ENVI-SCI-REVIEWER

LESSON 1: Introduction to Environmental Science

Environment:
This is immediate surroundings of the individual.
This is also the complex system that deals with a network of living and non-living entities.
Environmental science:
 Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field that integrates knowledge from various
scientific disciplines, including biology, chemistry, physics, geology, and ecology, to study
the environment and its interactions with living organisms.
 It involves understanding the natural processes of the earth, human impact on the
environment, and the development of sustainable solutions to environmental problems.
HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE:
1. Ancient Civilizations: Early civilizations, such as Mesopotamians and Egyptians, practiced
rudimentary forms of environmental management, including irrigation and soil conservation
techniques
2. Industrial Revolution: The industrial revolution marked a turning point in human history, leading
to widespread environmental degradation due to increased pollution, deforestation, and exploitation
of natural resources.
3. Conservation Movement: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, conservationist like John Muir
and Theodore Roosevelt advocated for the preservation of natural landscapes and the establishment
of national parks and protected areas.
4. Emergence of Environmental Science: The modern environmental science discipline began to take
in the mid-20th century with the publication of Rachel Carson’s “Silent Spring” in 1962, which
highlighted the detrimental effects of pesticides on the environment and human health.
5. Environmental Legislation: Growing public concern about pollution and environmental
degradation led to the enactment of landmark environmental laws, such as Clean Air Act, Clean
Water Act, and Endangered Species Act, in the United States and similar legislation worldwide.
6. Global Environmental Movements: The latter half of the 20th century saw the rise of global
environmental movements advocating for conservation, biodiversity protection, climate action and
sustainable development, culminating in events like the first Earth day in 1970 and the United
Nations Earth Summit in 1992.
INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE:
 Environmental science is inherently interdisciplinary, drawing upon principles and methodologies
from various scientific disciplines to study the interactions between humans and the environment.
 It integrates knowledge from fields such as ecology, biology, chemistry, geology, physics,
geography, sociology, economics, and political science to address complex environmental issues and
promote sustainable solutions.
 The interdisciplinary nature of environmental science allows for a comprehensive understanding of
environmental processes, impacts and solutions recognizing the interconnectedness of natural and
human systems.
IMPORTANCE:
1. Understanding Ecosystems: Environmental science helps us comprehend the complex interactions
between living organisms and their environment, including the flow of energy and nutrients within
ecosystems.
2. Addressing Environmental Issues: By studying environmental science, we can identify and
address pressing environmental issues such as climate change, pollution, deforestation, loss of
biodiversity, and depletion of natural resources.
3. Promoting Sustainability: Environmental science plays a crucial role in promoting sustainable
practices that balance human needs with environmental conservation, ensuring the well-being of
present and future generations.
4. Policy and Decision Making: Policymakers rely on scientific research from environmental science
to develop laws and regulations aimed at protecting the environment and mitigating environmental
impacts.
5. Public Awareness and Education: Environmental science contributes to raising public awareness
about environmental issues, fostering environmental literacy, and empowering individuals to make
informed decisions and take action to protect the environment.
LESSON 2: Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Ecosystem: An ecosystem is consisting of living organisms and their physical environment interacting as a
system within a defined geographic area.
1. Biotic Components: This refers to the living organisms within an ecosystem.

 Producers (Autotrophs): Producers are organisms capable of synthesizing organic compounds

from inorganic substances using sunlight (photosynthesis) or chemical energy (chemosynthesis).
 Consumers (Heterotrophs): Consumers are organisms that obtain energy by consuming other
organisms or their organic products.
 HERBIVORES – feed exclusively on plant matter. Ex. Deer, rabbits, grasshopper
 CARNIVORES – primarily feed on other animals. Ex. Lions, wolves and snakes.
 OMNIVORES – consume both plants and animals. Ex. Humans, bears, crows.
 DETRITIVORES – feed on detritus, which consists of dead organic matter and organic
debris. Ex. Earthworm, fungi, and some insects.
 DECOMPOSERS – are microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, fungi) that breakdown organic
matter into simpler compounds through the process of decomposition.
2. Abiotic Components: This is refers to the non-living, physical factors that influence the structure and
function of an ecosystem. These factors include:

 Physical Environment – climate, temperature, precipitation, humidity, sunlight and topography.

