NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

INTRODUCTION : -
In the past two or three decades the art of testing without
destroying has developed from a laboratory curiosity to an indispensable tool of
production. No longer is visual examining adequate quality. Non Destructive
Testing in great variety are in world wide used to detect variations in structure,
minute changes in surface finish, the presence of cracks or other physical
discontinuities, to measure the thickness of materials and coatings and to determine
other characteristics of industrial products. Scientists and engineers of many
countries have contributed greatly to NDT development and application.

 REASON’S FOR THE USE OF NDT :-

Modern methods of NDT are used by the manufacturers for the following reasons: -
1. To ensure product reliability.
2. To prevent accidents and save human life.
3. To make profit for the user.
a) To ensure customer satisfaction and to maintain manufacturers good
name.
b) To aid in better product reliability.
c) To control the manufacturing processes.
d) To lower the manufacturing costs.
e) To maintain uniform quality level.

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 ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF NDT :-
A. Supplying a suitable form and distribution of energy from an external source
to the test object.
B. Modifying the energy distribution within the test object as a result of its
discontinuities or variations in material properties, which correlate to
serviceability.
C. Detecting the change in energy and intensity by a sensitive detector.
D. Indicating or recording the energy intensity measurement from the detector in
a form useful for interpretation.
E. Interpreting the indication and judging the corresponding serviceability.

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING :

a) Liquid (dye) penetrant test.
b) Magnetic particle test.
c) Ultrasonic test.
d) Radiographic test.
e) Visual inspection.

a) LIQUID (DYE) PENETRANT TEST.

 Introduction :
A liquid penetrant test is non-destructive type test which detects flaws that are
open to the surface. e.g. cracks, seams, laps, lack of bond, porosity, cold shuts etc.
can be effectively used not only in the inspection of ferrous metals but is especially
useful for non-ferrous metal products and on non-porous, non-metallic materials
such as ceramics, plastics and glass.

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 Principle of operation :
The principle of liquid penetrant test is that the liquids used enter small
openings such as cracks or porosity’s by capillary action. The rate and extent of this
action are dependent upon properties such as surface tension, cohesion, adhesion
and viscosity. They are influenced by factors such as the condition of the surface of
material and the interior of the discontinuity. For liquid to penetrate effectively, the
surface of the material must be thoroughly cleaned of all material that would
obstruct the entrance of the liquid into the defect.
After cleaning, the liquid penetrant is applied evenly over the surface and
allowed to remain long enough to permit penetration into the possible
discontinuities. The liquid is then completely removed from the surface of the
component and either a wet or dry developer is applied. The liquid that has
penetrated the defect will then bleed out on to the surface and the developer will
help delineate them. This will show the location and general nature and magnitude
of any defect present. To hasten this action, the part may be struck sharply to
produce vibrations to force the liquid out of the defect.

 Procedure for liquid penetrant testing :

This procedure covers Liquid Penetrant Examination by solvent/water
removable process using visible penetrant for detecting discontinuities that are open
to the surface of weldment and materials of any shape or size required by drawings,
specifications and codes.

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1. Approved penetrant material.
a) Pre cleaner : - Acetone of commercial grade.
b) Penetrant : - Pradeep Flaw guide, Magna-flux Spot check etc.
c) Cleaner : - Acetone of commercial grade.
d) Developer : - Pradeep Flaw guide, Magna-flux Spot check etc.

It is ensured that all the above chemicals do not contain any injurious
presence of chlorine and sulphur.

2. Surface preparation.
The surface to be inspected and adjacent areas within 1” shall be free from
dirt, grease, lint, scale or any other extraneous matter that would obscure surface
openings or interfere with the test.

3. Pre-test cleaning.
Thoroughly clean the test area with cleaner and then wipe die with lint
free cloth or cotton waste. Allow surface to dry by normal evaporation for two
minutes. Take adequate care to ensure proper surface condition prior to application
of the penetrant.

