BTECH 4 MODULE 3 REVIEWER
PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Precasting refers to the casting of a reinforced concrete member in a
mold that is not located at its final position in the structure.
- Precasting in quantity began only about 1955.
- Members such as face panels can be precast with exposed
aggregate facings.
- The introduction of precast concrete construction was brought
about by cost factor.
Precast members are trucked to the construction and hoisted into
position by attaching to hooks cast into the beams or panels.
Field connections may be in the form of: welding, bolting, or cast
concrete connections.
Joints are sealed by caulking over a flexible joint filler.
Types of Precast Structures
1. Wall Panel - used as curtain walls attached to columns,
beams, or sometimes on bearing walls.
a. Flat type
b. Double Tee type
c. Ribbed type
d. Window or mullion type
2. Roof and Floor Members - are made in a wide variety of
designs to suit the different conditions of span, magnitude of
load, fire ratings and appearance.
a. Flat slab - has a standard thickness of 10 cm but
sometimes as thin as 7 cm; having widths from 120 cm
to 240 cm with length up to 11 meters.
b. Hollow plank - a lightweight member made by
extrusion in a special machine with thickness that
ranges from 10 to 20 cm and widths from 60 to 120 cm.
c. Double tee - most widely used section for longer span
having depth of 4 to 6 meters. Generally used on roofs
having a span up to 18 meters.
d. Single tee - used for roofing having a span up to 30
meters and more.
3. Precast Beam
a. Rectangular beam - where the floor and roof
members are supported on top of the beam.
b. Ledger beam - designed to reduce the height of the
floor and roof construction.
c. L-Beam - used to provide bearing; the beam is
designed in a form of L.
d. AASHTO Bridge Girder - this type of girder is named
after the Association of American State Highway and
Transportation Officials.
4. Precast Column - ranges from 30 to 60 cm. Multi-storey
construction, columns are made continuous up to four stories
using corbels to provide bearing for the beam. Sometimes
used directly to support double tee floor members without the
use of intermediate members.
Prestressed Concrete - its basic principle is to let the steel
reinforcement counteract tension forces and concrete to resist
compression stresses.
- The main purpose of prestressing is to induce desirable strains
and stresses in a structure.
- Made for a longer span.
- Prestressing is applied for two main purposes:
1. To transmit stresses and strain in the structure.
2. To counterbalance undesirable strains and stresses.
2 Methods Used in Prestressing
1. Pre-Tensioning Method - the steel wire cables are stretched
between two abutments to a predetermined stress before
concrete is placed.
2. Post-Tensioning Method - fresh concrete is placed inside the
form and after settling and reaching a predetermined strength
level, the steel wires are then stretched.
 3. Thermal Prestressing - steel is preheated by means of
electric power which is anchored against the opposite end of
the concrete beam.
4. Volumetric Expansion - is used of expanding concrete
strained by the steel strand or by fixed abutments producing
prestressed force.
High-strength Concrete - has higher modulus modulus of elasticity. It
minimizes the reduction of prestress loss.
End Regions - reinforcement should be provided when required in
the anchorage zone to resist bursting
End Blocks - should be provided when required for end bearing or for
distribution of concentrated prestressing forces.
Continuous Beam - should be designed for adequate strength and
satisfactory behavior.
Compression Members Combined Axial Load - should be
proportioned by the strength design methods for members without
prestressing.
Lateral Reinforcement Except for Walls - all prestressing steel
should be enclosed by spirals or closed lateral ties at least 10 mm
diameter in size.
Corrosion Protection for Unbonded Tendons - unbonded tendons
should be completely coated with suitable material to insure corrosion
protection.
Shape Of Prestressed Structures
1. Double Tee - considered the most widely used section for
prestressed construction with a flat surface having a width that
ranges from 120 to 240 cm wide.
2. Single Tee - is normally used for longer spans up to 36 m with
heavier loads.
3. I-Section - used for bridges, roof girders, up to 36 m span.
4. Channel Slab - used for bridges of intermediate and major
span.
5. Inverted Tee Section - provides a bearing ledge to carry
precast deck members having a perpendicular direction of
span.
