Biology 11 Notes

Contents
Transport; Excretion; Homeostasis

The Endocrine system; Responses
The Nervous system; Skeletal & Muscular systems
Growth &Development
To see a World in a Grain of Sand and a Heaven in a Wild Flower, Hold infinity in the
palm of your hand And Eternity in an hour. – William Blake
Starlight fades in light years. Children of light we are. – Manyepa S Siazibulo
Copyright 2018 For the love of science, we do these things. Factor non verba, our way of life
Plants have transport systems to move food, water and minerals around.
These systems use continuous tubes called xylem and phloem:
Xylem – long hollow tube stretching from the root to the leaf and made up of many dead cells
conducts water and dissolved mineral salts from the roots to the stems and leaves
provide mechanical support for the plant
Inner walls of the xylem vessels are strengthened by deposits of a substance called lignin – deposited in
the form of rings or spirals
Phloem – consists mainly of sieve tubes and companion cells
conducts manufactured food (sucrose & other organic nutrients e.g amino acids) from
the green parts of the plant to other parts of the plant
Sieve tubes have degenerated protoplasm that is connected between sieve tube cells which are kept
alive by companion cells.
Development of Vascular Tissue

Xylem and Phloem tissues are built up from newly formed cells, which elongate behind meristems
( Regions of dividing cells in growing areas of the plant, e.g. root and shoot tips).
Created by Siazibulo Manyepa S Biology 5090 ©2018
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Water and Ion Uptake
i. The absorption of water occurs mainly through root hairs.
ii. Root hairs only exist in the root hair zone immediately behind the root cap.
iii. As the root grows, new root hairs are produced. Old root hairs degenerate and die. Absorption of water
and mineral salts occur in new areas of the root.
iv. Each root hair is a projection of an epidermal cell, which will live for only a few days.
v. Root hairs are adapted for the absorption of water and minerals because
the total surface area for absorption is large and there are a large number of root hairs each of which is
long, fine and narrow;
the cell sap is more concentrated than the soil water; and
since root hairs are living; they can respire and provide the energy for active transport.
vi. Ions uptake occurs mainly by active transport
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Root Hairs
Water from the soil may pass across via the
following pathways (See fig 8.9):
A. via the intercellular space between cells (not
shown)
B. via the cell walls of adjacent cells
C. via the vacuoles, cytoplasm and walls of
adjacent cell
Functions of root hair cells
Increase the external surface area of the
root for absorption of water and mineral
ions (the hair increases the surface area of
the cell to make it more efficient in
absorbing materials).
Provide anchorage for the plant
Active transport for ion uptake in roots

The process in which energy is expended in moving a substance through a membrane against its
concentration gradient
The source of Energy may be the high-energy molecule ATP
The Xylem and phloem is continuous from roots up to the stem and leaves.
Some of the epidermal cells of the root become hairs by forming extensions that grow among the soil
particles. Root hairs anchor the plant in the soil and increase the surface for absorption of water and
minerals. It's important that root hairs form in the zone of maturation rather than in the zone of
elongation. If root hairs would be made in the elongation zone, where the cells are pushing through the
soil, the delicate extensions growing out sideways between soils particles would be pulled off.
The root cap (calyptra) protects the growing root. It wears off at the outside but is constantly repaired
from the inside. The outer cells let go and serve as a gliding powder
Transpiration and Translocation
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the internal tissues of living plants through the lenticels
and stomata.
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Water evaporates from cells surrounding the intercellular spaces.
Water vapour collects in the intercellular spaces before they escape into the atmosphere, through the
stomata and lenticels.
Factors which affect transpiration:

Light intensity – transpiration is greater in light than in darkness
Atmospheric pressure – as temperature increases, the rate of transpiration also increases
Humidity of the atmosphere – transpiration is low when the level of humidity is high
Movement of water through the stem

water enters the root from the soil via osmosis
as water pressure in the cells of the cortex increases, water is forced to enter the xylem tissues
of the root
continual movement of water into the root causes the water to rise up the xylem tissues into the
stem – root pressure
water rise up the xylem vessels due to capillary action
transpiration pull is the main force that draws water and minerals up the plant
water from the xylem vessels will leave the vessels for the mesophyll cells
Translocation
Translocation is the movement of dissolved substances (plant made material-called sap) through the
vascular tissues (phloem) of plants. The plant made materials translocated in the phloem are called
sap. Sap translocated from the site of synthesis in the leaves or the site of absorption in the roots to
other parts of the plant which need them.
Sap moves in either direction
within the phloem sieve tubes.
Phloem cells must be alive for
translocation to occur.
Translocation may be due to:
a) High turgor pressure in

leaves forcing sap through the
phloem elements towards the
roots where the turgor pressure is
lower.
b) The sucrose enters the

phloem by ACTIVE
TRANSPORT. (= the process in
which energy is expended in
moving a substance against its
conc. gradient. e.g. Na/K pump).
The companion cells aid in the
phloem load and offload-they are
rich with mitochondria. The site of the synthesis is called the source and the site where the sap is
deposited is called the sink.
c). Sap flows along the strands of cytoplasm from one element to the next.
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Factors which affect the rate of
transpiration
a) Temperature.
- An increase in temperature
increases the capacity of the air for
water vapour. Transpiration will
therefore increase.
- If the leaf becomes warm,
evaporation from it occurs more
rapidly.
b) Humidity.
- Since in humid conditions, the
atmospheric air is saturated with
water vapour, little more can be
absorbed from the plants:
transpiration will be reduced.
- In a dry atmosphere, transpiration
will be fast.
c) Light intensity.
Direct sunlight without a warm
atmosphere will increase transpiration
since the leaves absorb solar energy
and their temp. rises. This causes
problems in winter on a sunny cold
day: the soil is frozen so no water can
be absorbed.
d) Wind.
- No wind: around the leaf, the air will be saturated with water vapour ---> transpiration is reduced.
- Wind: the water vapour will be taken away from the leaf and transpiration increases.
Adaptations of plants to control transpiration
a) Leaf fall.
Deciduous trees shed their leaves in autumn. Otherwise, transpiration would still take place, and little or
no water can be taken up from the cold or frozen soil.
b) Leaf shape.
Pine needles will transpire less than the broad, flat deciduous leaves.
Waxy cuticles and the stomata sunk below the epidermis level reduce transpiration (found on plants
which grow in cold or dry conditions).
Evergreen plants will have one or more of these leaf characteristics.
c) Stomata.
Can close to prevent further transpiration. However, it is not proven yet that a high rate of evaporation
results in the closing of the stomata. This only happens in extreme conditions.
If the loss of water exceeds the uptake of water, the plants wilt, the cells of the leaves become flaccid
(flabby) and the stomata close to prevent further evaporation.
Sometimes water is lost by transpiration faster than the xylem can replace it.
When the water-potential in the leaves becomes too low, the hormone ABSCISIC ACID is quickly
synthesized. This hormone causes the guard cells to lose their turgor and the stomata close until the
delivery of water through the xylem catches up with the needs of the leaves.
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d) Wilting.
When plants are exposed to conditions in which they lose water to the atmosphere faster than it can be
obtained from the soil, water is lost from the vacuoles. The pressure in the vacuoles drops and they no
longer push out against the cell wall. The cells become flaccid. A plant structure made up of such cells
would be weak and flabby. The stem would droop and the leaves would be limp. The plant is wilting.
Involves he transportation of materials in, out and around the body
Note that transport of materials is through circulatory systems. Transport of materials can also be
studied across the cell membrane.
The open circulatory system

The open circulatory system is one in which the blood of the animal is not contained in vessels.
Therefore, tissue is bathed by in blood and transportation occurs as the blood moves from one part of
the body to the other. It present in arthropods. Not proper heart is involved (blood movement is aided by
muscular contractions). Insect blood is called haemolymph contained in body spaces (sinuses).
Haemolymp carries gases, nutrients and waste products to and from tissue.
The closed circulatory system

The blood of the animal is contained in blood vessels e.g. in earth worms, fish, humans etc.
Blood circulation in bony fish said to be a single circulatory system because the blood passes once
through the heart then it goes to the gills for gaseous exchange then to tissue then back to the heart.
Fish have simple hearts.
Mammals have a double circulatory system because the blood passes twice through the heart. It
flows to the heart then to the lungs and back to the heart then to tissue cells then back.
The Human Circulatory System

Composed of the blood, heart and blood vessels
1. Composition of Blood
Blood consists of the following:
Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)
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o
Minute, circular, biconcave and do not have a nucleus.
o
Their shape increases the surface area, allowing efficient diffusion of gases across the surface.
o
Can change their shape as they squeeze through the narrow blood capillaries
o
Haemoglobin in the cytoplasm readily forms oxyhaemoglobin with oxygen and readily releases
oxygen in regions of low oxygen concentration.
o Produced in the bone marrow
o Have a life-span of 120 days.
o Are destroyed in the spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow and liver
White blood cells
 Larger than red blood cells but fewer in number
 All have nuclei.
 All can move by a crawling movement, enabling them to squeeze out of the capillaries into the
tissues.
 Short life-span of between two to three days
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
 Irregularly shaped and are about one-quarter the size of red blood
cells
 Cell fragments enclosed by a membrane
 Are formed from special bone marrow cells
 No nucleus.
 Life-span of between five to nine days
Plasma
Yellowish-liquid containing
90% water
Soluble proteins: fibrinogen, prothrombin, antibodies.
Dissolved mineral salts as ions: potassium, sodium and calcium.
Variables: products of digestion, vitamins, excretory products, hormones.
Functions Of Blood
1. For Transport
 Oxygen – from the lungs to the tissues as oxy-haemoglobin
 Carbon dioxide – from the tissues to the lungs and is mainly carried in the plasma as the
hydrogen carbonate ion.
 Digested food and minerals salts – from the digestive tract (small intestine) to the liver where
amino acids and sugar levels are balanced and then these are released into general circulation.
 Excretory waste products such as urea – from the tissues to the lungs, skin and kidneys, and
toxic wastes is carried in the plasma
 Hormones – from the endocrine glands in the blood plasma to the parts of the body which
require them.
 Heat produced by the liver, muscles and various organs is carried around the body.
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Transportation of gases;
a. Transportation of oxygen
Transported as oxy-haemoglobin, a complex and unstable compound which breakdown to
release oxygen in tissue region of low oxygen concentration
Haemoglobin (Hb) + 8O2 HbO8 (the diffusion is reversible)
Deoxygenated blood is dark red due to the iron in Hb having an oxidation state of Fe3+
b. Transport of carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is also known as carbon (iv) oxide.
i. As bicarbonate ion
carbonic anhydrase
H2O + CO2 H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
The carbonic acid exists in its dissociation form (as ions) therefore CO2 is transported as
3- 3-
HCO ions (H2CO3 HCO + H+)
ii. As carbamino haemoglobin; the carbon dioxide reacts with amino acids in haemoglobin
to form carbamino haemoglobin.
Both bicarbonate ions and carbamino haemoglobin are unstable association which breakdown in
regions of low CO2 regions (the lungs).
2.For protection
Clotting
Brought about by a series of reactions

