Acta Astronautica ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Acta Astronautica
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/actaastro

A possible spontaneous generation of silicon utilizing minimal

containers as precursors of life in the cosmos
Satadal Das
Department of Microbiology, Peerless Hospital & B. K. Roy Research Centre, 76, Satyen Roy Road, Kolkata 700034, India

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: Although experiments suggested that silica may help in early chemical evolution on Earth,
Received 5 November 2013 however, their exact role in genesis of life is still unknown. In this experiment silicon
Received in revised form utilizing specific coacervates was developed in a reaction mixture under solar energy with
3 November 2014
chemicals which are commonly present in GMCs, comets, and asteroids. When these
Accepted 18 November 2014
coacervates were applied on a thin silica layer they were converted into multiplying
structures morphologically similar to primitive algae. Under an electron microscope they
Keywords: found morphologically similar to the cells which were present in rain water in Kerala in
Coacervates 2001 after a meteor airburst. These proto-algae like bodies thus may mimic the common
Silicon
ancestor of life on the Earth. Similarly these specific coacervates may originate sponta-
Proto-cocci
neously in GMCs and are transferred throughout the universe by various routes to initiate
Origin of life
life processes on suitable surfaces. Thus they may be found in the stratosphere of the
Earth; however, as they could not penetrate the tropopause in the present atmosphere
they may not be found on earth surface except in rare conditions like volcanic eruptions,
blue lightning etc. Thus this simple study may support the famous panspermia theory and
we should search for possible biosignatures of these peculiar bodies throughout the
cosmos.
& 2014 IAA. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction temperature, UV ray (
10 times), volcanic activities etc.

Many notable scientists like Epicurus, Aristotle, Lucretius,
Paracelsus, Helmont, and Arrhenius searched the inquisitive
problems of biogenesis and the past two Centuries have
witnessed many important experiments, observations, and
ideas of the famous scientists like Pasteur, Operin, Darwin,
Fox, Miller, Ponnamperuma, Matthews and many others
regarding this. In the well known experiment of Miller, he
observed formation of several amino acids when a mixture of
methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water was exposed to
electric discharge [28].
These conditions, according to Miller, resemble or are
similar to the conditions of the Earth long before the first
living unit appeared on its surface. However, factors like
E-mail address: drsatdas@hotmail.com
were different in the primitive Earth. The primitive atmo-
sphere on the Earth contained hydrogen, nitrogen, ammo-
nia, methane, water vapor, and small amounts of hydrogen
cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, formaldehyde, ethane, helium
and argon. Thus an ideal condition of the primitive Earth is
very difficult to achieve in a laboratory.
Again the atmosphere was neutral from 3.8 until about 2
eons ago, when molecular oxygen first appeared after photo-
synthetic organisms began to produce free oxygen in large
quantities. Thus experiments on the origin of life with a
reducing atmosphere may not be the appropriate one.
Bahadur published one important paper [2] regarding
origin of life in 1954, just one year after the publication of
Miller's experiment. In this experiment, Bahadur demon-
strated formation of amino acids in an aqueous solution of
para-formaldehyde, which was exposed to sunlight in the
presence of colloidal molybdenum oxide. Later experiments