Causes of Prestressed Loss
1. Slip of anchorage
2. Elastic shortening of concrete
3. Creep of concrete
4. Shrinkage of concrete
5. Relaxation of steel stress
6. Frictional loss due to intended or unintended curvature in the
tendons.
- In prestressed concrete, the concrete compressive strength is
often somewhat greater and the steel tensile strengths are four
to five times greater than that employed for reinforcing
concrete.
- By prestressing the concrete, the entire section is effective;
whereas in reinforced concrete, only the compressive portion
on one side of the neutral axis is utilized.
STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION Vierendeel Truss - Named after Engr. Arthur Vierendeel who
developed the design in 1896.
Production of Structural Shapes - It is a truss where the members are not triangular but form
- Wide Flange rectangular openings, and is a frame with fixed joints that are
- I-Beam capable of transferring and resisting bending moments.
- Channel - Under truss type, parallel chord truss or flat truss and is often
- Angle used for floor construction.
- Inverted Tee
Space Frame Truss - is a three-dimensional framework of members
Open-Web Steel Joist - A mass produce truss used in closely pinned at their ends. A tetrahedron shape is the simplest space truss,
spaced arrays to support floor and roof decks. Made of top and consisting of six members which meet at four joints. Space frame
bottom chords, vertical and diagonal members. trusses are also employed in the base structures of large
free-standing power line pylons
Joist Girders - prefabricated steel trusses designed to carry heavy
loads from the ends of open- web joists to columns from 20-70". They
can be used instead of wide-flange beams and girders in roof and COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
floor structures where their greater depth isn't objectionable.
Aspects for Using Composite Structures
Cold-worked Steel - steel sheet is bent into c-shaped sections to - Architectural
make short span framing members that are frequently used in - Economical
partitions and exterior walls of larger buildings and in floor structures - Functionality
of smaller buildings. - Service and Flexibility
- Longer spans
Joining Steel Members - Thinner slabs
- Rivets - More slender column
- Bolts - More generous opportunities for design
- Welding

Space Frame - a steel space truss more popularly called space frame
is a truss made three-dimensional; it carries its load by bending along
both its axes, much like a two-way concrete slab. It must be supported
by columns that are spaced more or less equally in both directions.

Arches - steel arches, produced by bending standard wide-flange

shapes or by joining plates and angles, can be made into cylindrical
roof vaults or circular domes of considerable span.
CLADDING
Cladding - an all-encompassing term for the external skin of a
building which keeps out the weather and provides the building's
aesthetic effect. It is also used to provide a protective finishing layer
on top of the insulation layer.
Materials Used
● Copper and lead sheeting may be used for cladding but are
expensive and hence only used to a limited extent where
required for appearance on prestige buildings.
● Precast concrete can be used to produce load bearing
cladding panels but they are normally non-load bearing.
● Panel-to-panel joints are either weather sealed with single or
double wet-applied seals or left open (but baffled to prevent
direct water ingress).
● Concrete panels/units can be produced with a variety of
smooth and coarse finishes or faced with factory-set natural
stone, clay brick or tiling systems. They can also be made
from carefully selected materials to give the appearance of
stone.
Precast Concrete Cladding System Come in 3 Forms:
1. Small units supported on brackets and used to fill gaps
between conventional glazing systems.
2. Larger mullion and spandrel units which 'cloak' the structural
frame members, often to form a window opening within each
bay.
3. Full bay-width, storey-height panels with cast ('punched')
window openings. Panels are of a sufficient size and stiffness
to be able to span horizontally or vertically between structural
frame members without requiring any intermediate support.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Apart from providing the external appearance of the building, the main
function of cladding is to protect the structure from the weather,
particularly rain. This may be achieved in one of three ways as
follows:
1. Porous Materials - Porous materials such as brickwork
absorb water during rain and subsequently dry out. If the wall
is of sufficient thickness and the permeability is reasonably low
water will not penetrate during a rainstorm.
2. Sealed Construction - Impermeable cladding materials will
only permit the passage of water at joints. Sealing the joints
with gaskets or wet applied sealants provides a continuous
impermeable layer.