4. Temperature.
During testing the material temperature shall be between 16 C to 52C

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5. Application of the penetrant .
Apply liquid penetrant by spraying or brushing to cover adequately and allow a
minimum dwell time of 20 minutes.

6. Removal of excess penetrant

Wipe excess penetrant applied area with clear lint free cloth or cotton
waste. Continue cleaning till all traces of visible penetrant is removed. Final
cleaning shall be done with lint free cloth or cotton waste dampened with cleaner.
Take care to avoid use of excess cleaner and deposition of any contaminating
material, which may lead, to misinterpretation of the test results. Flushing area with
solvent for the purpose of penetrant removal is prohibited. Allow the surface to dry

by normal evaporation for 2 to 3 minutes. Ensure surface dryness prior to

application of developer.

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7. Application of developer.
Apply developer by spraying to give a thin uniform coat. Allow developer to
remain on specimen prior to inspection for a developing time of minimum 7minutes
to maximum 30minutes.Dveloping time begins as soon as developer coat is dry.

8. Interpretation and evaluation of indication.

a) Only indications with major dimensions greater than 1/16”.
b) A linear indication is one having length greater than three times width.
c) A rounded is one circular or elliptical shape with the length equal or less than
three times width.
d) Any questionable or doubtful indications shall be re-examined to determine
whether or not they are relevant
e) All surfaces examined shall be free of,
i. Relevant linear indications
ii. Relevant rounded indications greater than 3/16”

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iii. Four or more relevant rounded indications in a line separated by 1/16” or less,
edge to edge.

9. Safety.
Anyone involved in the liquid penetrant examination should take
precautions because of the toxic and inflammable nature of the chemicals used.

 Advantages:
1) The dye penetrant test based on liquid penetrants is a sensitive extremely
versatile and a very reliable method of test.
2) It is quite inexpensive.
3) It does not require any special apparatus.
4) It is quite simple in application.
5) Only a moderate skill is required.

 Applications :
1) Besides metals, penetrant inspection can also carried out on parts made up of
other materials, such as plastics, ceramics, glass etc.

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b) MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST.
 Introduction :
Magnetic particle inspection is a non-destructive method for detecting cracks
and other discontinuities at or near the surface in ferromagnetic materials. Finely,
divided magnetic particles are applied to the surface of a part, which has been
suitably magnetized. The particles are attracted to regions of magnetic non-
uniformity associated with defects and discontinuities, thus producing indications,
which are observed visually.
This method of inspection is used on magnetic ferrous castings for detecting
invisible surface or slightly subsurface defects. Deeper subsurface defects are not
satisfactorily detected because the influence of the distorted lines of magnetic flux
(owing to a discontinuity) on the magnetic particles spread over the casted surface
becomes weaker with the distance, so that sensitivity falls away rapidly with the
depth.
The magnetic particle examination procedure will produce consistent results
upon which acceptance standards can be based. Only direct current or rectified
alternating (full or half wave) current shall be used as the electric power source for
the magnetizing methods. Alternating current is not permitted because its capability
to detect sub-surface discontinuities is very limited and therefore unsuitable.

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 Principle :
When a piece of metal is placed in a magnetic field and the lines of magnetic
flux get intersected by a discontinuity such as a crack or slag inclusion in a casting,

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magnetic poles are induced on either side of the discontinuity. The discontinuity
causes an abrupt change in the path of magnetic flux flowing through the casting
normal to the discontinuity, resulting a local flux leakage field and interfering with
the magnetic lines of force. This local flux disturbance can be detected by its affect
upon magnetic particles that collect on the region of discontinuity and pile up and
bridge over the discontinuity.
A surface crack is indicated (under favorable conditions) by a line of fine
particles following the crack outline, and a subsurface defect by a fuzzy collection
of magnetic particles on the surface near the discontinuity. Maximum sensitivity
of indication is obtained when the discontinuity lies in the direction normal to the
applied magnetic field and when the strength of the magnetic field is just enough to
saturate the section being inspected.

