❖ STEREOISOMER OF CARBOHYDRATE

• Stereoisomerism is an important character of monosaccharides.

• Stereoisomers are the compounds that have the same structural formulae but
differ in their spatial configuration.
• A carbon is said to be asymmetric when it is attached to four different atoms
or groups.

OPTICAL ACTIVITY OF SUGARS

• Optical activity is a characteristic feature of compounds with asymmetric

carbon atom. The term dextrorotatory (d+) and levorotatory (l–) are used to
compounds that respectively rotate the plane of polarized light to the right or
to the left.
• In the medical practice, the term dextrose is used for glucose in solution. This
is because of the dextrorotatory nature of glucose. [GPAT-2017]

CONFIGURATION OF D-ALDOSES

• The configuration of possible D-aldoses starting from D-glyceraldehyde.

• This is a representation of Kiliani-Fischer synthesis, by increasing the chain
length of an aldose, by one carbon at a time.
• Thus, starting with an aldotriose (3C), aldotetroses (4C), aldopentoses (5C) and
aldohexoses (6C) are formed. [GPAT-2020]

EPIMERS

• When two monosaccharides differ from each other in their configuration

around a single specific carbon (other than anomeric) atom, they are referred
to as epimers to each other. [GPAT-2016, GPAT–2023 SHIIFT-II]
• Example: Glucose and Galactose are C4 epimers while Glucose and mannose are
C2 epimers.
ENANTIOMERS

• Enantiomers are a special type of stereoisomers that are mirror images of each
other.
• The two members are designated as D- and L-sugars.
• Majority of the sugars in the higher animals (including man) are of D-type.

PYRANOSE AND FURANOSE STRUCTURES

• Haworth projection formulae are depicted by a six-membered ring pyranose

(based on pyran) or a five-membered ring furanose (based on furan). [GPAT-2016]
• The cyclic forms of glucose are known as α-D-glucopyranose and α-D-
glucofuranose.
 ANOMERS- MUTAROTATION

❑ Anomers
•The α and β cyclic forms of D-glucose are known as anomers. They differ from
each other in the configuration only around C1 known as anomeric carbon
(hemiacetal carbon).
❑ Mutarotation
• Mutarotation is defined as the change in the specific optical rotation representing
the interconversion of α and β forms of D-glucose to an equilibrium mixture.
FATTY ACID OXIDATION
• The fatty acids in the body are mostly oxidized by β-oxidation.
• β-Oxidation may be defined as the oxidation of fatty acids on the β -carbon atom.
• This results in the sequential removal of a two-carbon fragment, acetyl CoA.

• Palmitoyl CoA undergoes 7 cycles of β-oxidation to yield 8 acetyl CoA. [GPAT-2017]

• Acetyl CoA can enter citric acid cycle and get completely oxidized to CO2 and H2O.
CHOLESTEROL BIOSYNTHESIS
• The enzymes involved in cholesterol synthesis are found in the cytosol and
microsomal fractions of the cell.
• Acetate of acetyl CoA provides all the carbon atoms in cholesterol.
• Cholesterol biosynthesis is controlled by the rate limiting enzyme HMG CoA
reductase.
• Total number of carbon atom in cholesterol is 27.
ALL TEST
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATE
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACID
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEIN

CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
S. NO. CLASS DEFINITION EXAMPLES
1. Simple lipid
Ester of fatty acid with alcohol
(a) Fats Esters of fatty acids with glycerol.
(b) Waxes Esters of fatty acids with higher alcohols other than
glycerol.
2. Complex (Compound) Lipid
These are ester of fatty acid with alcohol containing additional group
such as phosphate, nitrogenous base, carbohydrate, protein etc.
 (a) Phospholipid [GPAT (Alcohol + fatty acids + 1. Glycerophospholipid
2022] phosphoric acid + • Lecithin (Dipalmitoyl
nitrogen containing base lecithin, Lysolecithin),
and other substituents) • Cephalin, Phosphatidic
acid,
• Phosphatidylinositol,
Phosphatidylserine,
• Plasmalogens,
Cardiolipin
2. Sphingophospholipid
• Sphingomyelin,
Ceramide
(b) Glycolipid (Fatty acids + amino • Cerebroside
[GPAT 2022] alcohol + carbohydrate) (Galactosylceramide)
• Ganglioside
(c) Lipoprotein
(d) Other complex lipids • Lipopolysaccharides
• Sulfolipids, Aminolipids
3. Derived Lipid
These are the derivatives obtained on Glycerol, Lipid soluble
hydrolysis of group 1 and group 2 lipid vitamin, Steroidal
which possess characteristic of lipid. hormones, Hydrocarbon
and ketone bodies.
4. Neutral Lipid
The lipid which are uncharged are referred Cholesterol,
as neutral lipid. Monoacylglycerol,
Diacylglycerol and
Triacylglycerol
5. Miscellaneous Lipid
These include a large number of Squalene, Carotenoids,
compounds possessing the characteristic of Terpenes
lipid.

CLASSIFICATION OF FATTY ACIDS

STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN
GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE

LIPID STORAGE DISEASE

PROTEIN STORAGE DISEASE

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS
VITAMINS AND THEIR CHEMICAL NAME
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYME
APPLICATION OF ENZYME

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DNA AND RNA

ORGAN FUNCTION TEST

ORGAN CLASSES TEST

Excretory function Bile pigments,
Bile salts,
Bromsulphthalein.
Serum enzymes derived Determination of transaminases,
from liver Alkaline phosphatase, 5’-
Liver
nucleotidase,
Function
J-glutamyl transpeptidase.
Test
Metabolic capacity Galactose tolerance,
Antipyrine clearance.
Synthetic functions Prothrombin time,
Serum albumin.
detoxification Hippuric acid synthesis.
Glomerular function tests Clearance tests
(Inulin, Creatinine, Urea)
Tubular function tests Urine concentration or dilution test,
Urine acidification test
Kidney
Analysis of blood/serum Estimation of blood urea,
Function
Serum creatinine,
Test
Protein and Electrolyte
Urine examination pH,
Specific gravity,
Osmolality
 And presence of certain abnormal
constituents (proteins, blood, ketone
bodies, glucose etc.).
Fractional test meal (FTM) Ryle’s tube
Alcohol test meal
Pentagastrin stimulation Basal acid output (BAO)basal
test conditions i.e. basal secretion.
Gastric Maximal acid output (MAO) gastric
Function stimulation by pentagastrin i.e.
Tests maximum secretion.
Insulin test meal Hollander’s test
Tubeless gastric analysis Diagnex blue containing azure-A-
resin is employed in the tubeless
gastric analysis.
Pancreatic Pancreatic enzymes in Serum amylase and lipase
Function serum measurement
Tests