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2014.11.028
0094-5765/& 2014 IAA. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: S. Das, A possible spontaneous generation of silicon utilizing minimal containers as precursors
of life in the cosmos, Acta Astronautica (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2014.11.028i
2 S. Das / Acta Astronautica ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
of Bahadur in between 1954 and 1957 indicated possible
formation of amino acids even in the present physico-
chemical conditions on the earth [3]. Afterwards Bahadur
and Ranganayaki could demonstrate formation of coacervates
along with ribose, deoxyribose, glucose and fructose in a
similar system [4–9]. However, the results of these experi-
ments were not accepted by many scientists as the coacer-
vates failed to grow in subcultures. In recent past, many
experiments have already been done on the origin of
proteins, membrane, RNA and DNA [11,29], in relation to
the origin of life on the Earth, but still there is no integrated
speculation on origin of life. In this experiment a salt-silicate-
molybdate-formalin medium was used to produce modified
coacervates so that they could grow in subcultures on silica
surface containing a thin film of an algae culture medium.
2. General methods
2.1. Media used in this experiment and general study
procedures
2.1.1. Salt-molybdate-formalin medium
This is a slightly modified Krishna Bahadur's medium [6]
resulting better yield of coacervates and was used as a control
medium in this experiment. The medium was comprised of
potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4) 0.5 g and mag-
nesium sulfate (MgSO4) 0.07 g mixed with 50 mL distilled
water in a glass flask (in plastic flask only scanty growth was
found), followed by addition of 10 mL ammonium molybdate
(4% w/v) and 20 mL diammonium hydrogen phosphate
(3% w/v) with it. The mixture was then sterilized at 15 lb
pressure for 15 min and then 10 mL formalin (36% formalde-
hyde) was added with it. It was then exposed to direct
sunlight in clear days (
1368 W m  2 or 1.95 cal cm2 min  1
solar radiation per second) in between 7 a.m. and 9.30 a.m.
and then to filtered sunlight passing through a colorless
frosted glass in between 2 p.m. and 4.30 p.m. for 4 days. The
solution was kept at room temperature (
20–25 1C) in a cool
dark place in between the exposures to sunlight. Intervals
between the exposures in a day were allowed so that after
2½ h of chemical reaction the formed granules could settle
down permitting better reaction in the second half; filtered
sunlight was used to protect living cells from scorching
afternoon sunshine. Thus the mixture was exposed to sun-
light for a total period of 20 h in 4 days. The average
maximum atmospheric temperature was 36 1C and mini-
mum temperature was 24 1C; the average specific humidity
was 73%. The experiment was repeated in different lots and
all together it was repeated more than 50 times and in each
lot control solutions were used which were not exposed to
sunlight.
Although most of the constituents of this medium were
derived from Krishna Bahadur's medium [6], the rationality of
addition of the component chemicals was considered before
the experiment. Thus potassium dihydrogen phosphate was
used as a source of phosphorus and potassium and with
ammonium salts present in the medium; it also acts as a
buffering agent and minimizes escape of ammonia from
the medium. Phosphate component is also important in
many metabolic and enzymatic pathways. Magnesium sulfate
which is naturally present in mineral water is used in
Please cite this article as: S. Das, A possible spontaneous generation of silicon utilizing minimal containers as precursors
of life in the cosmos, Acta Astronautica (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2014.11.028i
agriculture to improve crops. Magnesium is the second most
common intracellular cation. Magnesium is essential for solar
energy dependent reactions in plants, and an important
cofactor for enzymatic reactions. Sulfur is an important
micronutrient. Molybdenum is widely used in catalysis and
used in this experiment as a catalyst. It helps in nitrogen
fixation and plays an important role in nutrition of living
beings. It is an essential trace element in plants and animals
for proper functioning of molybdoenzymes.
Ammonium salts – ammonium molybdate and diammo-
nium hydrogen phosphate were used as sources of nitrogen
and for buffering action with potassium dihydrogen phos-
phate. Ammonium compounds also stabilize osmotic pres-
sure in cells. Formaldehyde used in the medium was the
first polyatomic organic molecule detected in the outer
space and is found in many extraterrestrial bodies and in
giant molecular clouds. In atmosphere, methane is con-
verted into formaldehyde. It is also ubiquitous in living
organisms in trace amounts which occur due to metabolism
of endogenous amino acids. It was used in this experiment
as a source of carbon.
2.1.2. Salt-silicate-molybdate-formalin medium
This test medium was developed following our previous
experiments indicating that silicon utilizing organisms could
tolerate different stresses and they could grow slightly with-
out any carbon source in the medium [12–16], although trace
amounts of carbon should always be present in such a
system. We also inclined to develop such a medium as we
came to know that all isolated cultivable organisms from
stratosphere [31,32] and the suspected extraterrestrial organ-
isms found in the red rain of Kerala [25] contained high
amounts of silica and thus formally may be categorized under
“silicon utilizing organisms” [16] group. This medium was
comprised of potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4)
25 g and magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) 0.175 g mixed with
50 mL distilled water; 18 mL of this solution was then mixed
with 18 mL sodium metasilicate solution (11.8 g/dL) and
autoclaved at 15 lb pressure for 15 min. It was then partially
neutralized with 5 mL sterilized phosphoric acid (16% v/v) to
keep it in a liquid state consisting of silicon di-oxide (SiO2),
sodium phosphate and unperturbed sodium metasilicate in
its usual form. Then sterile10 mL ammonium molybdate (4%
w/v) solution and 20 mL diammonium hydrogen phosphate
(3% w/v) solution were mixed with it one after another and