 Magnetizing apparatus :
1) Rectified alternating (full or half wave) or direct current electric power sources
may be used. When current is passed through the part itself, the equipment shall
consist of contacting or clamping elements with sufficient surface area and
clamping pressure to allow the required current to flow without damaging the
part being examined.
i. Portable electromagnetic (ac-dc) yokes may be used in the dc mode as a
magnetizing apparatus, provided the sensitivity to detect crack-like defects is
demonstrated to be at least equivalent to that of the direct magnetizing
method. The yokes used may be permanent magnetic or electromagnetic.
ii. An applicator should be used for the uniform application of dry powder. Care
should be taken to dust on the powder very lightly and sparingly. A low

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 pressure low velocity air stream from a small hand bulb or a small air hose
may be used to remove the excess powder. Wet particles could be applied by
spraying or pouring. Care should be taken to ensure that the particles are in
proper and adequate suspension and are applied uniformly.

 Magnetic particles/Inspection medium :

1. Dry or wet magnetic particles shall be used as the inspection medium. Dry
powder is applied in the form of spray or colour. It is better for locating near
surface defects. Moreover all the powder can be recovered after the test. In wet
method, the powder is suspended in low viscosity non-corrosive fluid such as
kerosene and is sprayed over
the casting; alternatively casting may be immersed in the liquid for the purpose. The
material shall have a high permeability and low retentivity. It shall be of a colour
that will provide adequate contrast with the background surface being tested.
Concentration of wet medium as measured in pear shaped centrifuge shall be 1.2 to
2.4 ml in 100 ml bath sample (approximately 18 gms in 500 ml of water).
2. The inspection medium shall consist of finely divided ferromagnetic particles,
which may be suspended in a suitable liquid medium or used in dry powder
form.
3. The size and shape of the particles and their magnetic properties, both
individually and collectively, are important.
4. he magnetic powder of iron or black magnetic iron oxide base and having
elongated individual particles is used for the purpose. Metallic iron particles are
coated to prevent oxidation and sticking.

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 Magnetic medium to be used :
a) Colour contrast consumables (Wet) : Ferrochem make Magnaflux Red 146-
A(Kerosene soluble). Magnaflux make 29-I Red (Watersoluble).
b) Colour contrast consumables (Dry) : Ferrochem make 246 Red. Magnaflux
make 3A Black.

 Surface preparation :
1. The sensitivity of the magnetic particle examination will depend to a
considerable extent upon the condition of the surface being tested. Defects may
be satisfactorily revealed on shot blasted or otherwise cleaned forged surfaces,
or on surfaces having small amounts of heat treating scale without any special
surface preparation; however loose scales must be removed.
2. The surface to be examined and all adjacent areas within at least 1” shall be
clean and free of grease, oils, sand, loose rust, scale, lint, paint, weld spatter,
contaminations or other substances to which particles may adhere.
3. Rough surfaces may hamper the mobility of magnetic powders due to
mechanical trapping, which in turn produces false indications. Such areas should
be surface ground. If grinding is impractical, a paper tape overlay may eliminate
the problem.

 Methods of magnetization :
The part may be magnetized either by passing current through the piece or by
inducing a magnetic field by means of a central conductor by coils.

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 1. Continuous method : In continuous method, the inspection medium is
applied to the surface under inspection while the current is still flowing.
2. Surge method : In this method a high magnetizing force is applied and then
reduced to a lower continuous value, which is maintained during application
of the medium.
3. Residual method : In this method, the inspection medium is applied to the
surface under inspection after the magnetizing current has ceased to flow.