3. Rain Screen - As its name suggests, the purpose of the outer
rainscreen panels is to shield the wall from direct rain. The
joints between the panels may allow some water to penetrate
but an air gap and airtight backing wall behind the panels
combine to limit this penetration.
Main Cladding Types:
1. Profiled Metal Systems - has traditionally been considered as
a relatively cheap form of cladding for agricultural and
industrial buildings.
2. Curtain Walling
CURTAIN WALL SYSTEM
Curtain Wall System - is a lightweight exterior cladding which is hung
on the building structure, usually from floor to floor. It is a form of
vertical building enclosure which supports no load other than its own
weight that of ancillary components and the environmental forces
which act upon it.
- Conventionally, the perimeter walls of a structure support the
vertical loads of a building. Conversely, a curtain wall cladding
system is a continuous vertical "curtain" of glass or stone that
does not provide structural support, and is in fact itself
supported by imbeds or supports at the face of a concrete or
steel frame floor slab.
Materials Glass Replacement/Resealing - must be undertaken in a controlled
- Stone environment using the correct. All elements used in the construction
- Aluminum must be compatible with the silicone sealant.
- Marble
- Metal
- Composite Assemblies GEODESIC DOMES
- Lightweight Glass
Geodesic domes - are made up of a complex system of triangular
members and their connections, which work together transmitting
Description of Curtain Walling Types loads laterally to the foundation.
The classification of types of curtain walling varies but the following
terms are commonly used: Struts - are the force members in a geodesic dome that act in
- Stick compressive and tensile forces to resist loading.
- Unitised
- Panellised Pins - are used at vertices to hold the struts together. The pins must
- Spandrel panel ribbon glazing be able to resist the compressive forces transferred through the struts.
- Structural sealant glazing
- Structural glazing Uses of Geodesic Domes
- Since spherical shapes amplify light, as opposed to
Stick System Curtain Walling - is very common and versatile and rectangular ones which absorb, superior lighting distribution
can be used for anything from 'glass towers' tens of storeys high to makes a spherical shape perfect for a greenhouse. Other
single storey shop fronts. It is also suitable for irregular shaped common uses of geodesic domes include: CHURCHES,
buildings. GARAGES, OFFICE COMPLEXES, GYMNASIUMS,
Stick System Curtain Walling may be erected in one of the 3 AIRCRAFT HANGERS, BULK STORAGE AND CABINS.
sequences:
1. Mullions installed then transoms Limitations
2. Mullions and transoms installed sequentially - The main limitation of a geodesic dome is the somewhat odd
3. Ladder frames installed then intermediate transoms shape. The diameter and height of the sphere are completely
dependent upon each other. In order to reach an attainable
Lift Slab System height, the diameter must be sufficient.
- Developed to provide a fast and economical method for
multi-storey building construction. Typical Materials Sued
- Geodesic domes may be built with various construction
Glass Fins - may be used to brace the assembly. In some designs a materials. Many manufacturers offer complete kits for small
light truss stabilizes the wall and transfers wind loading, while the dome building, such as greenhouse and residential. Wood is
weight of the glass is transferred through the corner plates and typically used in these smaller structures. For massive domes,
suspension system. steel and concrete are used to increase the structural stability.
✦ Geodesic Dome - a spherical or partial-spherical shell structure or
lattice shell based on a network of great circles (geodesics) on the
surface of a sphere.
● The geodesics intersect to form triangular elements that have
local triangular rigidity and also distribute the stress across the
structure.
● The term "dome" refers to an enclosed structure and
should not be confused with non-enclosed geodesic
structures such as geodesic climbers found on
playgrounds.
History - The first dome that could be called "geodesic" in every
respect was designed just after World War I by Walther Bauersfeld,
chief engineer of the Carl Zeiss optical company.
● Wooden domes have a hole drilled in the width of a strut.
● A stainless steel band locks the strut's hole to a steel pipe.
With this method, the struts may be cut to the exact length
needed.
● Triangles of exterior plywood are then nailed to the struts. The
dome is wrapped from the bottom to the top with several
stapled layers of tar paper, in order to shed water, and finished
with shingles. This type of dome is often called a
hub-and-strut dome because of the use of steel hubs to tie
the struts together.
