European Expansion

The Commercial Revolution

Have you ever examined a map of Eastern Tennessee while residing in the western
state? Often, we observe the Eastern Hemisphere, noticing a substantial continent, Asia,
juxtaposed with the comparatively smaller European landmass. Despite their
geographical proximity, Europe appears insignificantly positioned on the immense
canvas of Asia. However, this perception is about to change, as Europeans venture
beyond their confines and establish a global presence.

I want to delve into the factors that prompted Europeans to embark on overseas
voyages during the Commercial Revolution. It is essential to comprehend these
motivations to understand the subsequent colonization of North America, where the
thirteen colonies would later become the United States. Consider the inhabitants of this
relatively small continent, lacking extensive experience with deep-sea exploration until
the 14th and 15th centuries. Suddenly, they begin navigating the vast oceans in
diminutive ships, facing perilous conditions.

The open ocean proves treacherous, even with modern technology. For instance, the
North Atlantic in winter can unleash waves of 40 to 60 feet, a daunting challenge for the
comparatively minuscule vessels used by early European explorers. The danger is
further heightened by hurricane-force winds that can alter a ship's course. Despite these
risks, what compelled Europeans to venture into this perilous domain, initially without a
full understanding of its dangers? To comprehend this, we must acknowledge the
evolving understanding these explorers gained over time.

Factors Encouraging Overseas Voyages

Trade with the East
1. Substantial trade btw. Europe & the East began during
the Crusades.
Trade with the East, marked by substantial interactions between Europe and the East,
traces its roots back to the Crusades. When Europeans engaged in the Crusades, they
encountered people in what is now known as the Middle East. These individuals had
established trade connections extending much farther to the east than the Middle East
itself. This contact sparked European interest in trading with distant regions during a
time of relative peace.
The Europeans discovered that the East offered a wealth of trade opportunities that
went beyond their immediate surroundings. The allure of exotic goods, such as spices
and silk, became particularly intriguing to the Europeans. These items were not readily
available in Europe, prompting a growing fascination with the potential benefits of
trade with the East. The Crusades acted as a catalyst, bringing Europeans into contact
with cultures that possessed coveted commodities, thereby kindling a desire for
overseas voyages in pursuit of these valuable trade items.

2. This profitable business became the monopoly of

a) Asian middlemen
b) Italian merchants from Venice and Genoa

The profitable trade with the East during the Commercial Revolution was dominated by
two essential groups. Firstly, there were Asian middlemen in the Middle East who
received goods from the Far East and then traded them to Europeans. Secondly, there
were Europeans who bought these goods, transported them back to Europe, and sold
them. The monopoly in this trade eventually came to be largely controlled by Italian
merchants, particularly those from the city-states of Venice and Genoa.

Venice and Genoa profited significantly from buying goods from Asian middlemen in
the Middle East and selling them in Europe. To ensure profitability and sustain their
businesses, the Italian merchants had to increase product prices. This was crucial as
making a profit was necessary for business survival. The Europeans who could afford
these exotic goods were mainly the nobility. The spices and herbs from the East,
described as having a fascinating and intense flavor, were of great interest to European
palates. However, due to the high cost, only a small number of Europeans, mainly the
nobility, could afford these exotic goods.

3. In the 15th cent., Portugal and Spain sought to smash this monopoly
by finding an all- water route to the Far East.
In the 15th century, Portugal and Spain aimed to challenge the prevailing trade
monopoly by seeking an all-water route to the Far East. Both nations sought to break
free from the constraints imposed by general needs and overarching monopolies
Both countries were determined to break free from this monopoly. The desire for trade
in the East and overseas voyages wasn't just about making money; it was also fueled by
the curiosity of the upper class in European society.

However, these changes didn't really affect the everyday lives of regular people,
especially peasants who were unaware of what was happening. Peasants didn't have the
money to support these overseas ventures, and they were more focused on their
immediate concerns, not caring much about the distant events unfolding.

European curiosity about the Far East as a result of:

1. reports of travelers to eastern Asia (Marco Polo of Venice, 13th cent.), and
European curiosity about the Far East during the Commercial Revolution was fueled by
reports from travelers to eastern Asia, such as Marco Polo in the 13th century. Although
not everyone cared about it, those who did were intrigued by the people, technology,
and developments in the Far East. This curiosity evolved over time, contributing to a
broader interest in the region during the Renaissance in Europe.