finally 10 mL formalin (36% formaldehyde) was added. It was
exposed to direct sunlight as described in Section 2.1.1. All
chemicals used in this experiment were of AR/GR grade.
Sodium metasilicate⧸phosphoric acid neutralization was stan-
dardized in each lot, approximately 80% quantity of the total
volume of the acid which was required for neutralization and
solidification was used for partial neutralization.
2.2. Morphological study of the coacervates
Granules of coacervates, formed within 2.1.1 and 2.1.2
media were observed directly, by light microscopy and by a
SEM (Scanning electron microscope) and a TEM (Transmis-
sion electron microscope). SEM observation was done with a
FEI Quanta 200 NK2 instrument. Two drops of the medium
containing the particles were placed on 1 cm  1 cm glass
 S. Das / Acta Astronautica ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
slides and the slides were kept for 1 h at room temperature.
After this the liquid portions were gently decanted off and
then 2% glutaraldehyde (pH 7.0) was added carefully to
cover the whole area where particles were present. The
slides were then kept on filter papers soaked in water
overnight at room temperature inside petridishes and then
were washed in distilled water gently, and gradually dehy-
drated by keeping the slides serially in 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%,
100%, and 100% ethanol, 10 min in each grade. TEM study
of the coacervates was done with a Jeol JEM-100 Cx instru-
ment on a carbon coated copper grid after staining with 1%
solution of uranyl acetate.
Light microscopy of the cover slip preparation of the
surface scum and the granules was done consecutively from
second to twentieth days along with the examination of the
stained smears (Leishman stain) under oil immersion lens.
2.3. Study on the effect of Amphotericin B on the growth of
the coacervates
Amphotericin B was used, to observe its effect on these
coacervates, as there was some resemblance of these
coacervates with algae. Thus if these are some way related
to living creatures like algae then there may be demon-
strable antimicrobial activity of Amphotericin B on them.
Growth patterns of the uniformly suspended coacervates
in wells of a microtiter plate were studied with the help of
Ascent software in Thermo iEMS Reader MF and Multiskan
(Vantaa, Finland). In this experiment a similar method was
followed to see the changes in the absorbance of the
coacervate suspension as the CLSI guidelines for micro-
organisms like Candida spp. using 620 nm and 540 nm
wavelengths with (test) or without (control) different
concentrations (0.0313, 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8
and 6 μg/mL) of Amphotericin B (an anti-fungal and anti-
algal drug).
2.4. Study on colonization of the coacervates on algae
culture medium
This medium was comprised of sodium nitrate 1.00 g/L,
dipotassium phosphate 0.25 g/L, magnesium sulfate 0.513 g/L,
ammonium chloride 0.05 g/L, calcium chloride 0.058 g/L,
ferric chloride 0.003 g/L, and agar 15.00 g/L, and was pur-
chased directly from Hi Media (M343). After stroke inocula-
tion of the coacervates on slants prepared with this medium,
they were exposed to sunlight as described in Section 2.1.1.
Smears were prepared when colonial growths appeared on
the slants and they were examined by Gram's stain, electron
microscopic studies as described in Section 2.2.
3. Results
3.1. Macroscopic observation
Immediately after exposure to sunlight all the media (2.1.1
and 2.1.2) became blue in color, however, 2.1.1 medium
became deep blue, while 2.1.2 medium became light blue in
color. All media gradually changed to dark blue in color within
the first day of exposure in sunlight. Glistening white flakes
Please cite this article as: S. Das, A possible spontaneous generation of silicon utilizing minimal containers as precursors
of life in the cosmos, Acta Astronautica (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2014.11.028i
3
appeared by second day on the surface of 2.1.1 medium, while
scum in a continuous sheet appeared on the surface of 2.1.2
medium. Within 3 days jet-black coarse deposits were found
in 2.1.1 medium while in 2.1.2 medium deep brown to golden
brown fine granular deposits were found. Gradually plenty
black colored granules were formed in both the media, and
after 8–10 days granule formation ceased and the granules
were found firmly attached on the inner side of the flask. The
control solutions which were not exposed to sunlight rema-
ined unchanged throughout the experimental period.
3.2. Microscopic observation
Blue colored round coacervates were found arranged
mainly in grape like clusters and some were in short
chains. “Cell wall” like outer coverings were present in
relatively larger coacervates, which also contained many
deep color spots throughout their bodies (Fig. 1); however,
these spots were more (
3 times) on the coacervates
of 2.1.2.
There were also “mesosome” like structures in between
the dividing cells along with some budlike structures. The
ratio of the diameters between two successive budding
bodies varied between 1.36–1.44:1. There were also evi-
dences of contact guidance and contact inhibition, which
is commonly found in all normal multiply cells. Besides
these findings in 2.1.2 asteroid bodies (probably few
crystals of silico-molybdic acid) were present. After fif-
teenth day, “nucleus” like structures were found in all
coacervates along with metacyst like bodies where many
“nuclei” like structures were found within “cytoplasmic
bodies” (Fig. 2). In 2.1.2 few elongated spindle like struc-
tures (1–2 μm  3–5 μm) were also found along with
these cells.
3.3. Electron microscopic observation of the coacervates
There were two distinct types of coacervates in 2.1.2
medium, one variety showed larger (2.0–3.0 μm) spherical
bodies (Fig. 3) with central darker area and many irregular
white spots scattered throughout their bodies; the other
variety (Fig. 4) was smaller (200–500 nm) and arranged
singly or in small clumps. Particles of 2.1.1 medium showed
bigger clusters (Fig. 5) of coacervates (300–800 nm). There
was no distinct organelle in any one of them.
Fig. 1. Coacervates of salt-silicate-molybdate-formalin medium with
many “spots” on them. The “spots” are probably primitive photoreactive
bodies (
chloroplast).
4 S. Das / Acta Astronautica ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]