 Soil and Substrate – soil properties such as texture, pH, nutrient content etc.
 Water Bodies – aquatic ecosystems
 Atmosphere – air quality, wind patterns, and air pollution.
 Geological Features – rock types, landforms, etc.

ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES

1. ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS:
 Primary production forms the basis of the food chain and provides energy for all other ecosystem
processes.

Nutrient cycling regulates nutrient availability, supports primary productivity, and influences
ecosystem functioning.

Biodiversity maintenance – biodiversity plays a critical role in stabilizing ecosystems, enhancing

ecosystems resilience to disturbances, and providing ecological services such as pollination, pest
control, and nutrient cycling.

Climate regulation – ecosystems regulate climate influencing temperature, precipitation patterns,

and atmospheric composition.

2. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Provisioning services: involve the production of goods or resources that are directly consumed
or utilized by humans. Examples include food, water, timber, fiber, medicinal plants, and raw
materials obtained from ecosystems.

Regulating services: involve the regulation of ecosystem processes that benefit humans by
regulating environmental conditions and mitigating natural hazards. Examples include climate
regulation, water purification, pollination, pest control, flood regulation, and disease regulation.

Cultural services encompass the non- material benefits that human derive from ecosystems,
including recreational, aesthetic, spiritual, and cultural values. Examples include outdoor
recreation, ecotourism, cultural traditions, and spiritual connections to nature.