2. Renaissance quest for info. about the world’s size, shape, & people

European curiosity about the Far East during the Commercial Revolution was fueled by
the Renaissance, a period of renewed interest in knowledge and exploration. The
Renaissance, happening around 1300, marked the transition from medieval to modern
times. By the 16th century, it had spread to England and other places, now called the
early modern era.

The Renaissance sparked a general curiosity about the world's size, shape, and people.
This curiosity played a crucial role in encouraging overseas voyages during the
Commercial Revolution. Essentially, the Renaissance's emphasis on exploration and
adventure contributed to Europeans seeking to understand distant lands, making it a
significant factor in the age of overseas exploration.

Wealth & ambitions of the new national states

1. could finance expensive voyages by 16th cent.

During the Commercial Revolution in the 16th century, the emerging national states in
Europe were becoming more powerful. Instead of focusing solely on noble or royal
families, these states started taking pride in their countries as a whole. This shift in
attitude, coupled with growing wealth, allowed them to finance expensive overseas
voyages. The wealth and ambition of these new national states played a key role in
supporting and funding the significant exploration and expansion activities known as
the European Expansion.

2. rising middle classes desired increased trade

The European Expansion during the Commercial Revolution was driven by the wealth-
seeking ambitions of newly established national states and the increasing desire for
trade among the rising middle classes. By the 16th century, national states aimed to
accumulate wealth and enhance their influence, while the middle classes sought
prosperity through increased trade. The pursuit of increased trade as a means of
economic growth and the establishment of dominance on the global stage became
driving forces propelling European nations into uncharted territories.

3. their absolute monarchs sought colonial empires

During the European Expansion of the Commercial Revolution, the pursuit of wealth
and ambitions by new national states was a driving force. In particular, absolute
monarchs emerged as key players seeking colonial empires. However, the attempt to
establish a more absolute monarchy faced challenges and did not always succeed.

One notable example is Louis XIV of France in the 16th century, who famously declared,
"I am the state." This assertion reflected confidence and, some would argue, arrogance
in claiming absolute authority. On the contrary, English monarchs, though not adopting
such absolute positions, still played a crucial role, especially after the Tudor period. They
provided support for exploration and colonization, recognizing the strategic value of
overseas ventures.

As the 17th century unfolded, it became increasingly difficult for monarchs to expand
their power solely within Europe. Rival modern states posed military threats, draining
resources and blood in conflicts. The cost and casualties associated with maintaining
dominance in Europe prompted monarchs to explore alternative avenues. Overseas
colonies emerged as a more cost-effective and less bloody means of expanding power.
By sending explorers and settlers to distant lands, monarchs could extend their
influence without the same level of conflict and expenditure experienced within Europe.
 Scientific Progress
1. Ren. geographical knowledge
The Renaissance era saw a profound impact of scientific progress on European
exploration. Surviving explorers returning from their journeys played a crucial role in
expanding geographical knowledge. They shared valuable information about newly
discovered places, aiding cartographers and mapmakers in updating and enhancing
maps. This collaborative effort resulted in more accurate and detailed maps over time,
providing seafarers with essential tools for navigating the open ocean and contributing
significantly to the success of overseas voyages.

2. improved maps
Continuous improvement of maps emerged as a key factor in the success of overseas
voyages during the Commercial Revolution. Explorers, surviving the challenges of the
unknown, contributed valuable insights and geographical information upon their return.
This information was utilized by cartographers to update maps, reflecting new
discoveries and details about explored lands. The evolving maps became increasingly
reliable and comprehensive, serving as indispensable tools for navigators in the open
sea. The reliance on traditional land navigation techniques diminished, highlighting the
pivotal role of accurate and up-to-date maps in facilitating and encouraging further
exploration and expansion.

3. a better compass for determining direction

During the European Expansion in the Commercial Revolution, one crucial factor that
encouraged overseas voyages was scientific progress, particularly advancements in
navigation technology. In the military, land navigation relies on landmarks, but when
navigating vast oceans where no landmarks exist, technology becomes essential. The
Europeans, although not the original developers, encountered two crucial navigation
tools and improved upon them.