The two general types of magnetization with regard to direction are:-

1. Longitudinal: When a piece is magnetized longitudinally, the magnetic flux

lines are usually parallel to the axis of the piece. A longitudinally magnetized
piece always has definite poles readily detectable by compass or magnetometer.
Longitudinal magnetization is usually carried out using magnetic yokes.
2. Circular : Circular magnetization is obtained by passing a current directly
through the piece or induced through a conductor or conductors threaded
through an opening in the piece.

 Field strength :
The minimum field strength that will reveal and permit classification of all
objectionable defects shall be used. The maximum field strengths are the ones just
below the point at which excessive adherence of the particles begin to occur over
the surface being inspected.

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 There are a number of magnetization methods capable of creating maximum
field strengths and detecting the flaws but the generally practiced method of
magnetization is the Yoke magnetization.

 Demagnetization :
1. When specified, parts shall be sufficiently demagnetized after inspection so that
residual field will not interfere with future welding or machining operations,

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 magnetic instruments used in the proximity of the part or so that leakage field
will not occur in areas of dynamic contact surfaces.
2. When direct current is used, demagnetization may usually be accomplished by
repeatedly reversing and progressively decreasing the magnetizing current.
Direct current is recommended for demagnetization large parts.
3. When alternating current is used, it is necessary to decrease the magnetizing
current in smaller steps or continuously to a very low current.
4. Demagnetization won’t be necessary if the piece is to be subjected to an
austenizing treatment prior to future use or machining.

 Precautions to be taken while using the yoke :

(a) Do not connect the yoke to a battery for portable work.
(b) Do not change the AC/DC selector switch while the unit is energised.
(c) Ensure firm contact between test piece and yoke legs for better indications of
defects and less noise.
(d) Ensure yoke is connected to earth through proper 3 pin plug for operator safety.
(e) Do not open yoke handle and change settings.
(f) Do not drop the yoke from a height or subject the handle to any severe impact.
(g) Do not energise the yoke more than the duty cycle. Overheating of the yoke
handle is an indication of excessive ‘on’time.

 Interpretations and evaluation of indications :

The indication is the visual particle build up resulting from leakage fields in the
magnetic field. The linear indication is one in which the length is at least three
times the width. All observation of indications shall be done when the magnetizing

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current is on. Any indication which is believed to be non-relevant (indications
produced by leakage fields) or false shall be regarded as relevant until the indication
is re-examined to verify or not actual discontinuity is present or not.
Factors that must be considered in interpreting an indication as to its cause are as
follows:
a) Appearance of the indication.
b) Direction and shape of the indication.
c) Type of material from which the part is made.
d) Processing history of the part, type of machining, heat treatment etc.
e) Past experience with similar parts based on destructive tests such as
sectioning , etching, fracturing, chipping, grinding etc.

The indications may be grouped in three broad categories :-

i. Surface defects such as laminar defects, forging laps, flakes, shrinkage
cracks, grinding cracks, plating cracks, heat treating cracks etc.
ii. Subsurface defects such as inclusions, cracks in underbead of welds etc.
iii. Non-relevant or false indications such as flow lines, edge of weld etc.

 Advantages :
1. MPT is a relatively simple and easy technique.
2. It is free from any restriction as to size, shape, composition and heat treatment of
a ferromagnetic specimen.
3. Defects such as cracks, laps, inclusions, hot-treaters etc can be easily revealed
by MPT.

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 Limitations ;
1. The electromagnetic yoke is heavy in weight.
2. It is not practicable for large castings.
3. The indications are to be observed minutely.

c) ULTRASONIC TEST.
Introduction:
Ultrasonic is a versatile inspection technique. It is used to test a variety of
metallic and non-metallic products such as welds, forging, castings, sheet, tubing,
plastics and ceramics.
Ultrasonic has an advantage of detecting sub-surface discontinues with access to
only one side of the specimen.

 Objectives of ultrasonic testing :

The objective of ultrasonic testing is to ensure product reliability by means of
1) Obtaining information related to discontinuities.
2) Disclosing the nature of the discontinuity without impairing the usefulness of the
part.
3) Separating acceptable and unacceptable materials in accordance with
predetermined standards.