Supporting services: are the underlying processes that enable the provision of other ecosystem
services. Examples include soil formation, nutrient cycling, photosynthesis, and habitat provision
which support the functioning of ecosystems and the delivery of ecosystem services.
Species interactions plays a crucial role in shaping the structure, dynamics, and functioning of biological
communities, which are assemblages of different species coexisting and interacting within a defined area.
These interactions can be categorized into various types, including competition, predation, mutualism,
commensalism, and parasitism.
1. Competition – occurs when two or more species compete for limited resources such as food, water,
space, and nutrients. Interspecific competition occurs between different species, while intraspecific
competition occurs within the same species. Competition influences community structure and
species distribution in several ways:
 Competitive Exclusion
 Resource Partitioning
 Character Displacement
2. Predation – involves one organism (predator) consuming another organism (prey) for food.
Predation has significant impacts on community structure and dynamics:
 Trophic cascades: regulating prey pollutions. The removal or addition of predators can
trigger cascading, influencing the abundance and diversity of other species.
 Prey adaptations: camouflage, chemical defenses, or warning coloration to avoid predation.
 3. Mutualism – a type of symbiotic relationship where both interacting species benefit from the
association.
 Nutrient cycling: promoting plant growth and productivity.
 Pollination: promote plant reproduction and maintain plant diversity.
 Seed dispersal: mutualistic interaction between plants and seed-dispersing animals such as
birds and mammals. Facilitate seed dispersal, colonization of new habitats, and plant
regeneration.
4. Commensalism – occurs when one species benefits from the association while the other is
unaffected.
 Habitat modification: example epiphytic plants growing on trees provide habitat for other
organisms such as insects and birds.
5. Parasitism – involves one organisms (parasite) deriving nutrient or resources from another organism
(host) at the host’s expense.
 Host-parasite dynamics: parasites can regulate host populations and influence host
behavior, physiology, and reproductive success.
 Parasite diversity: parasites contribute to biodiversity by forming complex networks of
interactions with hosts and other parasites influencing community structure and stability.
BIODIVERSITY AND ITS IMPORTANCE:
Biodiversity or biological diversity : Biodiversity is refers to a variety of life forms at all levels of organization,
including genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
Importance:
1. Ecological importance: biodiversity is essential for maintaining stability, resilience, and functioning
of ecosystems.
2. Economic importance: biodiversity underpins numerous economic activities and sectors, including
agriculture, forestry, fisheries, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and ecotourism.
3. Cultural and aesthetic importance: biodiversity holds immense cultural, spiritual, and aesthetic
significance for societies around the world.
4. Ecological services: biodiversity supports a wide range of ecosystem services that benefit human
well-being and sustain socio-economic activities.
5. Intrinsic value: biodiversity has intrinsic value, meaning that it has inherent worth and moral
significance independent of its instrumental value to humans.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY:
1. Habitat Loss and Degradation: resulting from deforestation, urbanization, agricultural expansion,
infrastructure development, and land conversion for human activities.
2. Overexploitation and Unsustainable Harvesting: including hunting, fishing, logging, and
harvesting of plants and wildlife, cam lead to population declines, species extinctions, and ecosystem
degradation. Unsustainable harvesting practices, driven by commercial interests, illegal trade, and
poaching, threaten the survival of many species, particularly those with high commercial value of
rarity.
3. Pollution and Contamination: pollution from industrial activities, agriculture, mining, waste
disposal, and chemical contaminants poses significant threats to biodiversity and ecosystem health.
4. Climate Change: climate change driven by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, poses
one of the most significant threats to biodiversity and ecosystems worldwide.
 5. Invasive Species: invasive alien species, introduced intentionally or unintentionally by human
activities, can out compete native species, disrupt ecological processes, and alter ecosystem
dynamics.
6. Habitat Fragmentation and Connectivity Loss: caused by fragmentation of natural landscape into
smaller, isolated patches, reduces habitat connectivity, disrupts wildlife movements and dispersal,
and increases the vulnerability of species to extinction.
7. Direct Human Impacts: including habitat destruction, pollution, overharvesting, and wildlife trade,
directly threaten species survival and contribute to biodiversity loss.
DISTURBANCE:
It refers to any discrete event or process that disrupts the structure, composition, or functioning of
ecosystems, leading to temporary or permanent changes in ecosystem dynamics.
ROLE OF DISTURBANCES:
1. ECOLOGICAL DYNAMICS:
2. SPECIES ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION:
3. HABITAT CREATION AND RENEWAL:
4. RESOURCE DISTRIBUTION:
5. ECOSYSTEM CONNECTIVITY:
RESILIENCE IN ECOSYSTEMS:
 DEFINITION
 MECHANISMS
 THRESHOLDS AND REGIME SHIFTS
 ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION: It is the process of gradual and orderly change in the species composition,
community structure, and ecosystem properties of a given area over time.
1. Primary succession – occurs on newly formed or barren substrates devoid of soil and
vegetation, such as bare rock surfaces, volcanic lava flows, sand dunes, or glacial moraines.
2. Secondary succession – occurs on previously disturbed or degraded habitats with existing soil
and remnants of vegetation, such as abandoned agricultural fields, logged forests, burned areas,
or flooded lands.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SUCCESSION:
1. Environmental Conditions
2. Disturbances
3. Species Interactions
4. Seed Dispersal
LESSON 3: ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF CHEMISTRY IN ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION?
Chemistry will assist us in comprehending, tracking, protecting, and developing the world around us.
Chemists are developing instruments and strategies to detect and measure air and water pollution.
WHAT ROLE DOES CHEMISTRY PLAY IN ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION?
 Environmental chemistry is vital to society because it deals with the environmental impact of pollutants,
contamination reduction, and environmental management.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY AND ITS IMPORTANCE:

Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of chemical and biochemical processes occurring in the
environment, including the sources, reactions, transport, transformation, and fate of chemical substances.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY:
Key concepts in environmental chemistry:
1. Chemical composition of the environment
2. Chemical reactions
3. Biogeochemical cycles
4. Pollution and Contamination
5. Toxicology
Basic concepts in environmental chemistry:
 Atoms and molecules
 Chemical reactions
 Acids and bases
 Redox reaction
Basic concepts in environmental chemistry:
 Atoms and molecules
 Chemical reactions
 Acids and bases
 Redox reaction
LESSON 4: ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY AND SOIL SCIENCE
The Earth consists of four interconnected spheres:
 Lithosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Atmosphere
 Biosphere