● Steel-framework domes can be easily constructed of
electrical conduit. One flattens the end of a strut and drills bolt
holes at the needed length.
● A single bolt secures a vertex of struts.
● The nuts are usually set with a removable locking compound,
or if the dome is portable, have a castle nut with a cotter pin.
This is the standard way to construct domes for jungle-gyms.
● Concrete and foam plastic domes generally start with a
steel framework dome, wrapped with chicken wire and wire
screen for reinforcement.
● The chicken wire and screen is tied to the framework with wire
ties. A coat of material is then sprayed or molded onto the
frame. Tests should be performed with small squares to
achieve the correct consistency of concrete or plastic.
Generally, several coats are necessary on the inside and
outside. The last step is to saturate concrete or polyester
domes with a thin layer of epoxy compound to shed water.
Advantages of Domes
● Provide an enclosed space free of structural supports.
● Solar heating is possible by placing an arc of windows across
the dome: the more heating needed, the wider the arc should
be, to encompass more of the year.
● The basic structure can be erected quickly from lightweight
pieces by a small crew.
When is a span, long span?
● It is when, as a consequence of the size of the span, technical
considerations are placed so high on the list of architectural
priorities that they significantly affect the aesthetic treatment of
the building.
✦ Concrete Domes - Because of this ability, compressive
form-active structures in reinforced concrete can be made very much
thinner than those in masonry. This allows greater efficiency, and
therefore greater spans, to be achieved because the principal load on
a dome or vault is the weight of the structure itself.
✦ Space Frame - A space frame or space structure is a trusslike,
lightweight rigid structure constructed from interlocking struts in a
geometric pattern.
● Steel frame usually refers to a building technique with a
"skeleton frame" of vertical steel columns and horizontal
 I-beams, constructed in a rectangular grid to support the
floors, roof and walls of a building which are all attached to the
frame. The development of this technique made the
construction of the skyscraper possible.
● A space frame is a three dimensional truss with linear
members that form a series of triangulated polyhedrons.
✦ Light Steel Framing - Thin sheets of galvanized steel can be
formed into steel studs used as a building material for rough-framing
in commercial or residential construction (pictured), and many other
applications. The dimension of the room is established with a
horizontal track that is anchored to the floor and ceiling to outline each
room. The vertical studs are arranged in the tracks, usually spaced
16" apart, and fastened at the top and bottom.
● The primary shapes used in residential construction are
the C-shape stud and the U Shaped track, and a variety of
other shapes. Framing members are generally produced in a
thickness of 12 to 25 gauge. The wall finish is anchored to the
two flange sides of the stud, which varies from 1/4" to 3" thick,
and the width of the web ranges from 1-5/8" to 14".
Rectangular sections are removed from the web to provide
access for electrical wiring.
✦ Truss - is a structure comprising one or more triangular units
constructed with straight members whose ends are connected at
joints referred to as nodes.
● External forces and reactions to those forces are considered to
act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members
which are either tensile or compressive forces. Moments
(torsional forces) are explicitly excluded because, and only
because, all the joints in a truss are treated as revolutes.
✦ Planar Truss - is one where all the members and nodes lie within
a two dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and nodes
extending into three dimensions.
✦ Space Frames Prime Attributes Include:
● Light weight
● Inherent Rigidity
● Wide variety of form, shape and span
● Compatible interaction with services, primarily HVAC
✦ Metal Space Frames - classified as noncombustible
construction, and can usually be exposed when 20 ft above the floor.
However, suppression or a rated ceiling assembly may be required.
✦ Space Frame Domes - Dome roof modules can be a single layer
lattice membrane, a double layer with deep diagonals, or a double
layer with vertical posts.
● Space frame domes are made of galvanized or plated steel,
stainless steel, or lightweight aluminum, and can be painted.
● Structural sections can be Cubes, I-beams, or even angle or
channel shapes.
✦ Fabric Structures
● There are two types of non pneumatic fabric structures:
1. One supports the fabric membrane with a rigid frame,
usually constructed of metal.
2. Second is a self-supporting fabric membrane kept in
tension with supporting structure of steel or concrete.