 Ultrasonic principles :
In ultrasonic testing we use something called “Ultrasonic Vibration”. We must
know two facts about a vibration :

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1. A vibration is a back and forth movement.
2. A vibration is energy in motion.
A depression of a surface from its normal position is called a Displacement.
Vibrations pass through a solid material as a succession of Particle Displacements.
The structure of a material is actually many small particles or group of atoms. These
particles have normal or rest positions and can be displaced from these positions by
some force. When the force is removed, the particles will tend to return to their
original positions.
Energy is transmitted through a solid material by a series of small material
displacements within the material. The transmission of ultrasonic vibrations through
a material is related to the elastic properties of the material. If you a tap a metal
surface, the surface moves inward, causing a displacement. Since the metal is
elastic the surface will tend to move back to its original (rest)position. The surface
will also move through the original position and move to a maximum distance in
the opposite direction. The complete sequence of movements is defined as a Cycle.
The time required for something to move through one complete cycle is called the
Period. The number of cycles in a given period of time is called the Frequency.
Ultrasonic testing is the process of applying ultrasonic sound to a specimen and
determining its soundness, thickness or some physical property. The energy is
originated in something called a ‘Transducer’, which causes material displacement
within the specimen. A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to
another.

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 Ultrasonic Equipment :
The ultrasonic pulse echo instrument generates high voltage electrical pulses of
short duration. These pulses are applied to the transducer, which converts them into
mechanical vibrations that are applied to the material being tested.
A large percentage of the sound is reflected from the front surface of the test
part back to the transducer. The back surface or discontinuities reflect the
remainder. The sound reflected back to the transducer is converted back to electrical
pulses, which are amplified and displayed on the cathode ray tube (CRT) as vertical
pulses.
There are two basic ultrasonic test systems :
1. Pulse echo system : Pulse echo is the most widely used ultrasonic system. Short
evenly timed pulses of ultrasonic waves are transmitted into the material being
tested. These pulses reflect from discontinuities in their path, or from any
boundary that they strike. The received reflections are then displayed on the
cathode ray tube (CRT). The same transducer can be used to transmit and to
receive.
2. Through transmission system :
Through transmission requires the use of two transducers, one for sending
and the other for receiving. Either short pulses or continuous waves are transmitted
into the material. The quality of the material being tested is measured in terms of
energy lost by a sound beam as it travels through the material.

There are two test methods normally used in ultrasonic testing :

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1) “Contact testing”, Where the transducer is coupled to the material through a thin
layer of couplant.
2) “Immersion testing”, where both the material and the transducer are immersed in
tank of Couplant (usually water).

 Couplant and ultrasonic sound energy :

The primary purpose of a Couplant is to provide a suitable sound path
between the transducer and the test surface.
A couplant must be effectively wet or should totally contact both surfaces of the
transducer and the test part.
1. The Couplant must exclude all air in between the surfaces, as air is a very poor
conductor of sound.
2. The Couplant fills in and smooth out irregularities on the surface of the test part.
3. The Couplant aids in the movement of the transducer over the surface in contact
testing.
4. A practical couplant must be easy to apply and easy to remove. It must also be
harmless to the part surface.

Oil or water mixed with glycerin (2 parts water and 1 part glycerin) is the
commonly used couplant.
Heavier couplants such as grease or heavy oil can be used on rough or vertical
surfaces. In circumstances where the use of liquids or paste is undesirable, thin
rubber or rubber like materials may be used. In all cases the couplants should be
thin as possible. If the couplant is excessive, it may act as a wedge and alter the
direction of the sound beam.