3.4. Action of Amphotericin B on the coacervates

A generalized growth inhibitory effect (Graph 1) of

Amphotericin B was found on the coacervates. This inhi-
bitory effect was found in all concentrations used in this
experiment; however, the degree of inhibition occurred
according to the concentration gradient, which was similar
to its effect on algal growth.

Fig. 4. Small isolated coacervate developed in salt-silicate-molybdate-

3.5. Cultural examination on algae medium formalin medium.

The inoculations of coacervates were done on algae

medium slants with the 7 day mature coacervates taken
from the growths from 2.1.1 and 2.1.2 media. After 45–60
days, small white colonies (2–3 mm) appeared, with the
inoculated coacervates of 2.1.2, on the upper parts of the
slants where the medium was extremely thin on the glass
surface. The colonies were firmly adhered and it was very
difficult to remove them. When examined under a scan-
ning light microscope with 60  magnification, the colo-
nies (Fig. 6) were found round in shape and were
surrounded by a very thin layer of additional surface
growths around them.
Fig. 5. Coacervates developed in salt-molybdate-formalin medium.
Sometimes two layers of such thin growths were visible
under the microscope. Microscopical examination of the
smears prepared with these colonies revealed Gram-
positive coccoid bodies (proto-cocci) without showing
any pattern of their arrangement. The formation of the

Graph 1. Decreased growth of coacervates as observed in a Micronaut

system under influence of Amphotericin B.

