are also available. These can be used where the stack area is
large.
1.4.4 Deacidification
The wooden boards and cloth used in wrapping manuscripts in bundles, the leather, cord
and end-papers used for binding should be acid free to avoid transmigratory acid
contamination of the document.
As has been stated earlier, the acid residue in paper at the manufacturing stage causes its
deterioration at a rapid pace. To neutralise this acid content, various methods of
deacidification have been and are being tried. Some of the-more common processes are
Morpholine Process (Barrow’s) Vapour Phase Deacidification, wet TO Process, Diethyl
Zinc Process. These chemicals are hazardous in nature and also require installation of
costly equipment. Less hazardous and cheaper methods of deacidification involve the use
of spray deacidification, ammonia gas deacidification and aqueous deacidification (solution
of calcium hydroxide and calcium bicarbonate) depending upon the nature of the writing
ink used and the strength of the paper.
In each one of these processes there are advantages and disadvantages. Deacidification
or treatment of individual items by any of these processes will slow or retard further
damage to the material due to acidity. Treatment of only very selected precious items, can
be considered because of the considerable cost involved in deacidification.
1.4.5 Preservation of Special Types of Materials
i) Palm-leaf and Birch-bark Manuscripts
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The traditional practice of storing manuscripts is to collect several sheets together
and tie them in between two thin wooden boards. The bundle is wrapped in pieces
of cloth to protect against dust and other surface feeders. In this traditional method
there is the possibility of uneven pressure on the sheets while tying each time. If the
sheets have already - turned brittle, there is the risk of cracking. Therefore, proper
- care is necessary in tying and untying the bundles.
The best method of storing manuscripts is to keep the leaves loose in wooden or
cardboard boxes, the size of which is slightly bigger than that of the leaves, so that
these can be taken out and replaced with ease. Too frequent and careless handling
should be avoided.
Since manuscripts are likely to be very sparingly used, it is necessary that once a
year the bundles are opened, the sheets separated and cleaned and carefully stored
again.
ii) Films
Apart from storing the films in boxes, microfilms in cases and microfiches in separate
envelopes, and these materials in a cool, dry and pollution free environment, it is
necessary that the films, if not in use for long, are run at normal speed, at least once
a year. This is necessary to eliminate the possibility of layers of film sticking together.
iii) Binding
Unlike paper and other materials, in the creation of which the librarian has very little
control, binding, with a few exceptions, is the creation of the librarian itself. He/ she
has to ensure that the binding has been done with standard materials and the binder
has adopted standard processes. Indian Standard IS: 3050-1962: Code of practice,
for reinforced binding of Library books and periodicals will provide adequate guidance
in this regard.
Superficial dust particles and prolonged exposure to damp warm climate affect
durability of leather. There are a number of compounds used as protective coating
as leather preservative dressing. One such formulation found quite effective, is a
mixture of: lanolin anhydrous, bees wax, cedarwood oil and benzene. This
composition acts as a buffer solution , for longterm preservation of leather bound
books.
1.4.6 Pest Control Measures
A simple practice is to keep naphthalene bricks every six or eight feet on the shelves. This
is an effective insect-repellent measure. A mixture of paradichlorobenzene and creosote,
kept in dishes in the stack room also acts as a good insect-repellent. 10% solution of
thymol in methylated spirit sprayed in the stack room from time to time will check the
growth of spores. But, for bigger collection it is always advisable to seek the services of a
professional pest control organisation for routine treatment under service contract
agreement.
1.4.7 Vigilance and Cleanliness
Two most important steps which every Library should meticulously follow are:
• To keep constant vigilance in the stack area, particularly the dark corners. This will
help eliminate the possibility of the growth of micro-organisms and other insect attacks.
Need for Preservation
and Conservation
Library Materials:
Preservation and Conservation
20
• To maintain utmost cleanliness and tidy conditions through a process of regular dusting.
While dusting, care should be taken to ensure that the dust particles are not thrown
about and do not settle down elsewhere in the shelves. The ideal method is to do the
job with the help of a vacuum cleaner.

Sampling Procedure & Types of Sampling (With Real time sample).

Specification of objectives: The objectives of carrying out sampling is the first and
foremost step in sampling procedure. Because all other steps will follow from this
objective.
Definition of population: In this step we define the units that should be included in the
population. Many times there are certain border cases where proper definition is
important. For example, if you want to survey the library personnel, it has to be decided
whether you should include part-time employees in the population or not.
Preparation of ‘sampling frame’: Once you have defined the units to be included in
the population, the next step is to prepare a list of the units from which the sample is to
be drawn. Many times problems come up because the sources from which you want to
prepare the sampling frame may be incomplete or obsolete.
Identification of sampling procedure: Sampling procedure refers to the method of
selecting the sample. There are quite a few sampling procedures available. We should
select a method that: i) gives us a representative sample, ii) is feasible to carry out
keeping in view our constraints, and iii) is cost effective. There are broadly two types of
sampling: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. We will discuss these types
in the next Section.
Determination of sample size: The next step is the determination of sample size. The
factors that influence sample size are i) population size, ii) variance of units, iii) desired
precision level, iv) response rate, and v) availability of resources. The sample size should
be relatively larger if population size is larger, variability among units is higher, more
precise results are required, and lesser is the response rate. However, we should settle
for smaller sample size if there are constraints such as availability of funds or manpower
or time. Sample is considered to be large if its size is greater than 30. If sample size is
less than or equal to 30 it is considered as small sample. The procedures of drawing
inferences (See Unit 17) for large and small samples are different.