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 The surface of a test specimen can greatly affect ultrasonic wave propagation.
Rough surfaces can cause undesirable effect such as reduction of discontinuity and
back surface amplitudes due to distortion of wave directivity.
A good back surface reflection indicates a good response from the material being
tested. It is reflected back to its source similar to light striking a mirror.
If the surfaces are not parallel, the reflected energy will be directed away from
the transducer similar to light falling on a mirror at an angle.

 Advantages :
1) It is a fast and reliable method of non-destructive inspection.
2) This method of locating flaws with metal objects is more sensitive than
radiography.
3) The minimum flaw size that can be detected is equal to about 0.1% of the
distance from the probe to the defect.
4) Big castings can be symmetrically scanned for initial detection of major defects.
5) Ultrasonic inspection involves low cost and high speed of operation.
6) The sensitivity of ultrasonic flaw detection is extremely high, being at a
maximum when using waves of highest frequency.

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 Limitations :
1) Ultrasonic inspection is sensitive to surface roughness. Since as-cast surfaces
will in most cases be too rough, some preliminary machining on castings will be
required.
2) In complex castings the interpretation of the oscillograph trace may not be easy.
Waves reflected from the corners or other surfaces may give a false indication of
defects.

 Applications
1) Inspections of large castings and forging, for internal soundness, before carrying
out expensive machining operations.
2) Inspection of moving strip or plate as regards its thickness.
3) Routine inspection of locomotive axles and wheel pins for fatigue cracks.
4) Inspection of rails for bolt hole breaks without dismantling railend assemblies.

d) RADIOGRAPHIC TEST.
 Introduction:
Radiography is a process of testing materials that uses penetrating radiation such as
x-rays or gamma rays. This allows examination of the interior of the objects or
assemblies that are opaque to the light. Radiography is called a non-destructive
method of testing since objects that are tested are not damaged by the test and may
still be used when the testing is completed.
In passing through the material, some of the radiation is absorbed or changed. The
amount of absorption is dependent upon the thickness of the material, the density of
the material and the atomic number of the absorber. Some kind of detector such as

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film, a fluorescent screen may then be used to record the variations in intensity of
the emerging beam as visual images or signals. Industrial radiography is primarily
concerned with recording images on film.
The three basic essentials in producing a radiograph are : -
1) A source of radiation, usually x-rays or gamma rays.
2) The object to be tested.
3) A cassette containing the film.

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 The above diagram illustrates the main features in making a radiograph. The
source of radiation may be a x-ray tube or a capsule containing a suitable
radioisotope such as cobalt-60. Whatever the source, the radiation proceeds in a

LARSEN & TOUBRO 24

straight line from the source to the object. Some of the rays pass through the object,
the object absorbs some and some are scattered in all directions by the object. The
amount of radiation reaching the film in the cassette depends upon a number of
factors. Among these are the nature of material being tested and its thickness.
Suppose the object being tested is a piece of steel and it has gas bubble in the
interior. There is a reduction in thickness of the steel through the area of the bubble.
Therefore mare radiation will pass through the section containing the bubble than
through the surrounding metal. A dark spot corresponding to the projected position
of the bubble will appear on the film when it is developed. The darker regions on
the radiograph represent the more easily penetrated parts of the object, while the
lighter regions represent the thicker parts of the object.

 X-rays and Gamma rays :

X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation having wavelengths in the region
of
10–13 to 10–9 m. They are usually produced by allowing a stream of high-energy
electrons to impinge on a metallic target, thus producing photons by deceleration of
the electrons. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of nuclear origin and have
very short wavelengths. Whereas x-rays originate in the extranuclear structure of
the atom, gamma rays are emitted by atomic nuclei in the state of excitation. The
emission of gamma rays usually occurs in close association with the emission of
alpha and beta particles.