Fig. 2. Appearance of the coacervates after 15 days.

coccoid bodies (Fig. 7) from the coacervates was termed as
a metaplastic change due to their altered morphology.
These proto-cocci could grow in subcultures. Repeat
experiment in plastic tubes did not reveal any growth,
indicating an essential role of glass surface for develop-
ment of such proto-cocci.

4. Discussion

4.1. Possible spontaneous formation of coacervates in the

universe

The possibility that these extraordinary silicon utilizing

Fig. 3. Large isolated coacervate and small coacervates in clumps devel-
oped in salt-silicate-molybdateformalin medium.
coacervates could originate spontaneously in GMCs (Giant
molecular clouds) should be looked for, as the results of
this experiment strengthen such a possibility.
The GMCs, which have the clouds of dust and gases where
stars are formed, contain all the basic chemical components,

Please cite this article as: S. Das, A possible spontaneous generation of silicon utilizing minimal containers as precursors
of life in the cosmos, Acta Astronautica (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2014.11.028i
 S. Das / Acta Astronautica ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
Fig. 6. Colonies of proto-cocci on glass surface.
Fig. 7. Coccoid body (proto-cocci) in the colonies on glass surface.
which were used in this experiment for development of the
coacervates; however, the physical conditions may remain as
variables. After formation of the coacervates, they are prob-
ably transferred throughout the universe by various routes to
initiate life processes with the coacervate derived proto-cocci
on suitable surfaces. These coacervates thus appear to be a
basic structure possibly responsible for the origin of life on
the Earth, as well as life, if present anywhere in the universe.
As they appear to form spontaneously and are probably
drifting everywhere in the Universe, they are expected to
be present in large numbers in clumps or in isolated forms in
the upper layers of the atmospheres of the Earth or on any
extraterrestrial body in the Universe.
On the Earth, they usually could not penetrate the
tropopause except in rare conditions like volcanic erup-
tions, blue lightning etc. and when these conditions are
frequent, as in the primitive Earth, it is likelihood that they
could enter the terrestrial surface of the primitive Earth
and lead to the development of the present biosphere.
They are also probably still entering the surface of the
present Earth in uncommon occasions, but even they could
enter the thickly inhabited Earth surface with 4100,000
diversified earthly species, they fail to form proto-cocci
due to ongoing Darwinian natural selection. One impor-
tant evidence that these cells are forming spontaneously in
the Universe is supported by the presence of silicon
utilizing (containing 2.85% silicon) red cells ( also small
numbers of white, light yellow, bluish gray and green cells)
suspected to be extraterrestrial in origin, found in rain
water in Kerala in 2001 after a meteor airburst [25]. The
morphology of those cells has got a very close resemblance
to these coacervates.
Planetary microcosm experiments using extracts from
meteorites were also found to support the growth of algal
and microbial populations [26]. Peptides are also found
Please cite this article as: S. Das, A possible spontaneous generation of silicon utilizing minimal containers as precursors
of life in the cosmos, Acta Astronautica (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2014.11.028i
5
stable at very high temperatures (
300 1C) as observed in
many experiments [23,24].
4.2. Proto-cocci as possible primitive life on the Earth
Microfossils that are reliably dated with age about 3
eons (1 eon
a billion years) and that resemble modern
bacteria in shape and size were found in rocks of South
Africa. They were found free from ribosome, nucleic acids
including transfer RNA and any modern genetic apparatus.
Thus their morphology closely resembles with the mor-
phology of these protococci.
It is important to note that only the cells of the 1-eon
group were definitely modern with eukaryotic character-
istics as evidenced by their fossil study in Australia [17].
Thus it appears that in most part of the Precambrian (6/7th
part of the geological time frame of the Earth) and in the
Hadean (first 600 million years), the only organisms
present on the surface of the Earth were the proto-cocci.
4.3. Silicon utilizing organisms, the coacervates and the
proto-cocci
Silicon utilizing organisms [16] can survive in extreme