Platelets and damaged blood vessels at the
wound release an enzyme (thrombokinase) which
results in the production of thrombin.
Thrombin acts on the plasma protein – fibrinogen. Calcium
is involved.
Fibrinogen is converted into fibrin which
forms a network of fibres like sieve.
These become clogged with red blood cells.
Stops further blood loss and stop harmful
germs entering the body.
 Plasma proteins involved in clotting are
called Serum
 Clotting prevents further loss of blood,
prevents inversion by pathogens,
maintains blood pressure and
promotes wound healing.
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3.For immunity
Removal of pathogens and dead cells by phagocytosis
Bacteria and various foreign bodies are ingested by the white blood cells.
production of antibodies
By white blood cells when they sense the presence of foreign bodies
Antibodies could neutralise the poisonous effect of toxins in the blood, kill the bacteria or cause the
bacteria to clump together, making it easier for them to
be ingested.
Antibodies persisting in the body after a person
has recovered from an infection make that person
immune to the pathogen.
Production of antibodies and tissue
rejection
To reduce tissue rejection during organ transplant.
Match the tissue of the donor with that of the
recipient as closely as possible
Use drugs to inhibit the activity of the immune
system of the recipient.
Expose bone marrow and lymph tissues of the
recipient to x-ray radiation, to inhibit production of
white blood cells, hence slowing down the rejection
process
Human blood groups

People have different bl.gr. because their DNA (genes) code for different blood-proteins. These
proteins act as identity proteins on cell membrane surfaces and are called antigens. Antigens
are present even in bacteria and protozoa and are unique to each species.
Blood groups are thus grouped according to the antigens present.
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The most famous blood-proteins (antigens) are those of the A, B, O and Rh series, but there are
many others.
If blood with a different antigen is placed into a recipient, the recipient produces anibodies
(proteins) which will destroy or inactivate the foreign cells with the foreign antigen. It causes
agglutination (clotting) it e.g a group A recipient is given blood from a group B donor.
Blood group O does not have antigen A or B.
Blood with the Rhesus antigen is said to be positive and that without is said to be negative
e.g A+, A-, AB+, O- etc
The heart
 Muscular organ contained in a membrane sac called the pericardium. The sac produces fluid
which lubricates the heart movement. The heart is cautioned by fat.
 Heart tissue is called cardiac muscle - it does not easily stress.
 Is really 2 pumps joined side by side. Each pump is made of a thin-walled atrium, which receives
blood from veins and which pumps it into the adjoining ventricle, and a thick-walled ventricle,
which pumps blood into arteries.
 Right side of the heart receives blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs.
 Left side of the heart receives blood returning from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the body.
 The heart is made up of special involuntary muscles, the cardiac muscles. Its size is about the
size of your own fist.
 The heart beats continuously throughout an animal's life. A normal heart beat is about 70- 80
beats/min. It can however increase up to 160 beats/min, if you're running, sporting...
 When the muscles relax, blood flows into both the right and left atrium from the venae cavae
(singular-vena cava) and pulmonary vein respectively.
 Then blood flows down into the ventricles (it passes valves) When the ventricles are full of blood,
the heart muscles contract and blood is pushed into the pulmonary artery and the aorta. Then
the muscles relax to start a new cycle.
 In the heart, many valves prevent the back-flow of blood.
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Myogenic nature of the heart
Refers to the heat‘s ability to generate its
own heart-beat, the two regions in the
heart responsible are the;
i. Sino-Atria node – the SA-node is
located in the septum region of the right
atrium. It generates the heat-beat which
results into contraction of atria (atria-
systole).
ii. Atria-Ventricular node – the AV-
node located in the septum region and
between the right atria and right ventricle. It
delays the impulse generated by the SA-
node and this results into contraction of the
ventricles (ventricular-systole)
Heart-beat rate however is controlled the nervous system. The period between the heartbeats is
called systole (heart muscle relax this time to allow in flow).
Pulse
Pulse is the wave of pressure in the arteries created by heart-beat.
A pulse-point is a site on the surface of the body where you can feel blood pumping through the
Arteries E.g. wrist, neck, ankle
Effect of physical activity

Running, heavy exercises make the muscles scream
for more oxygen as to burn more glucose to get
enough energy. Consequently, more blood will flow to
the heart, muscles and trunk. The heart beat and the
pulse rate will increase.
Coronary circuit
- Is much smaller, but no less important.
- Serves the heart itself.
- 2 coronary arteries branch from the aorta near its
base and circle the heart. From them branch many
smaller arteries which go into the walls of ventricles
and auricles (= Atria) where they divide up into
capillary complexes. These complexes come
together to form veins from which most of the blood reaches the right auricle; it mixes with the
venous blood from the venae cavae and it goes to the lungs for oxygen-uptake and carbon dioxide-
waste
Coronary heart disease

i. Arteriosclerosis is a condition in which arterial walls become hard — less blood passed
through the hardened arteries as the walls thicken and the lumen narrows.
ii. Antherosclerosis — a form of arteriosclerosis that is caused by the deposition of fatty masses
especially cholesterol on the walls of the arteries. This restricts the flow of blood as well as
increases the risk of blood clot being trapped in it.
iii. Foods high in saturated fats may cause the build up of more cholesterol – increasing the
chance of developing antherosclerosis
iv. Coronary heart diseases occur when the coronary arteries become clogged. One of the
heart's arteries may become blocked by:
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1. A thrombus = blood clot formed in the vessel itself.
2. An embolus = blood clot formed in another vessel and carried with the blood to the heart.
A heart attack (cardiac arrest) can occur if the heart muscle does not receive enough blood and that part
of the heart muscle may die (stop contracting). It‘s fatal.
Smokers have a high risk of dying from heart disease
as nicotine causes the heart to beat faster and
increases blood pressure while carbon monoxide
decreases oxygen supply to the blood.
Coronary heart disease can be prevented by
 Regular exercise;
 Healthy eating habits;
 Reduce or avoid stress; and
 Stop smoking
Main blood vessels in the mammalian body
o Vena cava:
Superior: from head to heart
Inferior: from body to heart
o Pulmonary artery: from heart to lungs
o Pulmonary vein: from lungs to heart
o Aorta: from heart to body (heart, head, digestive system,
kidneys ...). The aorta branches out near its base.
o Hepatic portal vein: takes blood from the ileum to the liver; it
carries plenty food nutrients absorbed by the villi of the ileum.
o Renal artery: carries blood from the aorta to the kidneys
o Renal vein: takes purified blood back to the heart via the
venae cavae.
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The capillaries are a site of material exchange. They have pores through which plasma sips out at high
pressure from the arterioles. They form a network in tissue cells.
Note that plasma is called tissue fluid (or
interstitial fluid) when it‘s within tissues cell and it is
called plasma when it flows back and called lymph
when I flows into lymph vessels.
Lack of sufficient blood proteins (lack of protein in
diet) leads to the inability of tissue fluid to flow back
into capillaries causing accumulation of tissue fluid
(swelling) especially in limbs (also a sign of
kwashiorkor) – no osmotic pressure.
Question; list 3 adaptation of each of the blood vessels
Other circulatory diseases

b) Atherosclerosis.
The artery walls become thickened and the passageway for blood gets narrowed, by the growth of
cells and deposits of lipids and other materials.
c) Stroke.
Occurs when the blood supply to some part of the brain is damaged.
The brain cells deprived of blood get no more oxygen and can die.
It can result from a blood clot or from the rupture of a weak blood
vessel. Its severity depends on what part of the brain is affected.
Causes:
Diet (too much fat, salt…)
Drinking alcohol in big quantities
Smoking
Stress combined with a sitting life (at a desk)
The lymphatic system

This is one way transport system of blind ended vessels which collects and transports excess tissue
fluid back to the heart.
Characteristics of lymph vessels;
i. They have valves
ii. End in blind lymph-capillaries
Functions of the lymphatic system;
i. Produce lymphocytes in organs called lymph nodes.
ii. Absorb and carry
end products of lipid
digestion in the gut via the
lacteal
iii. Collect excess
tissue fluid
Lymph is deposited into

the venae cavae to join the
blood stream.
Inversion by pathogens
(e.g via a cut) cause the
lymph nodes to produce a
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lot of lymphocytes and this process causes them to swell and pain is experienced.
Posistion of lympnodes is in the neck on both sides of the trachea, in the armpits and in the crooks
between the pubic area and each leg.
Excretion
This is the process by which metabolic wastes are removed from the body (either plant or animal). The
wastes maybe harmful if let to accumulate or they may not be harmful at all.
In Plants
Plants excrete gases (CO2 – in light and O2 –in the dark) via leaves (stomata) and stems (lenticels).
Some plant excretory products are of economic importance e.g. rubber, gums, tannins, oils and papain.
Rubber – excreted via the bark. Is used to make rubber products
Gum – excreted via the bark. Used in the food industry to thicken food e.g. ice cream.
Tannins – found in stems, leaves and leaves. Used in tanning leather (hides) and ink making industry for
making ink.
Papain – an enzyme used in the food industry to make meat tender
Oils – mainly deposited in seeds and fruits. Used to make soap and cooking oil.
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The main nitrogenous wastes produced by plants are called alkaloids. They do not harm the plant in any
way but can be fatal if eaten by animals. Examples of alkaloids are khat (miraa), nicotine, caffeine,
quinine, cocaine, and cannabis.
Excretory organs in plants are flowers, fruits, leaves, barks and roots. Excretory products mainly colour
flower petals. Leaf and petal fall, seed dispersal and fruit dispersal are some ways alkaloids are
removed.
In Animals
 Excretion is the process by which metabolic waste products and toxic materials are removed
from an organism‘s body.
 Main organs of excretion;
 Lungs – remove carbon dioxide, some water and heat
 Kidneys – remove nitrogenous wastes from the blood such as urea and water
 Liver – deaminates and detoxifies nitrogenous wastes as well as breaks down haemoglobin into
bile salts, excreted via the duodenum
 Skin – removes some urea and other salts in the sweat; gives off heat and water
Major excretory products in animals;
- Nitrogenous compounds from the breakdown of excess amino acids
- Carbon dioxide from cell respiration
- Bile pigments from the breakdown of haemoglobin of red blood cells
The chief wastes produced by the body are CO2 and H2O from the breakdown of organic molecules, and
nitrogenous wastes from breakdown of proteins.
 CO2 is excreted across the respiratory surfaces of the body.
Excretory organs (like kidneys) have TWO major functions:

• Removing nitrogenous wastes
• Regulating the body's salt and water contents.
 In addition, excretory organs control the body's content of substances like spices, drugs and
hormones, which occur in lesser amounts.
 Onions, garlic and some other spices have volatile components that leave the body through the
lungs. Other parts of the same spices
are excreted through the kidneys.
 Penicillin and other drugs are
removed from the system primarily via
the kidneys.
 Kidneys, liver and lungs carry
out detoxification, altering substances to
forms that are not poisonous to the
body.
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The figure on the right
shows how lungs carry out
excretion which was
covered under gaseous
exchange
The Kidneys:
 Fairly solid organs, oval in shape.
Are red-brown in a transparent membrane
Are attached to the back of the abdominal cavity.
Blood is supplied by the renal artery, and the renal vein takes the deoxygenated blood away to the
vena cava
The urinary system is made up of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra
Kidneys;
o Remove nitrogenous wastes from the blood such as urea and water
o Help to regulate the water content and the chemical composition of body fluids
o Blood entering the kidney is filtered – water and small solute molecules such as glucose, amino
acids, urea and mineral salts are forced out of the kidney tubules but red blood cells, platelets
and blood proteins are retained
o Most of the water is reabsorbed by osmosis while the solutes which are required by the body are
reabsorbed by the body via active transport
o Urine enters the ureters
o Urine is made up of water, mineral salts and waste substances such as urea
o Urine slowly flows from the ureters to the urinary bladder
o Walls of the urinary bladder expands as it fills with urine
o Muscle contraction will act on the bladder when the bladder wall is stretched to a certain point
o Urine from the urinary bladder flows into the urethra which leads to the outside of the body
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The Nephron
It‘s the functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron begins in the cortex, loops down into the medulla,
back into the cortex, and then goes down again through the medulla to the pelvis. In the pelvis, the
nephrons join up with the ureter.
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Ultra-filtration =
The filtration of blood under high pressure
in the malpighian body (bowman‘s capsule
+ glomerulus)
Blood is brought to the renal capsule
in a branch of the renal artery
(afferent artery). Small molecules,
including water and most of the
things dissolved in it, are squeezed
out of the blood into the renal
capsule to form the glomerulus
filtrate. The blood then flows away
via the efferent artery which is
narrower than the afferent artery.
There are thousands of renal
capsules (malpighian’s capsules) in
the cortex of each kidney. Each one
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is shaped like a cup. It has a tangle of blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, in the middle.
The blood vessels (afferent arteries) bringing blood to each glomerulus is quite wide, but
the one taking blood away (efferent arteries) are narrow. This means that the blood in the
glomerulus cannot get away easily. Quite a high pressure builds up, squeezing the blood in
the glomerulus against the capillary walls. This leads to ultra-filtration (filtration under
high pressure)
The blood vessel walls have small pores. So do the walls of the glomerular (bowman’s
capsule).
Any molecules small enough to go through these holes will be squeezed through, into the
space in the renal capsule. These include water, salt, glucose and urea. Most blood protein
molecules are too big, so they stay in the blood, along with the blood cells
Selective Re-Absorption
o The fluid in the renal capsule (glomerulus filtrate) is a solution of glucose, salts and
urea dissolved in water. Some of the substances in this fluid are needed by the body.
All of the glucose, some of the water and some of the salts need to be kept in the
blood.
o Wrapped around each kidney tubule are blood capillaries. Useful substances from
the fluid in the kidney tubule are reabsorbed, and pass back into the blood in these
capillaries.
o glucose is reabsorbed in the first convoluted tubule (proximal
convoluted tuble), salts are reabsorbed in the loop of henle and
water in the second convoluted tubule (distal convoluted tubule)
o The remaining fluid continues on its way along the tubule. By the
time it gets to the collecting duct, it is mostly water, with urea
and salts dissolved in it. It is called urine. The kidneys are
extremely efficient at reabsorbing water. Over 99% of the water entering the
tubules is reabsorbed.
o The relative amount of water reabsorbed depends on the state of hydration of the
body (how much water is in the blood), and is controlled by secretion of the
hormone ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) produced by the hypothalamus.
On a hot day: we sweat more to cool down à the body needs to conserve water à
produce a small amount of concentrated urine.
On a cold day: little sweat is being produced à we tend to produce a larger volume
of dilute urine.
o Filtered blood returns to the vena cava (main vein) via a renal vein. The urine
formed in the kidney passes down a ureter into the bladder, where it is stored. A
sphincter muscle controls the release of urine through urethra.
o Surplus amino acids in the bloodstream cannot be stored. They are removed by the
liver and broken down into the urea (which is the nitrogen-containing part of the
amino acid) and a sugar residue, which can be respired to release energy. The
breakdown of amino acids is called deamination.
o Urea is returned to the bloodstream (into the hepatic vein) and filtered out when it
reaches the kidneys.
20
o The body treats alcohol as a poison. The liver removes poisons, such as alcohol and
drugs, from the blood and breaks them down. Prolonged and excessive use of
alcohol damages the liver and may cause it to fail. An overdose of drugs, such as
paracetamol, can result in death due to liver failure, because the liver cannot cope
with breaking down such a high concentration of the chemical.
o The liver also converts hormones into inactive compounds. These are filterd out of
the blood by the kidneys (they become part of urine).
Check!! Filtered nutrients are re-absorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule while essential ions in the
loop of henle and water are reabsorbed in the distal convoluted tubule.
The kidney machine

The usual treatment for a person with kidney failure is to have several sessions a week
using a dialysis unit (a kidney machine), to maintain the glucose and protein concentration
in blood diffusion of urea from blood to dialysis fluid
A patient with kidney failure needs to have toxic chemicals removed from the blood to stay
alive. Blood is removed from a vein in the arm, and is kept moving through dialysis tubing
in the dialysis machine using a pump. The tubing is very long to provide a large surface
area. The dialysis fluid has a composition similar to blood plasma, but with no urea or uric
acid. Urea or uric acid and excess mineral salts are removed from the blood, by diffusion,
into the dialysis fluid. The cleaned blood is then passed through a bubble trap to remove
any air bubbles, before being returned to the patient’s vein.
Advantages and disadvantages of kidney transplants compared with dialysis.

Advantages
The patients can return to a normal lifestyle – dialysis may require a lengthy session in
hospital, 3 times a week, leaving the patient very tired after each session.
21
A dialysis machine will be available for other patients to use.
Dialysis machines are expensive to buy and maintain.
Disadvantages
Transplants require a suitable donor – with a good tissue match. The donor may be a
dead person, or a close living relative who is prepared to donate a healthy kidney (we can
survive with one kidney_.
The operation is very expensive.
There is a risk of rejection of the donate kidney – immunosuppressive drugs have to be
used.
Transplantation is not accepted by some religions
The maintenance of conditions inside the body within the narrow limits required for life. Homeostasis
literally means ―Staying the same ", which includes regulation of temperature, of pH, and of the
amounts and proportions of salts and water.
Homeostasis is very important:
• People change their diets during daytime. One meal may include a large amount of sugar, with
very little in the next meal. Yet, the amount of sugar in the blood is almost the same throughout the
day.
• During heavy exercise, large amounts of oxygen are needed and plenty carbon dioxide is
released, and yet the oxygen and carbon-dioxide levels in our blood do not vary greatly.
• The temperature outside the body can change greatly, but our internal temperature stays constant:
+/- 36.8 °C.
To control all this, many mechanisms have to be present. The nervous system and the endocrine
system are the two systems most directly responsible for this control.
Temperature regulation in man
Mammals have thermo-receptors consisting of free nerve endings. These are scattered over the surface
(skin) of the body. There are also internal thermo receptors that detect internal body temperature in the
hypothalamus of the brain.
Information from internal and external thermo-receptors is integrated in the hypothalamus to produce
appropriate behaviour (shivering, sweating...)
The optimum body temperature man is about 37oC (36.8OC)
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1. Temperature gets too high.
If the blood reaching the hypothalamus is a
fraction of a degree higher than normal, a
message (nerve impulse) will be sent to the
skin and the following will be the result:
• Vasodilatation: Arterioles will widen, so
more blood will flow near the surface. Heat
can be given off to the environment by
convection and radiation. High temperature
also causes the hair to relax and cause the
hairs to lie flat and more heat is lost this
way.
• Sweating: Nerve impulses will be sent, to
increase the rate of sweat production.
Sweat glands are found in the dermis of the
skin. A continuous layer of moisture will be
produced on the skin surface. Heat
absorbed by the sweat will be lost since the
sweat evaporates. Air movement over the skin helps in speeding up evaporation of sweat. In humid
weather conditions, the air contains so much water vapour, which sweat may not evaporate rapidly
enough. We get heat stagnation.
2. Temperature gets too low.