1. LITHOSPHERE – the rigid outer layer of the Earth, consisting of the crust and the uppermost part of
the mantle. It includes continents, ocean basins, mountains and other geological features.
2. HYDROSPHERE – it encompasses all water on Earth surface, including oceans, seas, lakes, rivers,
groundwater, and even atmospheric water vapour.
3. ATMOSPHERE – the atmosphere is the layer of gases surrounding the Earth. It consists of nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour, and trace gases.
4. BIOSPHERE – the biosphere comprises all living organisms on Earth and their interactions with other
Earth systems.
EARTH SYSTEMS INTERACTIONS:
 1. Interactions resulting from a volcanic eruption
2. Interaction between environmental components
 Symbiosis
 Predator
 Competition
 Biogeochemical interactions
THE GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND THEIR IMPACTS ON LANDSCAPEFORMATION:
1. PLATE TECTONICS:
 Volcanism
 Mountain building
 Rifting and rift valleys
2. EROSION:
 River erosion
 Glacial erosion
 Coastal erosion
3. WEATHERING:
 Physical weathering
 Chemical weathering
 Biological weathering
SOIL FORMATION AND SOIL DEGRADATION
Soil properties:
 Texture
 Structure
 Color
 pH
 Organic matter content
 Nutrient levels
 Drainage
 Compaction
SOILS:
Soils are complex, dynamic, and heterogenous natural materials that form at the interface between the
earth’s lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
They consist of a mixture of mineral particles, organic matter, water, air, and living organisms, forming critical
component of terrestrial ecosystems.
Soil serve as the foundation for plant growth, support diverse ecosystems, and play essential roles in nutrient
cycling water filtration, carbon storage, and environmental regulation.
Key components:
1. Mineral particles – includes sand, silt, and clay.
2. Organic matter – contributes to soil fertility, structure, water retention, and nutrient cycling.
3. Water – soil water plays a critical role in plant growth, nutrient transport, microbial activity, and soil
stability.
 4. Air – soils contain air pore spaces between soil particles, providing oxygen for foot respiration,
microbial activity, and soil aeration.
5. Living organisms – soils harbour diverse communities of living organisms, including bacteria, fungi,
algae, protozoa, nematodes, earthworms, insects, and plant roots. Soil organisms play vital roles in
nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, soil structure formation, and ecosystem functioning.

5 LAYERS OF THE SOIL:

SOIL HORIZON
 O horizon: humus- mostly organic material
 A horizon: top soil or surface soil- a layer of organic materials and minerals mixed together
 B horizon: subsoil- composed primarily of mineral material with very little organic material mixed in.
 C horizon: the least weathered layer, primarily made up of parent material- the deposit at earth’s
surface from which the soil developed.
 D horizon: bedrock- a mass of rock such as granite, basalt, quartzite, limestone that forms the parent
material for some soils.
PROPERTIES OF SOILS:
1. SOIL TEXTURE: refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay particles in the soil.
2. SOIL STRUCTURE: refers to the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates of clumps, which affect
porosity, permeability, root penetration and soil stability.
3. SOIL COLOR: can indicate soil fertility, drainage status, organics matter content and mineral
composition.

FACTORS INFLUENCING SOIL FORMATION IN

DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS:
1. CLIMATE - climate influences soil formation by affecting temperature, precipitation,
evaporation, and weathering rates.
2. PARENT MATER– refers to the geological material from which soil can develop, including
rocks, minerals, and sedimentary deposits.
3. TOPOGRAPHY – including slope, aspect, and elevation, influences soil formation by affecting
drainage, erosion, and deposition processes.
4. ORGANISMS – including plants, microbes, animals, and fungi, play critical roles in soil
formation through processes such as organic matter decomposition, nutrient cycling, root
penetration, and soil aggregation.
5. TIME – influences the degree of soil development, horizon formation, and soil properties.

SOIL DEGRADATION
Soil degradation encompasses a range of processes that result in the deterioration of soil quality,
productivity, and ecosystem services.
It is caused by various natural and human – induced factors, including erosion, pollution, compaction,
salinization, acidification, desertification, and loss of soil organic matter.

