Chapter VI.

INFORMATION STRUCTURE AND PRAGMATICS

6.1. Introduction
*) Information structure: In linguistics, information structure, also called
information packaging, describes the way in which information is formally
packaged within a sentence. (Wikipedia)
*) Pragmatics: It is the study of how language is affected by the situation in
which it is used, of how language is used to get things or perform actions, and of
how words can express things that are different from what they appear to mean.
(Cambridge Dictionary)

6.2. Categories of information structure

6.2.1. Given information and new information

a) Given information:

- Information that the speaker assumes is already known to the listener based on
shared context, previous conversation, or general knowledge.

- Often appears at the beginning of a sentence.

b) New information:

- The crucial or novel information that the speaker wants to highlight about the
topic (given information).

- Receives the most emphasis and clarity in the sentence.

Ex:

David: Who raked all the leaves in the garden?

John: Kate raked all the leaves in the garden. (1)

Kate did it. (2)

 Kate did. (3)

Kate. (4)

New info Given info

6.2.1.1. Expressing new information

- It usually receive more stress than those carrying given information and are
commonly expressed in a more elaborate fashion.
+ With a full noun phrase instead of a pronoun
Ex: These new pink trainers are hers.
+ With a relative clause
Ex: The woman who lives next door is my daughter’s teacher.

6.2.1.2. Expressing given information

- Given information, in linguistics, refers to the knowledge or background
information that both the speaker and listener share in a communication
situation. It forms the foundation upon which new information is built and
helps shape the overall meaning of the message.
- Given information is commonly expressed in a more reduced or abbreviated
ways. Typical in reducing devices or encoding given information include pronoun
and unstressed noun phrase.

Ex:

This book is fascinating.

Given information

This book is fascinating, full of historical secrets.

New information
6.2.2. Topics
- The topic of a sentence is its centre of attention – what the sentence is about, its
point of departure.
Ex:

6.2.3. Contrast
- A noun phrase is said to be contrastive when it occur in oppositions to another
noun phrase in the discourse
Ex:
David: Did you rake all the leaves in the garden?
John: No, Kate did.
 John was not the one who raked the leaves in the garden, in contrast, Kate
did it.

6.2.4. Referential expressions

- In language, referential expressions are the words or phrases we use to identify or
pick out something specific. They act like little name tags, helping us point to and
talk about particular entities in the world. They come in various forms, all serving
 the same fundamental purpose: to establish a connection between the speaker and
the listener about what they're talking about.
Ex: Eiffel Tower is the most popular destination when travelling to Paris, France.
- A noun phrase may be generic or specific depending on whether it refers to a
category or to a particular members of a category

+ Generic Noun Phrases:

 These capture a whole category or kind of thing, devoid of individual details. They
often refer to universal concepts or abstract ideas.

Ex: flowers

+ Specific Noun Phrases:

 These pinpoint a particular instance or individual within a category, often adding

details to distinguish it from its broader group.

Ex: the sunflowers in my garden

6.2.6. Categories of information structure

- Information structure is not marked solely on noun phrase. Verbs and
prepositions can represent given or new information and can also be contrastive.
Ex: The cat is in the garden, not on the sofa!

6.3. Information structure: intonation, syntax

6.3.1. New-information stress
- Intonation is an important device for marking information in a sentence.
- New-information stress is applied to noun phrases that indicate new information,
making them sound somewhat higher than the remainder of the sentence and
receiving more stress than those that reflect given knowledge.
 Ex:

David: Who raked all the leaves in the garden?

John: Kate↗ raked all the leaves in the garden.

6.3.2. Fronting
- Fronting, in linguistics, refers to the phenomenon where an element typically
expected to appear later in a sentence is instead moved to the beginning.
Ex:
I chose her (1)
Given info New info

 Her, I chose. (2)

New info Given info

6.3.3. Left-dislocation
- Left-dislocation refers to a construction where an element, typically a noun
phrase, is moved from its expected position within the sentence to the beginning
and then referred back to by a pronoun or other pro-form later in the sentence.
Ex:
The book, I haven’t finished reading. -> fronting

The book, I haven't finished reading it yet. -> left-dislocation

6.3.4. It cleft and WH cleft

a) It cleft

 Use the pronoun "it" to introduce the emphasized element, followed by the verb "to
be" and then the element itself.
 Often used to emphasize the subject.
 Ex: It was John who ate the cake.

b) WH-clefts:

 Start with a WH-question word like "what," "who," "why," or "where," followed
by the verb "to be" and then the emphasized element.
 Can emphasize any constituent (subject, object, adverbial phrase).

Ex:

What I want is a cup of coffee.

6.3.5. Passives

(1) Active Voice:

Ex: John built the house. (John, the doer, is the subject.)

(2) Agent Passive:

Ex: The house was built by John. (House, the recipient, is the subject; John, the
doer, is the agent.)

(3) Agentless Passive:

Ex: The house was built. (House, the recipient, is still the subject; the agent is
missing.)

6.4. The relationship of sentences to discourse: pragmatics

- Pragmatics and discourse are interrelated disciplines that are concerned with
language use.
a) Pragmatic:
+ focuses on the study of utterances
+ provides valuable tools for analyzing discourse, particularly in the study of
im/politeness and the dynamic interaction among different levels of discourse.
b) Discourse:
+ goes beyond the utterance to examine what is happening in the larger context.
+ offers insights into the structure and patterns of discourse, including the
linearization of discourse units and the overall organization of discourse as a
whole.
 The relationship between pragmatics and discourse is one of mutual
influence and complementarity, with each discipline contributing to a
comprehensive understanding of language use in different contexts.
SEMANTIC INFO -> SYNTAX <- PRAGMATIC INFO