• Vasoconstriction: When the body is too
cool, nervous and hormonal signals constrict
the surface blood vessels and decrease the
blood flow to the skin, reducing heat loss.
When temperature is low, hair erector muscles
contract causing the hairs to stand erect and
this way it traps a layer of air which insulate the
skin from losing heat excessively.
• We cope with this difficulty by means of
counter-current-heat exchangers,
arrangements in which the blood vessels
entering and leaving the ear or leg run next to
each other.
The nervous system controls the degree of
constriction in veins.
• Shivering: spasmodic contractions of
muscles, which produce heat to help raise the body temp.
• Metabolism will increase: rate of chemical changes in the body is increased, particularly in the liver ---
> releases more heat.
NS for life
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The Skin
Forms the body‘s largest organ
Made up of tough, flexible layer
Functions:
protect the tissues from injury, sunlight, disease and loss of water
as a sense organ – detecting pressure, pain and changes in temperature
temperature regulation – maintaining a constant body temperature
Structure of the skin

Made up of two main layers
 epidermis (thinner, outer layer)
 dermis (thicker and more complex)
Epidermis
Made up of several layers – malpighian layer, granular layer and cornified layer
Malpighian layer
 lowest layer which is alive and growing
 contains the skin pigment melanine – gives the skin its colour; helps to protect the skin
from damage caused by the sun‘s ultra-violet light
Granular layer
 no blood vessels here to bring nutrients or carry away wastes
 this layer dies off giving rise to the cornified layer
Cornified layer
 topmost layer of the epidermis
 consists of flat, dead cells which are continuously flaking off
Dermis
 Has hair follicles – form a protective layer which is highly sensitive to physical changes
 Contains sebaceous glands – produce an oily liquid, sebum that lubricates the hair and
skin, and keeps the skin free of dust and bacteria
 Contains sweat glands – vital in regulation of temperature where water, salts and traces or
urea is secreted from the coiled swear glands
 Has blood capillaries for bringing food and oxygen to the growing skin and regulating heat
loss from the body
 Has nerve sensory cells – to detect touch, temperature, pain and pressure
 Beneath the dermis is a layer of subcutaneous fat that acts as an insulatory layer and also
as a source of stored food
Heat production and heat loss
Heat is produced as a result of metabolic activities such as tissue respiration as well as

eating hot food, exercising and radiation from the sun
Heat is lost;
 through your skin by radiation, convection and, to a limited extent, by conduction;
 by evaporation of sweat from the surface of your skin;
 in the faeces and urine; and in air that is exhaled
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Check!!
 The control of water levels mainly by kidneys is called osmoregulation and temperature control
by the skin is called thermoregulation.
 Animals that can maintain their body temperature within narrow limits are called homeotherms
(warm-blooded) and those whose body temperatures are easily affected by environmental
temperature changes are called poikilotherms (cold-blooded).
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Control of blood sugar
The control of glucose concentration in the blood is a very important part of homeostasis.
Two hormones insulin and glucagon) control blood glucose levels.
Both hormones are secreted by the pancreas and are transported to the liver in the bloodstream
When blood glucose levels get too high or too low, a person may:
- lose consciousness
- fall into a coma – die
 Too little glucose ---> Cells can not release enough energy they need. Brain cells are especially
dependent on glucose for respiration, and die quite quickly if they are deprived of it.
 Too much glucose in the blood ---> water moves out of cells and into the blood by osmosis --->
Cell has too little water to carry out normal metabolic process.
 The control of blood glucose concentration is carried out by the pancreas and the liver.
 Pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon: 2 hormones that work side-by-side.
Negative feedback in glucose regulation

 If glucose levels rise, the sensor will instruct an effector (the pancreas) to secret insulin --->
glucose levels drop below normal.
 If glucose levels drop, the sensor will instruct the pancreas to stop secreting insulin ---> glucose
levels rise.
 This is negative feedback – the change is fed back to the effector.
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A hormone is a chemical substance produced in minute quantities by an endocrine gland. Endocrine
glands are ductless glands which produce and release hormones directly into the blood.
Exocrine glands produce secretions which leave the glands through a duct to target organ(s) or cavities.
Hormone production must be balanced to ensure that the body functions normally. However, these
hormones are destroyed by the liver after it has completed its function and excreted by the kidneys.
Major endocrine glands. (Male left, female on the right.) 1.

Pineal gland 2. Pituitary gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Thymus 5.
Adrenal gland 6. Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testes
The endocrine system, which is found in vertebrates, is a

control system of ductless glands and single cells that secrete
chemical messengers called hormones. These hormones pass
directly from the glands into the body and are transmitted
through the blood or via diffusion, rather than being secreted
through tubes. The endocrine system provides a multitude of
functions, including influencing growth and development, mood,
metabolism, and sexual reproduction.
The endocrine system consists of three main components:
endocrine glands, hormones, and target cells.
In humans, there are eight main glands that generally are

considered part of the endocrine system: adrenal gland,
pituitary gland, hypothalamus, pancreas, thyroid gland,
pineal gland, parathyroid gland, and the reproductive glands, ovaries in women and testes in men. Other
organs of the body also produce and secrete hormones, but are generally not considered part of the
endocrine system; these include the heart, kidney, liver, thymus, skin, and placenta.
Because hormones function by binding to receptors, only cells having the appropriate receptor for a
hormone can respond to the message being carried by that hormone. Hormones can execute their effect
at minimum concentrations and their action is terminated either through degradation in the blood or by
endocytosis of the receptor-hormone complex. The rate of degradation in the blood refers to a
hormone's half life
Hormone action
Pineal gland
The pineal gland is located deep in the brain. It secretes melatonin, which is known as the "darkness
hormone" because it is secreted at night while we sleep. The body's circadian rhythm, or light-dark
cycles, are dependent on the levels of melatonin in the blood
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Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus, a cluster of neurons found in the brain, controls the body's homeostasis and
behavioral drives, such as thirst and food intake. The hypothalamus secretes trophic hormones that
control the release of other hormones in the pituitary gland, specifically in the anterior pituitary. The
trophic hormones released by the hypothalamus include:
o Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)
o Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH; dopamine)
o Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
o Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
o Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH; somatostatin)
o Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
o Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
Once released, these hormones, which are present in both males and females, travel to the pituitary
Pituitary Gland
Referred to as the master gland because it releases hormones that control other endocrine glands. The
pituitary is divided into parts.
Anterior Pituitary
The anterior pituitary is located in the brain and is part of the larger pituitary gland. It secretes six peptide
hormones (in both sexes), all of which are controlled by the trophic hormones of the hypothalamus.
 · Prolactin controls milk production in the breast
 · Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH; thyrotropin) acts on the thyroid gland as a trophic hormone
 · Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; corticotropin) targets the adrenal cortex and affects the
release of cortisol
 · Growth hormone (GH; somatotrophin) targets the liver, consequently affecting the release of
insulin-like growth factors (IGFs); also targets several other tissues
 · Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)- acts upon the endocrine cells of the gonads in both males
and females; also affects germ cells of the gonads
 · Luteinizing hormone (LH) acts upon the endocrine cells of the gonads in both males and
females; also affects germ cells of the gonads
Posterior Pituitary
The posterior pituitary is an extension of hypothalamic neurons and is part of the larger pituitary gland. It
does not make any hormones. Rather, it stores two peptide hormones;
 Arginine vasopressin (AVP; also called antidiuretic hormone, ADH) targets kidney to control
water balance in body
 Oxytocin (OT)- In females, acts on breast and uterus to affect milk ejection, smooth muscle
contractions during labor and delivery, may play a part in controlling maternal behavior; in males,
secreted from the testes and possibly other reproductive tissues, pulses of oxytocin release can
be detected during ejaculation
Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland, located in the neck, produces the thyroid hormones, which are amines consisting of
tyrosine (an amino acid) and iodine.
It also produces calcitonin, which is a peptide hormone. The thyroid hormones are not necessary for
survival in adults; however, they play a crucial role for the growth and development of children. All three
hormones are present in both sexes.
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Calcitonin (CT) targets bone and decreases plasma calcium levels by increasing bone formation;
plays larger role in lower animals
Thyroid hormones
i. Triiodothyronine (T3), a potent form of thyroid hormone, affects metabolism, growth and
development
ii. Thyroxine (T4) is a less active form of thyroid hormone that is converted into T3
Pancreas
The pancreas is a gland that secretes several peptide hormones. They target many tissues and affect
metabolism of glucose and other nutrients.
· Insulin decreases blood glucose levels, and is antagonistic to glucagon
· Glucagon increases blood glucose levels, and is antagonistic to insulin
· Pancreatic polypeptide is responsible for coordinating exocrine and islet enzyme release
Adrenal Gland
Adrenal Cortex
The adrenal cortex is the outer portion of the adrenal gland and it secretes steroids. It is made of three
layers and each layer produces hormone. the hormones produced are;
Aldosterone – help in metabolism
Cortisol – increases blod sugar levels
Androgens – part of sex hormones that affect sexual drive
Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla is the inner portion of the adrenal gland. It secretes hormones that target many
tissues and are involved in the fight or flight response, or the acute stress response, of the body. This
response takes over during short-term stress situations.
Epinephrine (E; also called adrenaline) increases heart rate and stroke volume, dilates the
pupils, constricts arterioles in the skin and gut while dilating arterioles in leg muscles, elevates
the blood sugar level, begins the breakdown of lipids in adipocytes, and exhibits a suppressive
effect on the immune system.
Norepinephrine (NE; also called noradrenaline) increases heart rate, releases energy from fat,
increases muscle readiness, and is recognized as playing a large role in attention and focus.
Changes in the NE system are implicated in depression. NE is also a neurotransmitter in the
brain.
Testes
The testes, or testicles, are the male gonads (reproductive organs) that play a crucial role in sexual
development, secondary sex characteristics, and sperm production. These glands (two testicles) are
located outside of the male body and are not fully developed until after puberty, which occurs in
adolescence.
Androgen , a steroid hormone that targets many tissues, plays primary role in sperm production
and development of secondary sexual characteristics.
Inhibin, a peptide hormone, inhibits the release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) from the
anterior pituitary.
29
Ovaries
The female reproductive organ is the ovary. Each female is born with two ovaries, although living with
one is possible and common. Each ovary fulfills two important functions: produce eggs and secrete
hormones. Females are born with all of their eggs, which mature during the period of puberty.
Estrogens and Progestone (P), steroid hormones that target many tissues, are involved in egg
production and secondary sexual characteristics.
Ovarian inhibin, a peptide hormone that inhibits follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), targets the
anterior pituitary.
Thymus gland
The thymus gland is the site for lymphocyte (white blood cell) production. It is an immune tissue located
in the chest of both sexes. Two peptide hormones are produced and secreted there, both which target
lymphocytes and aid in their development.
Thymosin
Thymopoietin
Contrast between the Nervous and Hormonal systems;
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Responses
a. A stimulus is anything in the internal or external environment that brings about a change in the
behavior of an organism, i.e, anything which about a reponse.
b. A response is a directed reaction to a specific stimulus or stimuli.
c. Irritation is the ability to perceive and respond appropriately to the changes in environment
(internal and external)
In Plants = Plants like animals, show irritability and there is co-

ordination in all the activities in them. They respond to stimuli
by either growing towards (positive) or away (negative).
Plant responses are called tropisms (growth movement of the

plant or plant organ towards or away from stimuli)
Unidirectional stimuli response = response in plants coming

from one direction.
Non-directional stimuli response = also called a nastic

response (nastism). Plant responses to multiple stimuli
Auxins are mostly made in the tips of the shoots and roots,
and can diffuse to other parts of the shoots or roots. It collects
in the shady side of the shoot, making the side grow faster so the shoot bends towards the light. Auxins
are used as selective weedkillers.
Types of tropisms
i. Phototropism = response to light (positive or negative phototropism). Shoots are positively

phototropic.
31
ii. Geotropism = response to gravity. Also called gravitropism. Roots are positively geotropic and
shoots are negative.
iii. Chemotropism = response to chemicals e.g. fertilizers
iv. Hydrotropism = response to water. Roots are positively hydrotropic.
v. Thigmotropism = also called haptotropism. Response to touch. Its present in climbing plants like
the bean plant family.
In Animals = Responses in animals are referred to as tactic responses. They are rapid and form the
behavior in response to specific stimuli. Taxism is either positive or negative and aids an animal to adapt
and survive in its environment.
i. Phototaxism = response to light. E.g. Cockroaches are negatively phototaxic.