 The Radiograph :

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 The processed film containing the visible images caused by exposure to
radiation is called a radiograph. The darkening of the radiograph is referred to as
density.
Differences in density from one area to another on a radiograph are termed
radiographic contrast. The density of an area on a radiograph depends upon the
amount of radiation the film emulsion absorbs in that area.
When radiation strikes film, only a very small portion of the energy is absorbed.
Since the darkening of the film is due to the absorbed radiation, a large part of the
radiation energy is lost. One way of using this lost energy is to use radiographic
screens. These are also called intensifying screens. Lead foil on both sides of the
film has an intensifying effect. Lead upon being excited by radiation, emits
electrons. Electrons expose the film just as the x-ray or gamma radiation; in fact the
electrons are more easily absorbed than the radiation. Also, fluorescent intensifying
screens are occasionally used in x-ray radiography, but as a rule are not used with
gamma rays. These screens consist of a smooth layer of powdered fluorescent
chemicals coated on a piece of cardboard or plastic.
Scatter may reduce contrast of radiographs. Materials not only absorb radiation
but scatter radiation in all direction. Thus the film receives radiation not only
radiation from the primary radiation source, but also scattered radiation from the
object being radiographed, the film holder and the walls and floor of the room.
Scattered radiation tends to make blurry the whole image on radiograph. Screens,
masks and filters may reduce scattering.

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 Radiation scattering :
Radiation scattering occurs radiography with both x-rays and gamma rays. When
a beam of either x-rays or gamma rays strikes an object, some of the radiation
passes through the object and some is observed by it. Also, some rays are scattered
randomly. These scattered rays have longer wavelength and so are less penetrating
than the primary rays. The film receives some of this scattered radiation which will
cause it to fog. This serves to reduce the contrast on the film or parts of it and may
result in a poor image of the object being radiographed.
Scattered radiation may come from any material in the path of primary radiation.
For example, the specimen, film holder, floor, walls or other objects receiving
primary radiation may be source of scattered radiation. When thick materials are
radiographed, more scattered radiation may reach the film than primary radiation.
Unless this scattered radiation can be controlled or prevented from reaching the
film, the radiographic image may be of poor quality.

 Radiographic film :
Film is a prime essential for radiography work. An industrial radiographic film is
a thin, transparent, flexible plastic base, which has been coated with gelatin
containing microscopic crystals of silver bromide. Some films have one side and
some have both sides of the base coated with a layer approximately 0.001 inch
thick, of this gelatin and crystals. The gelatin and crystal mixture is called emulsion.
Sensitometric characteristics is the section that presents the properties of film
which determine the exposure time required to produce an image of a desired
density on the film after chemical processing and the film’s ability to reveal
structural details in the specimen.

LARSEN & TOUBRO 27

 Film processing :
Radiographic procedure is only partially completed once the exposure has been
made. The chemical processing of the film used for the exposure is an important
and exiting task. Improper processing may make it impossible to read film and
render useless the most careful radiographic exposure work.
The exposure of film to ionizing radiation creates a chemical change, which can
be made visible through processing. In simple terms, the processing is designed to
change chemically the silver bromide on the film, so that the ‘radiation shadow’
cast by radiation passing thorough the specimen radiographed can be seen. There
are five distinct steps in the processing of the film ; developing, stop bath, fixation,
washing and drying.

 Geometric principles
Both x-rays and gamma rays obey the rules of light. Since a radiograph is a
shadow picture of an object placed in a radiation beam, the common geometric
principles related to optics apply to making a radiograph. Major differences include
the facts that
1. All objects are more or less transparent to radiation.
2. Scattering of radiation presents problems not found in optics and photography.
Since radiation beams used in radiography behave much like light beams, they
form shadows of objects much as light does. If an object is placed between a source
of radiation and a piece of film, then a shadow will be cast on the piece of film. In
the figure it is noticed that the shadow is somewhat enlarged because the object is
not in contact with the film and an orthographic projection is obtained. The amount

LARSEN & TOUBRO 28

of enlargement will depend upon the relative distances of the object from the film
and the source of radiation. If the object is lying on the film, there will be little or
no enlargement.
If a shadow the same size as the object is desired then,
1. The object should be placed close to the film.
2. The source of radiation should be as far from the film as possible.