physico-chemical stresses and many of them belong to
natural food chain of terrestrial organisms. They are mostly
non-passive accumulator of silicon; thus the term “silicon
accumulator organisms” should not be used to describe this
important group. The coacervates of the 2.1.2 medium and
the protococci developed in this experiment also belong to
silicon utilizing group as they originated only in the silicon
medium or on the silicon surface respectively. Many experi-
ments have already been shown that silica took part in
chemical evolution on the Earth [1] e.g. with catalytic
reactions, by concentrating nucleotides etc. [18–21] and other
biomolecules [10,27].
Silicon is generally known as an important nutrient
source of microbes either by providing a direct energy
source or acting as a catalyst [31,32]. In our previous
experiments we observed that Mycobacterium and Nocar-
dia spp. could grow to some extent in the absence of
carbon provided that silicon compound is present in the
culture medium [13,12]. Fungi were also found to grow in
ultra-pure water when silicon compounds were added as
nutrients [30].
It is important to note that over 100,000 organosilicon
compounds have been synthesized during the past few
decades, many of which have considerable thermal stability
even at 300–400 1C, reflecting the considerable strength of
the Si–C bond and Si–O–Si linkages. Catenation and the
formation of multiple bonds of silicon are also similar to
carbon chemistry. In fact, carbosilanes include chains, rings
and polycyclic compounds. Organosilane are more reactive
towards hydrolysis, ammonolysis and alcoholysis than their
carbon analogs [22]. Silicon is more volatile than carbon and
has a lower energy of vaporization, indicating the smaller
Si–Si bond energy, which is probably beneficial to the
development of an early simple living organism. This pre-
liminary study was mainly based on morphological analysis;
however, future studies based on DNA and proteins may help
to verify the identity of these proto-cocci.
6 S. Das / Acta Astronautica ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
4.4. Possible role of molybdate in the experiment
In this experiment, molybdenum, an important metal
for evolution of life on the Earth, was used as a catalyst, for
the rapid genesis of the coacervates. Molybdenum usually
helps in nitrogen fixation, thus a deficiency of this metal in
the early Earth probably delayed animal life for about 2
billion years. In 2.1.2 medium, silico-molybdic acid may
form by reaction of silica with ammonium molybdate.
However, this reaction occurs only in acidic medium and if
this occurs the solution becomes yellow in color.
Thus this reaction was not important in this experiment
as the 2.1.2 solution remained blue in color, and was
alkaline throughout the experiment. Phosphates present
in the medium could react with ammonium molybdate
leading to formation of molybdophosphoric acid, which
provided shield to silicates in this medium.
4.5. Importance of the present findings
4.5.1. A possibility of extraterrestrial biosphere formation by
proto-cocci
So far, none of our numerous elaborate experiments
could demonstrate evidence of life on any extraterrestrial
body, which is probably due to the fact that although the
“seeds” of life- the coacervates are present almost every-
where, essential “environment” for their metaplastic change
to proto-cocci is very meager. Thus if we could maintain
a “suitable environment” on a small surface area of an
extraterrestrial body, proto-cocci may be developed sponta-
neously from coacervates which appears present every-
where, leading to development of a biosphere on that
extraterrestrial body. Thus further terraforming processes
will not be difficult on such a body.
4.5.2. A new approach for searching biosignatures
We should look for the coacervates as well as the proto-
cocci in all collected extraterrestrial samples and in
searching biosignatures of life, silicon may also be con-
sidered in addition to other important life parameters.
4.5.3. Important role of silicon in genesis of life
The results of this experiment indicate an essential
requirement of silicon in genesis of the proto-cocci; thus
probably it may act as a missing link for assembling the
macromolecules which may lead to artificial configuration
of a living cell in the laboratory.
4.5.4. Opening up of new study areas
An important outcome of this experiment appears to be
the opening of a new domain for future research in relation
to the coacervates and the proto-cocci.
5. Conclusion
How exactly life first originated on the Earth or in the