Fabric Structure Materials
● Membrane - is the principal structural component of a
self-supporting or tensioned fabric structure. Two materials are
generally used for membranes: polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
coated materials and fluorocarbon (Teflon) coated glass fiber
fabric.
● Fluorocarbon-coated Glass Fiber Fabric - is classified as a
noncombustible material. Besides its advantages in fire safety,
this fabric is extremely long lasting, self-cleaning, and
translucent, and is the acceptable material for most permanent
installations.
✦ Tensile Structure - is a construction of elements carrying only
tension and no compression or bending. The term tensile should not Types of Structure with Significant Tension Members
be confused with tensegrity, which is a structural form with both Linear structures
tension and compression elements. ● Suspension bridges
● Most tensile structures are supported by some form of ● Draped cables
compression or bending elements, such as masts (as in The ● Cable-stayed beams or trusses
O2' formerly the Millennium Dome), compression rings or ● Cable trusses
beams. ● Straight tensioned cables
● Tensile membrane structures are most often used as roofs
as they can economically and attractively span large Three-dimensional structures
distances. ● Bicycle wheel (can be used as a roof in a horizontal
orientation)
History ● 3D cable trusses
● Russian engineer Vladimir Shukhov was one of the first to ● Tensegrity structures
develop practical calculations of stresses and deformations of ● Tensairity structures
tensile structures, shells and membranes. Shukhov designed
eight tensile structures and thin-shell structures exhibition Surface-stressed structures
pavilions for the Nizhny Novgorod Fair of 1896, covering the ● Prestressed membranes
area of 27,000 square meters. A more recent large-scale use ● Pneumatically stressed membranes
of a membrane-covered tensile structure is the Sidney Myer
Music Bowl, constructed in 1958. ✦ Cable and Membrane Structures
● Antonio Gaudi used the concept in reverse to create a ✦ Membrane Materials
compression-only structure for the Colonia Guell Church. He ● Common materials for doubly-curved fabric structures are
created a hanging tensile model of the church to calculate the PTFE-coated fiberglass and PVC-coated polyester. These are
compression forces and to experimentally determine the woven materials with different strengths in different directions.
column and vauIt geometries. The warp fibers (those fibers which are originally
● The concept was later championed by German architect and straight—equivalent to the starting fibers on a loom) can carry
engineer Frei Otto, whose first use of the idea was in the greater load than the weft or fill fibers, which are woven
construction of the German pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal. between the warp fibers.
Otto next used the idea for the roof of the Olympic Stadium for ● Other structures make use of ETFE film, either as single layer
the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. or in cushion form (which can be inflated, to provide good
● Since the 1960s, tensile structures have been promoted by insulation properties or for aesthetic effect—as on the Allianz
designers and engineers such as Ove Arup, Buro Happold, Arena in Munich). ETFE cushions can also be etched with
Walter Bird of Birdair, Inc., Frei Otto, Eero Saarinen, Horst patterns in order to let different levels of light through when
Berger, Matthew Nowicki, Jorg Schlaich, the duo of Nicholas inflated to different levels. They are most often supported by a
Goldsmith & Todd Dalland at FTL Design & Engineering Studio structural frame as they cannot derive their strength from
and David Geiger. double curvature.

✦ Cables - can be of mild steel, high strength steel (drawn carbon
steel), stainless steel, polyester or aramid fibers.
Structural Cables - are made of a series of small strands twisted or
bound together to form a much larger cable.
Steel Cables - are either spiral strands, where circular rods are
twisted together and "glued" using a polymer, or locked coil strand,
where individual interlocking steel strands form the cable (often with a
spiral strand core).
Spiral Strand - slightly weaker than locked coil strand. Steel spiral
strand cables have a Young's modulus, E of 150±10 kN/mm2 (or
150±10 GPa) and come in sizes from 3 to 90 mm diameter. Spiral
strand suffers from construction stretch, where the strands compact
when the cable is loaded. This is normally removed by pre-stretching
the cable and cycling the load up and down to 45% of the ultimate
tensile load.
Locked Coil Strand - strand typically has a Young's Modulus of
160±10 kN/mm2 and comes in sizes from 20 mm to 160 mm
diameter.