 Distortion of shadows :
Object images on film may be distorted for several reasons. The plane of the
object and the plane of the film may not be parallel. The radiation beam may not be
directed perpendicularly to the surface of the film.
The above distortions would apply to discontinuities in the object to be tested.
Therefore some unwise judgement about the size and shape of defects may be
made.

 Enlargement :
Usually it is desirable to have the specimen and film as close together as possible
in order to cut down geometrical unsharpened. When the source of radiation is very
small(a fraction of millimeter) this is not too important. With an extremely small
source of radiation the film may be placed some distance from the specimen. This
will cause an enlarged film on the film without too much geometrical unsharpened.
Enlargements up to three diameters may reveal small defects not noticeable on
regular radiographs.
Geometric enlargement has the added advantage of decreasing the amount of
scattered radiation reaching the film. The useful image formed on the film is the

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result if the direct beam of radiation. Scattered radiation reduces the sharpness and
quality of the image.

 Applications of radiography
Radiography is very useful in inspecting and testing products of various kinds. It
may be used to inspect finished products to determine their soundness or fitness
and it may be used to help develop production techniques that will produce
products that meet desirable standards.
Welding has become one of the important processes in the manufacturing of
metal products. Due to advancement in this field, many high pressures, high
temperature tanks or containers are constructed by welding. Such equipment is
now almost universally examined by radiography. Weld radiography is one of
the important applications of industrial radiography.
One the first industrial applications of radiography were the examination of
castings. Most metal produced in the world is cast into mould. The cooling of
the liquid metal in the mould may be accompanied by several undesirable
defects. Small pieces of sand from the mould may become trapped in the metal,
gas bubbles may be formed, and slag may be caught in the metal. Also shrinkage
characteristics of most metals as they cool from a liquid to a solid may lead to
cracks, holes and even breaks. Radiography may be used to detect these flaws.
Metal may be worked or shaped into desirable forms. Steel is usually forged at
high temperatures because it becomes plastic to some degree and easier to form.
The expansion or contraction of the metal being forged may be uneven and the
stress may cause cracks or breaks at certain points in the metal. Radiograph will
reveal internal defects.

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e) VISUAL INSPECTION.

Initial visual inspection of the geometry of the component and the type and
nature of the defect likely to be present is the first stage of any inspection. The
inaccessible surface can be inspected by introscope (illuminated optical device
using a system of lenses and mirrors). Miniature conventional cameras have been
developed to examine internal condition of long part. The photographs can be taken
by remote control. Miniature television cameras have also been developed. These
transit a continuos record of the inner surface of the part, to be viewed on a
monitoring screen by the operator.

 Defects that are easily located by visual inspection are surface cracks,
blowholes, metal penetration, buckles, swell, shift, surface roughness, shrinkage
etc.

 Visual inspection is carried out with naked eye or magnifying glass.

 Visual inspection ensures that none of the features of the casting has been
malformed by molding errors, short running or mistakes in fettling.

 An Inspector carrying out a visual examination identifies casting defects &

assign their cause to some foundry operation or raw material so that corrective
measures can be employed.

 Visual inspection is simplest, fastest but it needs greater skills on the part of the
inspector to locate & identify different manufacturing defects.

 Visual inspection is done before welding, during welding & after welding
stages.

 Visual inspection is done before welding for weld edge preparation, cleanliness,
joint fit-up, welding consumables, pre-heating requirements etc.

 Visual inspection for chip back gauging, inter-run cleaning, inter pass
temperature, proper backing of consumables, etc. is done during welding stage.

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 After welding stage, cleaning, metal penetration & root examination, contour,
weld dimensions & various welding defects are checked.

 Various welding gauges such as fillet gauge, hi-lo gauge, profile gauge are used
for visual inspection.

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