ii. Chemotaxism = response to chemicals. E.g. Spermatozoa respond to malic acid produced by the
ovum and swim towards it.
iii. Aerotaxism = response to presence of oxygen. E.g. Aerobic bacteria move towards high oxygen
concentration regions.
iv. Thermotaxism = response to heat (warmth). E.g. Cats are positively thermotaxic – they curl in
warm places.
Sense Organs
These are organs through which animals mainly perceive the environment around them. There are
mainly five ways of sensing or being aware of the immediate environment which are; sight (eyes),
hearing (ears), smell (nose), taste (tongue) and feeling (skin).
The Eye
Man responds to external stimuli such as light, temperature, sound and chemical changes. The eye is a
sensory organ that is sensitive to light. The eye is a receptor that is able to react to stimuli and responds
accordingly.
Structure of the human eye
What you can see when looking at a person's eye are:
• Pupil: a hole in the iris which admits light.
• Iris: controls amount of light entering the eye.
• Sclera: though, white outer layer of eyeball.
• Upper & lower eyelids: moveable curtain pulling tear fluid across the eye when blinking. They also
protect against physical damage and bright light.
• Tear ducts: drain away tear
fluid. Found on the lower eyelid
32
• Lachrymal glands: under upper
eyelid. Produce tear fluid containing
salt and Na+ bicarbonate to lubricate
the eye surface and to wash away
debris. It contains enzymes to
destroy bacteria.
Horizontal section
• Conjunctiva: thin transparent
layer in front of eye to protect the
cornea.
• Cornea: transparent front portion
of sclera. Focuses light onto the
lens via refraction.
• Sclera: outer fibrous coat; a white opaque layer. Protects and maintains eye shape.
• Iris: pigmented front portion of choroid. It controls light entry. Controls pupil size and give eye colour.
• Pupil: it is surrounded by the iris and admits light.
• Lens: refracts light rays (it‘s a convex lens); is covered with an elastic membrane; its shape changes to
adjust focus onto the retina.
• Ciliary body: thickened edge of choroid; it contains ciliary muscles which change the lens shape when
seeing near or far (lens becomes thick when looking near and thin when looking far). It secretes the
aqueous humour.
• Ciliary muscles: initiate changes in lens shape.
• Suspensory ligament: holds lens in position.
• Retina: contains light receptor cells (rods and cones) i.e, senses light. Changes light into electrical
impulse
• Fovea: composed mainly of cones, the point of most accurate vision. It is also called the yellow spot.
It‘s the most sensitive part of the retina.
• Blind spot: exit of nerve fibres from the eye. No rods and cones here thus, no image can be formed
here.
• Optic nerve: conveys impulses to the brain (the visual center).
• Choroid: thin, dark layer (middle layer) to absorb light. It contains a network of blood vessels for
oxygen and food supply for the eye.
• Aqueous humour: plasma-like fluid (watery fluid) housing the iris and lens. It maintains the shape of
the front part of the eye. It refracts light rays on the retina via the lens.
• Vitreous humour: plasma-like fluid containing protein, albumin, therefore it is jellylike.
It maintains the shape of the eyeball. Protects eye b absorbing vibrations and also focuses light onto the
retina.
Image formation and vision

Light from an object enters the eye and gets refracted by the cornea, the lens and the
humours and becomes focused so that "points" of light from the object produce points of light on the
retina. The rods and cones are receptor cells in the retina. The rods sense light intensity and the cones
differentiate colour. Humans are to have a tricromatic vision because they see 3basic colours-blue
green and red.
The image in the eye, on the retina is REAL, UPSIDE-DOWN and SMALLER than the object.
The cones and rods get stimulated by the light and send impulses in the nerve fibres.
33
The impulses pass in the optic nerve to the brain where an impression is made of size, distance, nature
and colour of the object.
The inverted image on the retina is corrected in the optical centre of the brain to give an upright
impression.
How do we see all objects, no matter where they are (near, far) evenly sharp? This happens, because
our eyes can adjust their focal length of the lenses. This process is known as: accommodation
ACCOMMODATION
Near-by object: The ciliary muscles running round the ciliary body contract. The ciliary body holds the
suspensory ligament which pulls on the lens. Since the ciliary muscles contract, the tension in the
suspensory ligament is reduced and the lens shrinks and becomes thicker. A thicker lens has a shorter
focal length so the object is seen sharp.
Distant object: The eye is at rest, the lens has a long focal length and distant objects are seen.
Pupil reflex
the size of the pupil controls the amount of light that enters the eye
the muscles of the iris control the size of the pupil
 this is a reflex action known as pupil reflex
34
Long sighted persons suffer from small eyeballs or "weak" lenses. Light from a distant object is
brought to a focus on the retina, but from a close object, its focus is behind the retina.
Glasses will have converging lenses.
Short sighted persons suffer from large eyeballs. Light from a distant object is focused in front
of the retina.
Glasses will have diverging lenses.
The ear
The ear is an organ that detects sound vibrations. Divided into three regions (outer, middle and inner)
separated by membranes. The out ear directs sound to the middle ear. Therefore, the pinna (ear flap)
directs into the auditory canal. Mammals with big pinna have good sense of hearing.
Tympanic membrane (ear drum) – vibrates to sound and in tern causes the set of three malleus
touching it to vibrate.
Three ossicles –
three smallest
bones – malleus
(hummer), incus
(anvil) and stirup
(stapes) which
transmit
vibrations to the
inner ear. The
sterup (stapes)
is the smallest
bone in the body
and touches the
oval window.
The oval window
is the boundery
between the
middle and the
35
inner ear. The middle ear is air filled and the inner ear is fluid filled.
Below the oval window is the round window, the round window vibrates to relieve pressure in
the inner ear.
The Eustachian tube – tube which connects the pharynx and the middle ear, aids balance air
pressure between the outside and middles ear.
Cochlea – converts vibrations waves of the lymph (perilymph and endolymph) in it to nerve
impulses which are transmitted to the auditory center via the auditory nerve.
The semi-circular canals – filled with fluid called endolyph, movement of endolyph over cilia help
in balance (maintenance of upright posture). Nerve impulses generated by the semicircular canal
are transmitted to the brain by the vestibular nerve.
The skin
The skin has a number of nerves in the dermis which make it a sense
organ. It possesses nerves sensitive to pressure, temperature and pain.
Together they enable the skin to sense touch.
The Tongue
The tongue has taste buds which enable the tongue to detect different
chemicals in food and drinks. They give the tongue the ability to sense
taste.
The Nose
In the roof of the nose is a
patch of cells called
olfactory receptor cells.
They help differentiate
smells. On average
humans can differentiate
about 2,000 chemicals.
Olfactory cells are connected to the olfactory bulb in the
brain the olfactory nerve.
The human nervous system is made up of;

i. The central nervous system (CNS) consisting of
the brain and spinal cord. The role is coordination
ii. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consisting
of cranial nerves and spinal nerves. The role is to
connect all parts of the body to the CNS.
The brain and spinal cord consist of two distinct

regions:
Grey matter – consists mainly of the cell
bodies of the neurones, and forms the outer
layers of the brain and the central parts of the
spinal cord
White matter – consists mainly of nerve fibres, and forms the central parts of the brain and outer
layers of the spinal cord
36
Structure of spinal cord
o Consists of grey and white matter; grey matter is inside surrounded by white matter on the outside
o Grey matter has the shape of the letter ‗H‘
o A narrow central canal (spinal canal) runs through the middle of the spinal cord
o This canal contains fluid known as cerebrospinal fluid that brings nutrients to the spinal cord
Structure of spinal nerves