✦ Structural Forms
Air-supported Structures - are a form of tensile structures where the
fabric envelope is supported by pressurized air only.
● The majority of fabric structures derive their strength from their
doubly-curved shape. By forcing the fabric to take on
double-curvature the fabric gains sufficient stiffness to
withstand the loads it is subjected to (for example wind and
snow loads). In order to induce an adequately doubly curved
form it is most often necessary to pretension or prestress the
fabric or its supporting structure.
✦ Form-finding - The behavior of structures which depend upon
prestress to attain their strength is non-linear, so anything other than
a very simple cable has, until the 1990s, been very difficult to design.
● The most common way to design doubly curved fabric
structures was to construct scale models of the final buildings
in order to understand their behavior and to conduct
form-finding exercises. Such scale models often employed
stocking material or tights, or soap film, as they behave in a
very similar way to structural fabrics (they cannot carry shear).
Soap Films - have uniform stress in every direction and require a
closed boundary to form. They naturally form a minimal surface—the
form with minimal area and embodying minimal energy. They are
however very difficult to measure. For large films the self-weight of the
film can seriously and adversely affect the form.
The final shape, or form, of a fabric structure depends upon:
● shape, or pattern, of the fabric
● the geometry of the supporting structure (such as masts,
cables, ring beams etc)
● the pretension applied to the fabric or its supporting structure
✦ Hyperbolic paraboloid
● It is important that the final form will not allow ponding of
water, as this can deform the membrane and lead to local
failure or progressive failure of the entire structure.
● Snow loading can be a serious problem for membrane
structure, as the snow often will not flow off the structure as
water will. For example, this has in the past caused the
(temporary) collapse of the Minnesota Metrodome, an
air-inflated structure. Some structures prone to ponding use
heating to melt snow which settles on them.
Saddle Shape
● The most basic doubly curved form is the saddle shape, which
can be a hyperbolic paraboloid (not all saddle shapes are
hyperbolic paraboloids).
 ● This is a double ruled surface and is often used in both
lightweight shell structures. True ruled surfaces are rarely
found in tensile structures. Other forms are anticlastic saddles,
various radial, conical tent forms and any combination of them.
✦ Pretension
Pretension - is tension artificially induced in the structural elements in
addition to any self weight or imposed loads they may carry. It is used
to ensure that the normally very flexible structural elements remain
stiff under all possible loads.
● A day to day example of pretension is a shelving unit
supported by wires running from floor to ceiling. The wires hold
the shelves in place because they are tensioned - if the wires
were slack the system would not work.
● Pretension can be applied to a membrane by stretching it from
its edges or by pre-tensioning cables which support it and
hence changing its shape. The level of pretension applied
determines the shape of a membrane structure.
✦ Tension / Tensile Structures Terminology
● Anchor Bolts - Threaded bolts used to fasten structural
members to masonry. Anchor bolts can be in the form of "J"
bolts or simply a threaded rod. If a threaded rod is used, there
will typically be a nut and a washer secured to the imbed
section of the bolt to help resist the possibilities of the bolt
being pulled from the concrete.
● Anisotropy - The feature of fabric wherein the physical
properties and behavior are not the same in all directions.
● Anticlastic - A surface with positive (Gaussian) curvature in
one principal direction and negative (Gaussian) curvature in
the other. A saddle shaped surface (potato chip).
● Base Fabric - The uncoated fabric, also known as greige
goods.
● Bias - Oriented at 45-degrees to the warp and fill directions of
the fabric.
● Biaxial - Taken along two concurrent orthogonal directions,
usually principal directions.
● Boss Plate - Doughnut-shaped plate attached to a cable ear
plate to reinforce the pinhole and allow a thinner plate.
● Butt Seam - Seam created when the two pieces being joined
are butted together and joined with a strip twice the width of
the seam.
● Catenary Cable - Steel cables that run through the pockets on
the perimeter of a tensile structure fabric. The shape of the
cable follows that of the pocket, which is typically curved with a
ratio of 1:10. The length of the cable is to be determined by the
engineer supplying the fabric patterning. The thickness of the
cable is to be determined by the engineer who is calculating
the reaction loads at the cable ends.