1. Soil Erosion
 Causes: soil erosion occurs when soil particles are detached, transported, and deposited by wind,
water, ice, or gravity. Natural erosion processes are accelerated by human activities such as
deforestation, overgrazing, agricultural practices, urbanization, and land clearance.
Consequences: soil erosion leads to the loss of fertile topsoil, reduced soil fertility, decreased
water- holding capacity, and increased sedementation in rivers, lakes, and oceans. It affects soil
structure, nutrient cycling, plant growth, and ecosystem resilience. Erosion exacerbates land
degradation, reduces agricultural productivity, increases sedimentation in water bodies, and
threatens biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Soil erosion and soil deposition
Erosion is the removal and simultaneous transportation of earth materials from one location to another
by water, wind, waves, or moving ice.
Deposition is when rocks or particles of soil or silt are carried from one location and placed in another,
usually by moving water or wind.

2. Soil Pollution:
Causes: soil pollution occurs when soils are contaminated with hazardous substances, including
heavy metals, pesticides, industrial chemicals, petroleum products, sewage, and agricultural
runoff. Pollution sources include industrial activities, mining, waste disposal, agricultural
practices, and urbanization.
Consequences: soil pollution poses risks to human health, ecosystems, and food security
through the uptake of contaminants by plants, animals, and humans. It affects soil fertility,
microbial activity, and plant growth, leading to reduced crop yields, soil degradation, and
ecosystem disruption. Soil pollution can contaminate groundwater, surface water, and air,
affecting aquatic ecosystems, wildlife habitats, and human well-being.

3. Desertification:
Causes: desertification is the process of land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub- humid
regions due to climate variability, overexploitation of natural resources, unsustainable land use
practices, and population pressure. It involves the loss of vegetation cover, soil fertility, and
ecosystem services, leading to the expansion of desert -like conditions.
Consequences: desertification results in the loss of productive land reduced agricultural
productivity, increased soil erosion, and land degradation. It leads to the loss of biodiversity
habitat destruction, and ecosystem fragmentation. Desertification exacerbates poverty, food
insecurity, and social conflicts, affecting livelihoods, human well-being, and sustainable
development.
4. Soil compaction:
Causes: soil compaction occurs when soil particles are pressed together, reducing pore spaces
and restricting air and water movement. It can result from heavy machinery, intensive
agricultural practices, urban development, and recreational activities.
Consequences: soil compaction leads to decreased soil porosity, impaired root growth, reduced
water infiltration, and increased runoff and erosion. It affects soil structure, nutrient cycling, and
microbial activity, leading to decreased soil fertility and crop yields. Compacted soils are more
prone to waterlogging, drought stress, and soil erosion, affecting ecosystem health and resilience.
 5. Salinization and acidification:
Causes: salinization occurs when soluble salts accumulate in the soil profile, often due to
irrigation practices, poor drainage, and natural processes. Acidification occurs when soil pH
decreases due to acid deposition, nitrogen fertilizers, and other pollutants.
Consequences: salinization and acidification negatively impact soil fertility plant growth and
ecosystem functioning. Saline soils have high salt concentrations, which inhibit plant growth and
seed germination, leading to reduced crop yields and land productivity. Acidic soils may
mobilize toxic metals, impair nutrient uptake, and disrupt soil microbial communities, affecting
soil health and ecosystem services.
6. Loss of soil organic matter:
Causes: loss of soil organic matter occurs due to deforestation, conversion of natural habitats,
intensive agriculture, and land degradation. It leads to reduced soil fertility, decreased water
retention, and impaired soil structure.
Consequences: loss of soil organic matter reduces soil fertility, nutrients cycling, and microbial
activity, leading to decreased crop yields and ecosystem productivity. It affects soil structure,
water-holding capacity, and erosion resistance, exacerbating land degradation and environmental
degradation. Restoring soil organic matter through sustainable land management practices is
essential for maintaining soil fertility, productivity, and ecosystem resilience.
Overall, soil degradation, including erosion, pollution, and desertification, poses significant challenges
to global food security, environmental sustainability, and human well-being.
Addressing soil degradation requires integrated approaches, including sustainable land management
practices, soil conservation measures, pollution control strategies, reforestation, ecosystem restoration, and
climate change adaptation.
Protecting and restoring soil health is essential for ensuring long-term productivity, resilience, food
security, environmental sustainability, and of agricultural systems and natural ecosystems in the face of
environmental challenges and human pressures.
Addressing soil degradation requires holistic approaches that integrate sustainable land management
practices, soil conservation measures, pollution control strategies, and ecosystem restoration efforts.
It involves promoting soil health, biodiversity conservation, and climate resilience through
agroecological practices, reforestation, soil rehabilitation, and land restoration initiatives.
Protecting and restoring soil resources is crucial for ensuring food for security, environmental
sustainability, and human well-being in a changing world.
Strategies for soil conservation and sustainable land management:
Aim to protect, restore, and enhance soil health, productivity, and resilience while promoting sustainable
land use practices and ecosystem stewardship.
 Conservation Tillage
 Cover Cropping
 Crop Rotation
 Agroforestry
 Terracing and Contour Farming
 Soil Conservation Practices