- Spinal nerve divides into two roots – dorsal root and the ventral root
 Dorsal root
- joins the dorsal part of the spinal cord
- Contains sensory neurones
- Cell bodies of sensory neurones are clustered together in a small swelling known as the
dorsal root ganglion
- Axons of the sensory neurones end in the grey matter of the spinal cord whereas their
dendrons are located in the dorsal root and spinal nerves
 Ventral root
o Joins the ventral part of the spinal cord
o Contains motor neurones
o Cell bodies and dendrons of the motor neurones lie in the grey matter of the spinal cord to
enter the ventral root and spinal nerve
o Spinal nerve contains nerve fibres from both the dorsal root (sensory neurones) and the
ventral root (motor neurones)
o As the spinal nerve leaves the spinal cord, it progressively subdivides into branches
supplying nerve fibres to various parts of the body
37
Functions of the spinal cord
1. It controls the quick and rapid responses to stimuli that reach the surface of the body. The
responses are quick because there is no thinking involved. Such rapid responses mediated by the
spinal cord are called spinal reflexes.
2. The spinal cord through the vertebral column keeps the human body upright by maintaining
the tone of the muscles.
3. The spinal cord provides a channel for sensory and motor neurons between the brain and other
parts thereby helping in movement. Damge to the spinal cord may lead to permanent paralysis.
Nervous tissues
Neurons are basic units of the Nervous system. They are small masses of cytoplasm with a central
nucleus. One or more branching, cytoplasmic filaments called dendrites conduct impulses towards the
cell body, while a single long fibre called axon conducts impulses away from the cell body.
[In a sensory neurone, the single elongated dendrite is called a dendron].
Dendrons and axons are nerve fibres, they consist of fluid filled cytoplasmatic tubes. Sometimes they
are surrounded by an insulating sheath of myelin (to make them transmit impulses faster).
Nerve fibres transmit electrical impulses very rapidly down their entire length and pass them on to the
next nerve cell in line. The axon builds up within itself an electrical charge which is released when the
nerve is stimulated (the charge has to be built up again before the next impulse can pass) – therefore an
impulse is transmitted through the progressive exchange of ions across the cell membrane of the nerve
(axon).
Neuroglia – cells also referred to as glial cells which offer various support roles to neurons and make
half the volume of nerve tissue but are about 5 times more in number. (e.g. Schwann, satellite,
ependymal and oligodendrocytes)
38
o Schann cells – make the myelin sheath around axons in the PNS
o Oligodendrocytes – make the myelin sheath around axons in the CNS
The myelin sheaths insulate the axons by preventing jumping of electrical impulses between
axons. Neurons without myelin sheaths are said to be unmyelinated neurons.
o Satellite cells – provide structural support and enable exchange of materials between cell bodies.
o Ependymal cells – have which aid move cerebral spinal fluid. They also form the blood-cerebral-
spinal-fluid-barrier which selects materials in blood which should enter the brain. Brain cells only
respire on glucose.
Types of Neurones
 Sensory neurone (affector neurone) - Carry information from receptors to the C.N.S. (brain
and/or spinal cord). Sensory neurons are found in sense organs, therefore, the eyes, skin, ears,
nose and tongue. They are also found in internal organs and aid in homeostasis.
 Motor neurone (effector neurone) - Relay information to the body's effectors, the organs that
carry out a response (most common effectors are glands, muscles).
 Relay neurone (interneurone or association neurone) - Relay messages from one neurone to
another. Relay neurons are bipolar when they link only 2 other neurons and are called multi-
polar when they link many other neurons.
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Synapses
Neurones pass information to one
another across small spaces, or
synapses, that separate 2
neurones. Each neurone may
synapse with many others, and so
a single neurone may receive
information from, or send
information to, many other parts of
the body. Synapses are of two
types; chemical and electrical. In
chemical synapses, nerve impulses
are transmitted through chemical
substances (e.g. acetylcholine).
Electrical synapses transmit nerve
impulses through ion-movements
across the synaptic cleft (gap).
Reflex arc
 A reflex action is an automatic (involuntary) response to a stimulus.
 A reflex arc describes the pathway of an electrical impulse in response to a stimulus.
 Reflexes are either spinal or cranial reflexes. Spinal reflexes are simpler and may involve as
few as three neurons - are observe in lower body parts. Cranial reflexes occur in the head
region. They involve pathways which pass through the brain – they are much complex e.g.
swallowing (partly reflex and partly voluntary), sneezing…
 Relay neurones are found in the spinal cord, connecting sensory neurons to motor neurones.
Touching a hot plate

Heat receptors in the skin are stimulated -----> they fire off impulses along the sensory neurones in a
nerve of the arm. The impulses enter the spinal cord via the DORSAL ROOT. In the grey matter of the
spinal cord, the impulses pass on to an interneurone across a synapse. Then another synapse sends
the impulse to one or more motor neurones. These motor neurones leave the spinal cord via the
VENTRAL ROOT and the impulse causes the muscles to contract. As a consequence, you will remove
40
your hand from the
hot object. In a reflex
action, there is little
control from higher
centres. This is to
save time. The long
trip with information
to the brain and back
to the arm is not
made.
Conditioned reflex
In most reflexes, the stimulus and response are related. E.g. chemical stimulus of food through smell ---
> salivation will start.
It is possible for a different or irrelevant stimulus to produce the same response.
A Russian biologist Pavlov trained dogs for some weeks. He rang a bell when the dogs were fed. After
some weeks, the dogs started salivating just with the sound of the bell. No food was present.
Many of our own actions (walking, riding a bicycle) are complicated sets of conditioned reflexes (by
concentrating and practice).
The table below shows some examples of reflexes.
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The brain
The brain is found in the cranial cavity. Within it are found the higher nerve centers responsible
for coordinating the sensory and motor systems of the body (forebrain). The brain stem houses
the lower nerve centers (consisting of midbrain, pons, and medulla)
The C.N.S. (Central Nervous System) - Grows from a hollow tube during early embryonic
development. As the embryo develops, the front part of the tube enlarges in a series of uneven
bulges, until it's possible to pick out 3 main parts: FOREBRAIN, MIDBRAIN, and HINDBRAIN +
the long straight SPINAL CORD.
The brain is about 1.5kg in adults. It is wrapped in a double membrane sac (the meninges
membranes – dura matter and pia matter) which produces a fluid which reduces friction,
mechanical shock and exchange of materials.
The dura is tough and the pia is tender and rich in blood and lymph vessels.
The Arachnoid is a layer of space filled with
cerebrospinal fluid.
In meningitis – a person is infected by a
pathogen which causes the membranes to
become swollen and in tern exert pressure
on the brain. This causes the patient to
experience hallucinations.
The functions of the major parts of the human

brain
The forebrain
1. Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain in humans. It is divided into two halves – the left and
right hemispheres. The 2 cerebral hemispheres can operate as 2 different brains. Each half of
the brain controls structures on the opposite side of the body; the nerve tracts cross over at the
lower nervous centres.
The left side of the brain is usually dominant, and it seems to be this side that controls speech,
writing, logical thought and mathematical ability.
The hemispheres are divided into lobes and each lobe is named after the skull bone which
covers it i.e. frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes
The two hemispheres are separated by a thick bundle of nerves called the corpus callosum. In
mammals the cerebrum is huge with its surface folded in convolutions which increase it surface
area. The bigger the cerebrum, the more the convolutions it will have and the higher the intelligence
of the mammal.
The cerebral cortex (grey matter) is the outer convoluted grey layer. It is composed of unmyelinated
neurons. The inner white matter is composed of myelinated neurons which connect the hemispheres
to other parts of the CNS.
The Hypothalamus is a vitally important area where the nervous and hormonal systems
interact.
The Limbic System
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- This system is composed of the Hypothalamus, Pituitary gland, the amygdala, and the
hippocampus.
- These structures are necessary for basic survival functions as well as emotions (fear).
Notably, all sensory information is processed at least partially in our limbic system.
- Therefore, the notion of objectivity is compromised. Humans are unable to receive sensory
input or stimuli from the surrounding world without instantaneously associating emotions.
Functions of the cerebrum
i. The cerebral cortex determines the level of intelligence, memory, thinking and is also center of
imagination.
ii. It controls all aspects of behavior and awareness of oneself
iii. Controls voluntary movements e.g. movement of neck, mouth, limbs, abdomen etc
iv. Is responsible for the sensation of pain, temperature, touch, sight and even auditory perception
(hearing)
2. Thalamus
This is the part of the brain just before the hypothalamus. It is a very important center of as it contains
receptors for pain and pleasure.
3. Hypothalamus
It is the center of the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is divided into
the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
- Sympathetic nervous system = used in the fight or flight situations.
- Parasympathetic nervous system = used during ―rest and digest.‖
Functions of the hypothalamus
i. Controls feeding or eating (associated with feeling hungry)
ii. It‘s the osmoregulation center. Has osmoreceptors cells that detect water content in blood
and releases ADH appropriately.
iii. It‘s the thermoregulation center. Regulates body temperature.
iv. Controls sleep or wakefulness
v. Has the speech center – controls talking
vi. Stimulates the pituitary to secrete some hormones.
4. Pituitary gland
The pituitary is
composed of the stalk
and bulb. The bulb is
divided into the
posterior and anterior
region. The pituitary
gland is an endocrine
gland. It secretes
hormones which affect
other glands –
controls all other
glands hence, it is
called the master
gland.
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Midbrain
This part of the brain contains the optic
lobes which are swellings on the brain
that receive impulses of light and
control eye movements. It controls
movement and posture and it also connects the anterior and posterior parts of the brain.
Hindbrain
Medulla oblongata
o The most obvious part is the medulla, the enlargement of the spinal cord as it enters the
brain. Through it pass many of the sensory and almost all of the motor neurones on their
way to or from higher centres (= centres which integrate a broad range of information).
o It controls such automatic (or reflex) functions such as breathing, swallowing, vomiting and
constriction of blood vessels, heart beat rate etc
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Celebellum
o The cerebellum is an outgrowth of the medulla. Its functions are;
- Controls unconscious actions (in charge of the subconscious)
- Maintains balance (equilibrium) through coordinated muscle movement.
- Maintains normal body posture
Summary
Effects of drug abuse on the brain

A drug is a substance which has a physiological effect when introduced into the body. Misuse of drugs is
called drug abuse. Drug abuse can lead to drug addiction, tissue damage and abnormal body functions.
Among the many substances commonly used are:
1. Analgesics (drugs that reduce pain. These drugs include aspirin, ibuprofen)
2. Antibiotics (Medicines created using microbes or fungi that are weakened and taken into the body to
destroy harmful bacteria)
3. Tranquillizers (A sedative is a drug that depresses the central nervous system (CNS), which causes
calmness, relaxation, reduction of anxiety, sleepiness, slowed breathing,…)
Drugs, narcotics and hallucinogens are among the substances commonly misused in our society.
Addiction refers to the users:

1. Overpowering desire or need to continue taking the drug and to obtain it by any means.
2. Psychological and physical dependence on the effects of the drug.
3. Tendency to increase the amount of the drug.
DEPRESSANTS STIMULANTS HALLUCINOGENS