● Catenary Edge - Method of securing the edge of a panel with
a cable tensioned between two fixed points.
● Catenary Pocket (AKA "Banana Pocket") - This is the
pocket that is placed at the perimeter of the fabric cover to
secure the catenary cable. The pocket has a curve with a ratio
that is defined by the fabric patterning, but is typically close to
a 1:10 ratio. This means for every 10 feet of length, there will
be about a foot of bend to it. Due to the curvature of the
shape, the pocket is typically fabricated by sealing together
two halves of the pocket together with an overlap of 1" to 2" at
the outside edge of the pocket.
● Clevis - Device used with a cable stud end or a threaded rod
to form a pinned connection that is somewhat adjustable.
● Coating - A material applied to a fabric for waterproofing and
protection of the fabric yarns.
● Coating Adhesion - Strength of the bond between the
substrate of a fabric and the coating.
● Compensation - The operation of a shop fabricating a fabric
structure or pieces of the structure smaller in the unstressed
condition than the actual installed size, to account for the
stretch at pre-stress level.
● Crimp - The extent of deformation normal to the plane of the
fabric that the fill and warp yarns undergo as they are woven
together.
● Detension - Relieve the tension or stress in a membrane.
● Elongation - The change in lengths of a material sample;
normally this is associated with some load or force acting on
the sample. In fabric, this elongation does not normally refer to
true strain of the fiber elements as in the classical sense; but,
rather, normally refers to the "apparent" strain resulting from a
straightening out of the crimped yarns in the fabric matrix.
● Equilibrium Shape - The configuration that a tensioned fabric
surface assumes when boundary conditions, pre-stress level,
and pre-stress distribution are defined.
● Fabric - A woven or laid cloth made of yarns.
● Fabric Clamp - Device for clamping the edge of a fabric
panel, usually a bar or channel shape and made of aluminum
or steel.
● Fiber - The basic thread of the material from which the yarns
and fabrics are made.
● Fill Yarns - The shorter yarns of a fabric, which usually run at
right angles to the warp yarns. Also known as weft yarns.
● Flutter - Excessive, uncontrolled movement, usually caused
by the interaction between the structure and wind. This occurs
when the fabric lacks sufficient pre-stress.
● Footing - The large concrete anchoring structure that holds
the tension structure securely to the ground. The top of the
footing is typically flush with the ground level. The footing
consists of a matrix of steel rebar that is referred to as a cage.
The concrete is poured into the hole in the ground that holds
the cage. The anchor bolts get placed into the top of the
footing at their precise location as indicated in the shop
drawings. A certified engineer must calculate the size of the
footings. The size of the footing must contain enough weight to
hold down the tension structure for the wind loads in the area.
● Form Finding (AKA "Form Generation ") - The process of
determining the equilibrium shape of a fabric structure.
● Greige Goods - Uncoated fabric. Also known as the base
fabric.
● Guy Cable - This steel cable is used to support the structural
integrity of the steel frame. It may be attached at the ends of
the steel struts (or "arms") to hold them together and resist
them from movement relative to each other. Unlike catenary
cables, the lengths are calculated by a straight point-to-point
dimension. The engineer will need to determine the thickness
by calculating the maximum stress on the cable.
● Hysteresis - The failure of fabric to return to its original
geometry after the strain-inducing force has been removed.
● Keder - Brand name for the solid PVC cord used at a "rope
edge". Rope edges provide strength and a surface to evenly
distribute fabric tension forces.
● Lap Seam - Seam created when the two pieces being joined
are overlapped by the width of the seam.
● Light Transmission - A measure of the portion of light striking
a fabric surface that passes through the fabric and into the
space to provide daylighting.
● Mast - The principal upright in a tension structure.
● Membrane - The fabric panels used in tension structures.
● Membrane Plate - Metal plates attached to the membrane
corners used for securing the membrane to the frame.
● Modulus of Elasticity - The ratio of the change in stress to
the change in strain. Usually defined as a force per unit width
of a membrane material.