Universe is still unknown and it will probably remain
unknown forever. The findings of this simple experiment
may indicate a possible way of origin of life among numerous
other possibilities. Coacervates originated from salt-silicate-
molybdate-formalin medium followed by their metaplastic
Please cite this article as: S. Das, A possible spontaneous generation of silicon utilizing minimal containers as precursors
of life in the cosmos, Acta Astronautica (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2014.11.028i
change to protococci, the possible primitive life like structures
occurring on silicon surface appears one of the numerous
ways to search for origin of life in the Universe.
Acknowledgment
I would like to acknowledge Dr. Shaun Roy Chowdhuri,
Dept. of Biotechnology, West Bengal University of Tech-
nology, Kolkata, India and Subhas Maikab, Bose Institute,
Kolkata, India for providing some technical support in
this study.
References
[1] A.K. Arora, Kamaluddin, Role of metal oxides in chemical evolution:
interaction of ribose nucleotides with alumina, Astrobiology 9 (2)
(2009) 165–171.
[2] K. Bahadur, Photosynthesis of amino-acids from paraformaldehyde
and potassium nitrate, Nature 173 (1954) 1141.
[3] K. Bahadur, S. Ranganayaki, L. Santamaria, Photosynthesis of amino-
acids from paraformaldehyde involving the fixation of nitrogen in
the presence of colloidal molybdenum oxide as catalyst, Nature 182
(1958) 1668.
[4] K. Bahadur, Synthesis of Jeewanu, units capable of growth, multi-
plication and metabolic activity, Zbl. Bakt. 117 (1964) 575–584.
[5] K. Bahadur, Synthesis of Jeewanu, the proto cell, Zbl. Bakt. 121
(1967) 291–319.
[6] K. Bahadur, K. Ranganayaki, Photochemical formation of self-
sustaining coacervates, J. Br. Interplanet. Soc. 21 (1970) 813–829.
[7] K. Bahadur, J.L. Gupta, Cytological studies of abiogenically synthe-
sized Jeewanu, cell-like microstructures, Zbl. Bakt. 127 (1973)
643–648.
[8] K. Bahadur, Photochemical formation of selfsustaining coacervates,
Proc. Indian Natl. Sci. Acad. 39 (1976) 455–467.
[9] K. Bahadur, D.N. Pradhan, Effect of chloramphenicol on the abiogen-
esis of sugar, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. India 49 (1979) 31–36.
[10] J.D. Bernal, The Physical Basis of Life, Routledge and Kegan Paul,
London, 1951.
[11] A.S. Burton, N. Lehman, DNA before proteins? Recent discoveries in
nucleic acid catalysis strengthen the case, Astrobiology 9 (2009) 1–6.
[12] A.N. Chakrabarty, S. Das, K. Mukherjee, S.G. Dastidar, D.K. Sen,
Silicon (Si) utilization by chemoautotrophic nocardioform bacteria
isolated from human and animal tissue infected with leprosy
bacillus, Indian J. Exp. Biol. 26 (1988) 839–844.
[13] S. Das, S. Mandal, A.N. Chakrabarty, S.G. Dastidar, Metabolism of
silicon as a probable pathogenecity factor for Mycobacterium and
Nocardia Sp., Indian J. Med. Res. 95 (1992) 59–65.
[14] S. Das, “Silicon utilization”—an important pathogenecity marker of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Jpn. J. Clin. Pathol. 43 (1995) 261.
[15] S. Das, U.K. Chattopadhyay, Role of silicon in modulating the internal
morphology and growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Indian
J. Tuberc. 47 (2000) 87–91.
[16] S. Das, Silicon-utilizing organisms may be used in future terraform-
ing of the moon, in: H. Benaroya (Ed.), Lunar Settlements, CRC Press,
Taylor & Francis group, New York, 2010, pp. 679–692.
[17] F. Dyson, Origins of Life, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,
1999, 30–91.
[18] G. Ertem, J.P. Ferris, Template – directed synthesis using the hetero-
geneous templates produced by montmorillonite catalysis. A possible
bridge between the prebiotic and RNA worlds, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119
(1997) 7197–7201.
[19] J.P. Ferris, G. Ertem, Oligomerization of ribonucleotides on mon-
tmorrillonite : reactions of the 50 -phopho-rimidazolide of adeno-
sine, Science 257 (1992) 1387–1389.
[20] J.P. Ferris, W.J. Hagan, Adsorption and reaction of adenosine nucleo-
tide on montmorillonite, Orig. Life Evol. Biosph. 17 (1986) 69–84.
[21] J.P. Ferris, Kamaluddin, G. Ertem, Oligimerization reactions of deoxy
ribonucleotides on montmorillonite clay: the effect of mononucleotide
structure, phosphate activation and montmorillonite composition on
phophodiester bond formation, Orig. Life Evol. Biosph. 20 (1990)
279–291.
[22] N.N. Greenwood, A. Earnshaw, Chemistry of the Elements,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1997, 328–366.
 S. Das / Acta Astronautica ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 7