1. Conservation Tillage
Description: conservation tillage practices, such as no-till reduced tillage, and mulch farming, minimize
soil disturbance and erosion by leaving crop residues on the soil surface and reducing mechanical tillage
operations.
Evaluation: conservation tillage helps maintain soil structure, organic matter, and microbial activity,
reducing soil erosion, water runoff, and sedimentation. It improves soil health, water retention, and
nutrient cycling, enhancing crop productivity and ecosystem resilience. However, adoption may require
adjustments in crop management, weed control, and equipment.
2. Cover Cropping:
Description: cover cropping involves planting non-harvested crops, cover crops, or green manures
during fallow periods or between cash crops to protect and improve soil health, fertility, and structure.
Evaluation: cover cropping enhances soil organic matter, nitrogen fixation, and nutrient cycling,
reducing erosion, compaction, and weed pressure. It improves soil moisture retention, weed suppression,
and pest management, supporting agro-ecological principles and sustainable farming systems. However,
cover cropping may require additional labor, management, and inputs.
3. Crop Rotation:
Description: Crop rotation involves alternating different crops in a sequence over time to break pest
cycles, improve soil fertility, and reduce disease pressure.
Evaluation: crop rotation diversifies crop species, root structures, and nutrient demands, enhancing soil
health, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. It reduces soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and pest
outbreaks, improving long-term productivity and resilience. Crop rotation also promotes weed
management, soil fertility, and agro-ecosystem stability, supporting sustainable land use practices.
4. Agroforestry:
Description: Agroforestry integrates trees, shrubs, or woody perennials with crop or livestock on the
same land to provide multiple benefits, including soil conservation, carbon sequestration, and livelihood
diversification.
Evaluation: agroforestry improves soil fertility, water retention, and erosion control by enhancing
organic matter, root development, and soil structure. It promotes biodiversity, habitat connectivity, and
ecosystem resilience, supporting sustainable land management and climate adaptation. Agroforestry
provides ecosystem services, such as shade, windbreaks, and fodder, while enhancing food security,
income and rural livelihood.
5. Terracing and Contour Farming:
Description: terracing and contour farming involve shaping the land into terraces or contour lines to
reduce soil erosion, runoff, and sedimentation by slowing down water flow and promoting infiltration
and retention.
Evaluation: terracing and contour farming prevent soil erosion on sloping lands, improving soil
stability, moisture retention, and nutrient cycling. They protect against landslides, flooding, and water
pollution while conserving soil resources and supporting sustainable agriculture. However, terracing and
 contouring may require significant labor, investment, and maintenance, limiting their applicability in
certain contexts.
6. Soil Conservation Practices:
Description: soil conservation practices, such as grass waterways, riparian buffers, and erosion control
structures, protect soil from erosion, sedimentation, and water pollution.
Evaluation: soil conservation practices help mitigate soil erosion, sedimentation, and nutrient runoff,
protecting soil resources and water quality. They stabilize slopes, prevent gully erosion, and enhance
riparian ecosystems, supporting biodiversity conservation and ecosystem resilience. Soil conservation
practices are cost effective measures for reducing soil degradation and improving landscape
connectivity, benefiting both agricultural and natural systems.