1. Work on the CNS. 1. Increase activities of the CNS Are "mind-altering" substances
2. Reduce functional body 2. Produce excitement that can produce changes in the
activity 3. Decrease the desire for sleep state of consciousness of an
3. Produce muscular individual.
relaxation
Below are the 5 common drugs.
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1. Alcohol (ethanol) = This drug is a depressant. Its effects on
the brain are;
- Increases dopamine (a happy neurotransmitter) levels in
the brain.
- Slows down thinking, breathing and heart rate.
- Frequent consumption damages links between neurons
(affects ability to process information)
- Can lead to addiction
2. Marijuana = Marijuana is contained in the leaves, stems
and seeds of the plant cannabis sativa. It‘s a psychoactive drug.
- Increases appetite for food
- Increases dopamine levels in brain, thus give euphoria
- Affects reaction time, posture and balance
- Affects processing of information
- Increases heart rate
- Increase panic and anxiety
3. Opioids = Include prescription pills and heroin. The severity of their effects depend on the mode
of administration and amount taken
- Constricted eye pupils
- Slow breathing – overdose is fatal due to brain damage
- Withdraw effects are severe. Quick addiction (heroin is the most addictive of the opioids).
- Increase dopamine levels in brain
- Effects last for 4 to 24hours
4. Cocaine = Made from the leaves of the coca plant and is a stimulating drug. The effects of
cocaine are felt by the user within seconds of taking it.
- Dilated pupils due to high serotonin in the brain
- Increases blood pressure and heart rate
- Snorting it regularly creates hole in the nose septum
- Smoking cocaine irritates lung and can lead permanent lung damage
- Injecting cocaine can lead to damaged veins and blood borne diseases if needles are shared
- Blocks the absorption of serotonin and dopamine – giving intense euphoria
- Feel more energetic, anxious and irritable
- Cocaine constricts arteries which can lead to heart attacks
- It is highly addictive
5. Ecstasy (MDMA) = Maybe in tablet or crystal form but its effects are the same.
- Users show a lot of empathy to others and are happy due to increased serotonin and
dopamine levels in the brain
- Cortisol (stress hormone) is released causing difficulties to sleep.
- Enhanced sensory perception
- Excessive sweating which can cause serious dehydration
- Involuntary jaw clenching
- Feelings of energy and inability to sit still for long periods of time
- Depression and irritability a day after used due to low serotonin in the brain
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Effect of tetanus on brain tissue
Tetanus is also known as ―lockjaw.‖ It is caused by toxins produced by the bacterium Clostridium tetani.
The bacterium invades the body via open wounds from the soil. Tetanus damages brain tissue leading
to random impulses being generated.
Symptom; diarrhea and muscle spasms starting with the chewing muscle (lockjaw) down the neck,
chest, back and whole body. It can cause the patient to stop breathing when it reaches the chest.
Other symptoms are feaver, headache, and bloody stool, rapid heartbeat and sensitive to touch.
Treated; by antibiotics
The Skeleton and Locomotion

The skeleton is the framework of the body. There are three types of skeletons and these are;
i. Hydrostatic skeleton – a skeleton

composed of body fluids e.g. in
mollusks and nematodes.
ii. Exoskeleton – a hard skeleton
found on the outside of the body.
Common in arthropods (e.g. in
grass hopper) and is mainly
composed of chitin (and is rich
calcium carbonate).
iii. Endoskeleton – a hard skeleton
found inside the body of an
organism. Found in mammals,
reptiles, fish and birds
Mammals have four different types of bones:

• Long bones: e.g. have a long axis with a thicker portion (head) at each end (femur (thigh)
and humerus) • Short bones: e.g. spongy bones, covered with a layer of compact bone
(carpals, metacarpals) • Flat bones: e.g. sternum, scapula • Irregular bones: e.g. vertebrae
Functions of the skeleton

• It supports the body and gives it shape.
• It protects: the brain (skull). The heart and lungs (rib cage). The spinal
cord (backbone or vertebral column)
• It takes care of locomotion by muscles which are attached to the bones
by ligaments.
• It takes care of the production of blood cells (bone marrow). Some
bone marrow is primarily a fat depot, but some marrow produces RBC,
WBC, platelets, and antibodies.
• In vertebrates it helps regulate the concentration of calcium ions in the
blood.
The human skeleton has 206 bones. And is divided into two major
portions;
47
• Axial Skeleton: along the axis of the body. This consists of the
skull + bones of the head, backbone, ribs, sternum (breastbone)
and tail.
• Appendicular Skeleton: This consists of bones in the limbs
and girdles which attach the limbs to the backbone.
• Pectoral girdle: collarbones + shoulder-blades. • Pelvic girdle:
large fused hipbones (ilium, ischium, pubis)
Bone anatomy
 Bone tissue (osseous tissue)

is a harder tissue than cartilage and
less flexible. It contains living cells
and nonliving fibres.
 The fibrous tissue between
the cells becomes hardened by a
deposit of collagen (fibrous protein)
and calcium salts such as calcium
phosphates.
 Osteoblasts are cells
responsible for bone formation
(deposition of calcium salts) and
bone remodeling. They are trapped
in small spaces called lacuna it is
now called an osteocyte (bone cell).
 Osteoclasts are large
multinucleated cells responsible for
the dissolution and absorption of
bone. Bone is dynamic tissue that is
continuously being broken down and
reconstructed in response to such
influences such influences such as
structural stress and body‘s
requirement for calcium. Osteoclasts
have cytoplsmic extensions like villi
which give the bone a ruffle or brush
appearance.
 Although bone contains a
high proportion of non-living material
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it is penetrated by blood vessels which keep the cells alive and allow growth and repair to
take place.
A long bone has two parts; the diaphysis and the epiphysis. The diaphysis is the tubular
shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The hollow region in the
diaphysis is called the medullary cavity which is filled with yellow marrow. The walls of the
diaphysis are composed of dense and hard compact bone.
The wider section at each end of the bone is called the epiphysis, which is filled with spongy
bone. Red marrow fills the spaces in spongy bone.
At the junction of the epiphysis and diaphysis is the epiphyseal plate which is replaced with
bone tissue in early adulthood (18 - 21years). The epiphyseal plate is where bone elongates
as someone grows.
The periosteum is a thin fibrous membrane which covers the bone.
 All bone cells are arranged in concentric rings of bone tissue called haversian systems (an
osteon).
 The haversian system is the functional and repeating unit of compact bone. It is has a central
canal and concentric bone tissue rings.
 Bone has perforations called volkmann‘s canals through which blood vessels (veins and
arteries) which deliver and carry away materials pass
49
Cartilage:
This occurs in several forms:
* One form is firm and semi-

transparent.
o It makes up the rings which
keep the trachea and bronchi open.
o It covers the surfaces of
movable joints, reducing friction and
wear.
o It supports that part of the nose
which protrudes from the face.
* Fibrous cartilage
 Contains many fibres as well
as living cells. This cartilage is elastic
and flexible.
 It forms the external ear pinna
and the epiglottis.
* Fibro-cartilage
 Is less flexible but has very strong fibres.
 Contributes to some ligaments and attaches tendons to bones. It also forms part of inter-
vertebral discs.
Types of Joints
•Immovable or fixed joints (Fibrous)

 These joints are held together by tough tissue which develops during childhood.
 Examples include: the Cranium, pelvis and vertebrae
•Slightly moveable joints (Cartilaginous)

 Here, movement is needed but only to a certain point e.g the vertebral column
 Individual vertebrae are separated by cartilage
•Freely moveable joints (Synovial)

 These joints are also called synovial and allow movement to take place.
 There are 6 types of freely moveable or synovial joints
50
Types of Synovial joints
Synovial joints are divided into 6 groups
1. Ball and Socket Joint = •Of all the joints in the body, the BALL AND SOCKET JOINT allows the
greatest range of movement
•In this type of joint, one end of the bone is shaped like a ball, and it fits into a hollow socket at
the end of another joint.
•Held together by ligaments and tendons
2. Hinge Joint = HINGE JOINTS allow extensive flexion and extension (Bending and straightening)
with only a small amount of rotation.
•The joint is made by the joining of two bone ends which have smooth surfaces. They are
shaped to move against each other with minimum friction.
•Strong ligaments stop the bones from sliding off from one side to the other.
3. Pivot Joint = •PIVOT JOINTS allow only rotation.

•The joint works by the end of one bone having a ―peg‖ which fits into a ―ring‖ formed by the other
bone.
•There is pivot joint at the top of the spinal column, between the axis and atlas bones of the neck.
This allows us to turn, raise and lower our heads – this is crucial in controlling balance and
maintaining awareness.
4. Gliding Joint = •GLIDING JOINTS allow flexion and extension through a slight gliding motion
between the ends of small bones such as hands and feet.
•These small bones can move over one another to increase the flexibility of the hands and feet.
•Strong ligaments link them together and stop them moving to far.
5. Saddle Joint = •SADDLE JOINTS occur where concave and convex surfaces meet.
•The saddle joints allow the movement of the joint forward and backwards, and right to left.
•Examples of saddle joints include the fingers and thumbs.
6. Condyloid Joint = •Within the CONDYLOID JOINT the full convex shape of one bone end, fits
into the full concave shape of an adjoining bone.
•This allows for movement in all directions, however full rotations.
•The main example of the Condyloid joint is the wrist.
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Structure of the synovial joint = They all have some thing called Synovial Fluid in them.
• This lubricates the joint, like oil in a working engine. It enables all parts of the joint to move against
each other smoothly. • This is inside the synovial (joint) capsule which holds the fluid in place. • The
synovial membrane lies inside the capsule
where the fluid is produced.
Connective Tissues = •There are three

types of connective tissues used within the
joints. •Cartilage –Cartilage forms a
cushion between bones to absorb shock
and reduce friction. •Ligaments –Ligaments
are strong fibrous protein strands that hold
bones together in a joint •Tendons –
Tendons attach muscles to bones (or to
other muscles)
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The Muscular System
Muscle tissue has two distinguishing characteristics:
contractility and electrical excitability – the do not
stretch. Muscles are responsible for movement and
locomotion.
Movement may involve only part of the body or the whole
body without changing location. It occurs in both plants
animals.
Locomotion involves relocation of the whole organism from
one place to another. It only occurs in animals.
Vertebrates (animals with a backbone) have three types of
muscles:
• Cardiac muscle: make up the walls of the heart and is responsible for pumping blood around the
body. They are striated and contain sarcomeres. They are branched and joined by intercalated discs
which enable electric impulses to be transmitted during heartbeat. Cardiac muscle does not easily get
stressed. Cardiac muscle is autonomous.
• Smooth muscle: also called visceral muscles. They are unbranched and tempered at each end. They
lack sarcomeres (intra cellular fibre strands) thus, are not striated – making them appear smooth. They
are relatively small and have a sinble nucleus. They are found on the walls of blood vessels,
bronchioles, gut, in the eyes, bladder and urethra etc. They relax and contract in homeostasis. They are
non-voluntary (autonomic).
• Skeletal or striated muscle: they responsible for locomotion. They are composed of long unbranched
muscle fibers. They are relatively large due to fusion of many embryonic cells during development and
this also accounts for there many nuclei. The have sarcomeres (intra cellular fibre netwaork) thus, they
are striated.
Striated muscle is normally the only type of muscle under the animal's voluntary control
Skeletal muscles are a voluntary system of muscles (controlled by the somatic nervous system)
In exoskeleton organisms like some arthropods, the skeletal muscles are attached on the inside of the
body. Note that for locomotion to occur, one muscle should be attached to two different bones. In limbs
(lags and arms) and other parts of the body pairs of muscles exist which may either be an antagonistic
or synergistic pair.
53
Antagonistic muscles contract oppositely to each
other, thus when one contracts – the other relaxes.
E.g. the biceps and triceps in the arm – where the
biceps is the flexor and the triceps is the extensor
Synergistic muscles are those which contract or