[23] E. Imai, H. Honda, K. Hatori, A. Brack, K. Matsuno, Elongation of
oligopeptides in a simulated submarine hydrothermal system,
Science 283 (1999) 831–833.
[24] K.H. Lemke, R.J. Rosenbauer, D.K. Bird, Peptide synthesis in early
Earth hydrothermal systems, Astrobiology 9 (2) (2009) 140–146.
[25] G. Louis, A. Santhosh Kumar, The red rain phenomenon of Kerala and its
possible extraterrestrial origin, Astrophys. Sp. Sci. 302 (2006) 175–187.
[26] M.N. Mautner, Planetary resources and astroecology—implications
for space populations and panspermia, Astrobiology 2 (2002) 59–76.
[27] M. Meng, L. Stievano, J.F. Lambert, Adsorption and thermal con-
densation mechanisms of amino acids on oxide supports, 1. glycine
on silica, Langmuir 20 (2004) 914–923.
[28] S.L. Miller, A production of amino acids under possible primitive
Earth condition, Science 117 (1953) 528–529.
[29] C.D. Neish, A. Somogyi, H. Imanaka, J.I. Lunine, M.A. Smith, Rate
measurements of the hydrolysis of complex organic macromole-
cules in cold aqueous solution: implications for prebiotic chemistry
on the early Earth and Titan, Astrobiology 8 (2008) 273–287.
[30] S.M. Parkinson, M. Wainwright, K. Killham, Observations on oligo-
trophic growth of fungi on silica gel, Mycol. Res. 93 (1989) 529–534.
[31] M. Wainwright, N.C. Wickramasinghe, J.V. Narlikar, P. Rajaratnem,
Microorganisms cultured from atmospheric air samples obtained at
41 km., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 218 (2003) 161–165.
[32] M. Wainwright, K. Al-Wajeeh, N.C. Wickramasinghe, J.V. Narlikar,
Did silicon aid in the establishment of the first bacterium? Int. J. .
Astrobiol. 2 (2003) 227–229.

Please cite this article as: S. Das, A possible spontaneous generation of silicon utilizing minimal containers as precursors
of life in the cosmos, Acta Astronautica (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2014.11.028i