● Node Points - Intersecting points of the elements used to
define the fabric shape in the structural analysis; these are
normally given in terms of a three-dimensional coordinate
system.
● Patterning - The process of defining two-dimensional pieces
of fabric, which can be spliced together to form a desired
three-dimensional shape. M-PaneI is an add-on tool for
AutoCAD that has the ability to assist in the process of
patterning.
● Poisson's Ratio - The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal
strain; may take a wide range of values due to the deformation
characteristics of a woven material.
● Pre-stress - The stress state that exists in a fabric structure
when it is not acted upon by service loads; usually induced by
the boundary conditions of the fabric membrane.
● PTFE "Polytetrafluoroethylene" - commonly known by its
trademark name Teflon. This coating is applied to a fiberglass
scrim to produce a high strength tensile structure fabric
membrane with a life expectancy of thirty plus years. PTFE
may also be expanded and woven into a fabric that can be
coated with a fluoropolymer to create a high strength
architectural fabric.
● PVC "Polyvinyl chloride" - properly mixed with plasticizers
for flexibility and applied to a polyester scrim makes for a high
strength and popular tension structure fabric membrane. The
life expectancy and cost are proportionally lower than PTFE.
● Radius of Curvature - The inverse of the magnitude of
(Gaussian) curvature at a location on a membrane surface.
The magnitude is typically considered in two principal
directions. The orientation of the principal directions and their
magnitude may vary continuously over the surface.
● Rebar Cage - A reinforcing matrix of steel rods used to
strengthen concrete.
● Reinforcement - An additional layer of fabric placed in an
area of high stress to protect the main fabric.
● Roll Goods - Edge treatment in which the edge of the fabric is
folded over on itself and a rope or cord is incorporated in the
fold to increase the strength of the clamped fabric.
● Sectionalizing - Method of field joining large fabric panels
utilizing clamping hardware.
● Sleeve - A tube of fabric, which loosely contains a structural
element such as a cable, rod, etc.
● Spelter - Type of cable fitting in which the strands of the cable
are opened inside the fitting and molten lead is poured into the
fitting to secure the cable.
● Stay Cable - A steel cable that is used to stabilize the mast in
response to the forces created by wind loads. The stay cables
are used to resist movement of the structure relative to the
earth. One end of the cable will typically connect to the end of
the steel frame near the fabric connection. The other end will
terminate to a sturdy section of the mast or a footing in the
ground.
● Swage - Type of cable fitting in which a sleeve fits over the
outside of the cable and the sleeve is compressed around the
cable to form a tight fit.
● Synclastic - A surface with positive (Gaussian) curvature in
both principal directions. A bubble shaped surface.
● Thimble - Device used in a simple cable loop end to secure
the cable and bear against the pin. Thimbles are usually used
with shackles.
● Top Finish (AKA "Topping") - An additional coating
sometimes used on fabric for greater protection against UV
degradation or for ease of cleaning purposes.
● Turnbuckle - Threaded device used with cables or rods to
allow adjustment.
● Ultraviolet (UV) Degradation - The deterioration of a fabric
under long-term exposure to sunlight. Using a top finish on the
fabric will help prevent the UV degradation.
● Uniaxial - Taken along one direction, usually a principal
direction.
● Warp Yarn - The long straight yarns in the long direction of a
piece of fabric.
● Weaving - The process of making a fabric from yarns passing
alternately over and under each other.
● Weft Yarn - The shorter yarns of a fabric, which usually run at
right angles to the warp yarns. Also called the fill yarns.
● Weldment - Connection component, usually steel, for the
attachment of cables and/or fabric. It may be free-floating or
connected to other membranes.
● Wicking - The conveying of liquid by capillary action along
and through the yarns of the base fabric.
● Wire Rope Clip - U-shaped bolt with a special insert,
specifically designed to clamp a wire rope to itself when
forming a loop end for temporary cables.
● Wrinkles - Furrows or ridges on the normally smooth surface
of a fabric structure, which are indicative of extreme
differences between the principal stresses typically resulting
from a lower stress perpendicular to the furrow.
● Yarn - A number of fibers grouped together to make a thicker
strand for weaving. They may be twisted together or parallel to
each other.