Selection of sampling units: Once you have decided on the sampling procedure and
the size of the sample, the next step is draw the sampling units (that is, units included in
the sample) from the sampling frame.
6.6 TYPES OF SAMPLING
As mentioned earlier there are two types of sampling: probability and non-probability.
In probability sampling some element of randomness is involved in selection of units, so
that personal judgement or bias is not there. Here we have simple random sampling,
systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling and multistage sampling.
Remember that the word ‘random’ here does not mean haphazard or unsystematic,
rather it implies lack of bias or control in selection. In non-probability sampling we have
judgement sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling.
Simple Random Sampling (SRS): It is the basic sampling procedure where each unit
in the population gets an equal chance of being included in the sample. There are two
commonly used methods to draw a simple random sample, viz., i) lottery method, and
ii) random numbers selection method. In both the methods we assign a unique number
to each unit in the sampling frame. In lottery method we mix up the numbers very well
and draw the numbers one by one. In random number selection method we refer to
‘random number tables (RNT)’ available from various sources (including the Internet)
and select the units which are there in the RNT. Simple random sampling should be
used with a homogeneous population. That is, all the units in a population possess the
same attributes that the researcher is interested in measuring. The characteristics of
94
hTooomlso gfoern eRiteys emaracyh include age, sex, income, social status, geographical region, etc.
If
the population is not homogeneous then we need a larger sample size to obtain a
representative sample. But we can divide the population into various homogeneous
strata and obtain a stratified random sample. A limitation of the simple random sampling
is that if the population size is too large, selection of the sampling units is time consuming.
These days, of course, computer has been very useful in selection of random numbers
and reduced time spent in selection process.
Systematic Random Sampling: In this case we select the units in a fixed interval.
For example, in a library you have to check the quality of maintenance of books. For
this purpose you decide take physical verification of 100 books out of the 5000 books
available in the library. Here population size is 5000 and sample size is 100. In systematic
random sampling procedure you take a random starting point and then select the 50th
subsequent unit. Thus if 12th book is the starting point, then you go on checking books
located at the positions: 62nd, 112th, 162nd, …… and so on. This procedure is useful
when preparation of sampling frame is difficult or not possible.
Stratified Random Sampling: This procedure is practiced when the population is
not homogeneous but can be divided into various homogeneous groups (called ‘strata’).
Here we select sub-samples from each stratum and add them together to obtain our
desired sample. Therefore, the stratified random sampling procedure is a better
representative of the population and sampled units reflect the population characteristics
more accurately. The steps we should follow are:
• Divide the population into strata based on some characteristic chosen by you
(example, Rural/Urban, Male/Female, etc.)
• The number of units taken from each stratum is proportional of the relative size of
the stratum and standard deviation of the characteristic within the stratum. If stratum
size is then a larger sub-sample should be taken. Similarly if you find that variability
among units is more in a stratum than other strata, then you should take a larger
sub-sample from that.
• Choose the sub-sample from each stratum using simple random sampling.
Multistage Sampling: As the name suggests, sampling procedure in this case is divided
into two or more stages. Let us take an example of a two-stage sampling. Suppose
you have to survey the aptitude of college students, who can be categorised into three
streams: arts, science and commerce. Here in the first stage you divide colleges according
to geographical regions and you select specified number of colleges from each region
on the basis of random sampling. In the second stage you select students by a random
sampling method from the colleges selected at the first stage only, not from all colleges.
Let us try to explain the difference between two-stage sampling and stratified sampling.
In stratified random sampling you divided the population (all college students) into
there strata: arts, science and commerce. From each stratum you selected a subsample
by simple random sampling procedure. The selected students can be from any
college and you cannot rule out a visit to any college. In two-stage sampling you are
excluding certain colleges at the first stage itself, which may prove to be economical.
Judgement Sampling: It is a non-probability sampling procedure. It is also called
purposive sampling, where the researcher selects the sample based on his/her judgment.
The researcher believes that the selected sample elements are representative of the
population. For example, the calculation of consumer price index is based on judgment
sampling. Here the sample consists of a basket of consumer items and other goods
and services which are expected to reflect a representative sample. The prices of
these items are collected from selected cities that are viewed as typical cities with
95
Measurement of
Variables
demographic profiles matching the national profile. The advantage of judgment sampling
is that it is low cost, convenient and quick. The disadvantage is that it does not allow
direct generalisations to population. The quality of the sample depends upon the
judgment of the researcher.
Quota Sampling: In this procedure the population is divided into groups based on
some characteristics such as gender, age, education, religion, income group, etc. A
quota of units from each group is determined. The quota may be either proportional or
non-proportional to the size of the group in the population. Do not confuse the quota
sampling with stratified random sampling discussed earlier. In stratified random sampling
you select random samples from each stratum or group whereas in quota sampling the
researcher/interviewer has a fixed quota and selection of units is based on judgement.
Quota sampling has the advantage that cost and time involved in selection of units is
reduced considerably. However, it has many disadvantages also. In quota sampling,
the samples are selected according to the convenience of the investigator. Therefore,
the selected sample may be biased.
Snowball Sampling: In this procedure you begin by identifying someone who meets
the criteria for inclusion in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who
they may know who also meets the criteria. Although this method would hardly lead to
representative samples, there are times when it may be the best method available.
Snowball sampling is especially useful when you are trying to reach population that are
inaccessible or hard to find. For example, if you are studying the homeless or people
suffering from a particular disease you are may not be able to find good lists respondents.
However, if you identify one or two, you may find that they know others in a similar
condition.