relax at the same time to bring about the same
effect. E.g. rectus abdominal muscles
Growth is the permanent or irreversible increase in the dry mass of an organism. It comes about due
increase in the total number of cells by mitosis. Development is the progressive change in the form and
complexity of an organism.
54
In plants
Plants are generally composed of the
shoot and root systems. The shoot system
is composed of the stem, nodes,
internodes, leaves, branches and
reproductive parts. The root system may
be composed of the taproot and rootlets
or just fibrous roots. Roots are responsible
for anchoring the plant in soil; absorb
water and ions, storing nutrients and
associating with soil microbes in symbiotic
relationships. Growth in plants is in two
ways; primary and secondary growth,
overall, growth in plants starts with seed
germination.
Seed germination
Growth starts with seed germination in

which the embryo development into a
seedling. Seed development is good when
the seed is viable. Seed viability is the
ability of a seed to germinate and is
determined by the following factors;
 Maturity of embryo - Only seeds with mature embryo will germinate.

 Health status of the seed – healthy seeds (not infested by a paste) germinate fast.
 Enzyme status of the seed – seeds with denatured or inactivated enzymes will not germinate.
This can happen due to overstaying or exposure to extreme conditions like high temperature.
Seed dormancy
Dormancy is the period of very low metabolism in an organism. This allows the organism to survive
adverse environmental conditions. In plants, dormancy is observed in seed and buds. Dormancy is
broken when environmental conditions take particular turn e.g. moisture from rainfall or warm
temperature or cutting part of a tree.
Importance of dormancy
- The seed can stay alive in hush conditions e.g. drought which the plant can not
- Prevents premature germination which may lead to the seedling dying young
Conditions necessary for germination
1. Moisture or water to soften the outer covers of seeds. The water also creates an environment for
metabolism to increase
2. Optimum temperature – usually from 5oC to 30oC to create the right temperature for enzyme
activity.
3. Availability of oxygen for respiration
55
Therefore, seed germination progresses from imbibitions (water uptake), respiration and then
photosynthesis
Types of germination
1. Epigeal germination
Observed in dicot (eudicot) plants e.g. bean species, sunflower etc. mostly involves cotyledons are
pushed above the ground as the seed germinates.
2. Hypogeal germination
This type is observed in monocot plants e.g grass family (maize, rice, wheat etc). mostly the cotyledon
remains below the ground.
Primary growth
Occurs in meristematic tissue of shoots and roots of

plants. Primary growth results in increase of length, new
leaves and new roots. Meristematic tissue responsible for
primary growth is found in apical regions therefore, at the
tips of stems and roots.
The shoot and root tips are characterized by the following

zones of growth; - zone of cell divion, - zone of cell
elongation and – zone cell differentiation.
Growth rate of (shoot or root) = difference in length/time it

took to grow
56
Secondary growth
Involves increase in girth or width of the plant. It arises from the lateral meristems in the stems and
roots. The two major meristematic tissues responsible for secondary growth are the vascular and cork
cambiums. The vascular cambium develops to form the vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) which
add to the mechanical support of the plant and are vessels through which transportation of materials
occurs from. The vascular bundles formed later are called secondary xylem and secondary phloem
because they take up the functions from the old vascular bundles (primary xylem and primary phloem).
Formation of new vascular bundles from the vascular cambium radiates from the center of the plant. The
cells (wood) at the center of the plant become compacted and die and are now referred to as
heartwood (pith). The wood that surrounds the heart wood is called sapwood and is softer than
heartwood.
57
Characteristics of meristematic cells;
 Are tightly parked together

 Have a dense protoplasm and relatively large nucleus
 Lack vacuole
 Have very thin cell walls
 Have the capacity to divide continuously
 Are small and cuboid
Annual rings
Annual rings are composed of summerwood

and springwood. They only occur in woody
plants (dicots). Summerwood is formed in
periods in times of fewer water supplies while
springwood is formed in times of much water
supply in the year. These yearly (annual) rings
can be counted to determine the age of the
plant. Each ring is made from a summer and
springwood portion. Therefore, as the vascular
bundles form, they form wood and their
formation is much rapid in spring (wet) seasons
making the portions of springwood appear
lighter and in the portions of summerwood the
vascular bundles are compact hence, the
summerwood portion appears dark.
58
Dicots and monocots differ in a number of ways;
Growth hormones in plants
Plant growth is regulated by plant growth hormones produced by different regions of the olant. Some are
antagonistic (have opposing effects on the same part) while others are synergistic (reinforce their
effect on the same part).
1. Auxins
The most commonly known occurring is IAA (Indole Acetic Acid). It is produced by meristems and other
immature plant parts.
Effects
- promote root development

- promote apical dormancy
- delay falling of leaves and fruits
- promote flowering
- promote fruit formation without fertilization (parthenolcarpy)
59
2. Abscisic acid
It is believed to be produced in the leaves, fruits, seeds and root caps.
Effects
- Accelerates abscission (fall) of fruits

- Promote bud dormancy
- Causes closure of stomata
- Inhibits stem elongation
- Promote seed dormancy
3. Ethylene
Plants produce ethylene in the leaves, ripen fruits and flowers.
Effects
- Promotes uniform ripening of fruits.

- Causes fruit, flower and leaf abscission (fall)
- Induces stem thickening and inhibits stem elongation
- Inhibits transportation of auxins within the plant
In animals
Growth in animals starts with the zygote, after fertilization, which undergoes mitosis to form the total
number of cells that forms the specific organism.
Metamorphosis
This is growth in which an organism undergoes physiological (morphological) changes such that at each
stage the organism appears distinct (different) compared to its appearance at other stages.
Metamorphosis is either incomplete or complete.
Incomplete metamorphosis
This is growth in which the organism‘s physiology is not so distinct from stage to the next. Mainly
composed of only three stages;
Egg Nymph Adult
The nymph changes only slightly each time it undergoes molting (ecdysis) until it reaches adulthood.
The nymph is called an instar when it becomes a young adult.
Occurs in cockroaches and grasshoppers
Molting (a.k.a ecdysis) is shedding of the skin (exoskeleton) by some arthropods in metamorphosis.
Complete metamorphosis
This is growth in which the organism‘s physiological appearance is distinct at every stage in its growth.
Generally involves 4 stages.
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Egg Larva Pupa Adult
Complete metamorphosis occurs in mosquitoes,

flies, butterflies and frogs. In arthropods, a
hormone called the molting stimulating hormone
(MSH) is secreted which causes the secretion of
anther called ecdysone which causes molting to
occur at the end of every stage in their growth and
the juvenile hormone (JH) is secreted to prevent
premature molting during each stage.
The larvae are so active and feed a lot. Pupae are

inactive, imobile and do not feed-they are
enclosed in a cacoon. If larvae did not feed
enough, they die in pupae stage.
For frogs, the tadpole has lungs and no legs but

with a tail. Adults have lungs and legs with no tail.
A young fly which breaks from the

pupae cacoon is called an imago.
Flies lay eggs in rotten organic matter

for their larvae to feed on after hatching.
The do not have teeth hence, sip on
juices from rotting matter using their
pad-like mouths. They can act as
mechanical vectors of some diseases
like cholera and typhoid.
Mosquitoes and frogs spend part of

their lives in water as they lay eggs in
water. Their young hatch and leave the
water when they are young adults.
Frogs do feed on mosquitoes and

mosquitoes feed on phloem sap from
young plants. In the prosess of feeding,
some mosquitoes become biological
vectors of maleria and elephantysis
pathogens.
61

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Contents

Transport; Excretion; Homeostasis

Development of Vascular Tissue

Created by Siazibulo Manyepa S Biology 5090 ©2018

Active transport for ion uptake in roots

Transpiration and Translocation

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Factors which affect transpiration:

Movement of water through the stem

Translocation may be due to:

a) High turgor pressure in

b) The sucrose enters the

Created by Siazibulo Manyepa S Biology 5090 ©2018

Adaptations of plants to control transpiration

Involves he transportation of materials in, out and around the body

The open circulatory system

The closed circulatory system

The Human Circulatory System

Created by Siazibulo Manyepa S Biology 5090 ©2018

Brought about by a series of reactions

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Human blood groups

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Created by Siazibulo Manyepa S Biology 5090 ©2018

Effect of physical activity

Coronary heart disease

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Main blood vessels in the mammalian body

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Question; list 3 adaptation of each of the blood vessels

Other circulatory diseases

The lymphatic system

Lymph is deposited into

Created by Siazibulo Manyepa S Biology 5090 ©2018

Rubber – excreted via the bark. Is used to make rubber products

Papain – an enzyme used in the food industry to make meat tender

Excretory organs (like kidneys) have TWO major functions:

Created by Siazibulo Manyepa S Biology 5090 ©2018

Created by Siazibulo Manyepa S Biology 5090 ©2018

Created by Siazibulo Manyepa S Biology 5090 ©2018

Created by Siazibulo Manyepa S Biology 5090 ©2018

The kidney machine

Advantages and disadvantages of kidney transplants compared with dialysis.

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Homeostasis is very important:

Temperature regulation in man

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2. Temperature gets too low.

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Structure of the skin

Heat production and heat loss

Heat is produced as a result of metabolic activities such as tissue respiration as well as

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Created by Siazibulo Manyepa S Biology 5090 ©2018

Negative feedback in glucose regulation

Created by Siazibulo Manyepa S Biology 5090 ©2018

Major endocrine glands. (Male left, female on the right.) 1.

The endocrine system, which is found in vertebrates, is a