The first tool is a primitive compass, initially a piece of metal on a small floating
straw. It would align itself with the Earth's magnetic field, indicating north and south.
While the Europeans didn't fully comprehend the science behind it, they recognized
its practical use. Over time, they refined this basic technology into a more
sophisticated compass suitable for open-sea navigation. Despite the challenges of
rough seas, this compass allowed sailors to determine direction even in adverse
weather conditions.
 Beyond knowing the cardinal directions, effective navigation on the open ocean also
required determining latitude and longitude. The ability to pinpoint one's location in
terms of north-south (N-S) and east-west (E-W) coordinates was crucial. This not
only helped sailors find their way but also provided a precise location on a map.

4. use of astrolabe for determining latitude

The passage discusses one of the factors that encouraged overseas voyages during
the European Expansion in the Commercial Revolution: scientific progress,
particularly the use of the astrolabe for determining latitude. The astrolabe was a
tool used by astronomers to measure the distance of heavenly bodies from the
horizon, aiding in navigation. By making charts of celestial movements, sailors could
determine their location and direction.

The passage further explains that determining east and west was more challenging,
and the ability to accurately measure this would only be developed in the 18th
century with the invention of a spring-loaded clock, known as a chronometer by
John Harrison. This clock had a standard time set at Greenwich, England, serving as a
reference for sailors. The importance of having a precise time standard is highlighted,
as it enables sailors to calculate their position based on the difference between local
time and Greenwich time.

Portugal 1st to Reach the East

• Motives of Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)
Portugal, being the first country to break the trade monopoly held by the Genoese
and Venetians, played a crucial role in the European Expansion during the
Commercial Revolution. The driving force behind this movement was Prince Henry
the Navigator (1394-1460). In 1460, he expressed a keen interest in navigation and
was instrumental in establishing a navigation school in Portugal. Contrary to earlier
beliefs, it is now understood that he was not directly involved in the actual
development of Portuguese navigation. The ideas that were once thought to be
pivotal, such as those related to transgender issues, were not directly connected to
Portuguese navigation.

1. sought a Christian kingdom that would be an ally against the Muslims

His primary objective was to establish a Christian kingdom in the southern region of
Africa to forge an alliance against the Muslims. The Portuguese sought to find a
Christian ally in their fight against Islam, and this goal influenced their interest in
reaching the East.

2. sought new trade possibilities for Portugal

His primary motivation was to seek lucrative trade possibilities for Portugal, particularly
in the East. Under his influence, Portugal became the first European nation to reach the
East, marking a significant milestone in global exploration. Prince Henry's vision and
determination led Portugal to explore uncharted territories and establish trade routes,
laying the foundation for the country's dominance in overseas trade.

3. sought to extend Christianity

One significant objective was the extension of Christianity. Prince Henry aimed to
establish a Christian kingdom in regions dominated by Islam, particularly in South
Africa. This strategic move involved converting people to Christianity in the southern
areas influenced by Islam. The overarching goal was to expand Christian influence in
these territories and assert Portugal's presence during overseas voyages.

• Portuguese sea captains pushed southward along the Atlantic coast of Africa
Portuguese sea captains, particularly those trained at the navigation school established
by Henry and others, were the pioneers in the European Expansion during the
Commercial Revolution. Hindered by the limitations of their ships and lack of
knowledge about long-distance voyages, they initially navigated southward along the
Atlantic coast of Africa. The primary motivation for this journey was the pursuit of a
route to the Far East, aiming to bypass the Genoese monopoly on trade. The
geographical challenge posed by the southern tip of Africa compelled them to explore
alternative routes, marking the beginning of overseas voyages during this era.

• 1441 – Portuguese ships reached the Senegal River, just north of Cape Verde

1. brought home a cargo of sub-Saharan Africans

In 1441, Portuguese ships reached the Senegal River, just north of Cape Verde. This
marked a significant development as it allowed the Portuguese to bring home a cargo
of sub-Saharan Africans.
 2. Portugal had inadvertently found a way around the traditional, trans-Sahara
slave route from central Africa to the Mediterranean
The importance of this date lies in the fact that, until then, Europeans had been
obtaining slaves through Islamic or Muslim middlemen in North Africa, following the
traditional trans-Sahara slave route from central Africa to the Mediterranean. However,
with the discovery of the Senegal River entry into the Atlantic Ocean, the Portuguese
inadvertently found a new route. This breakthrough enabled them to directly engage in
the slave trade, bypassing the need for Muslim intermediaries. As a result, slaves
became more accessible and affordable for the Portuguese, similar to their quest for
direct trade routes to the Far East. This discovery initiated a shift in the dynamics of the
slave trade, reducing reliance on North African intermediaries and making the process
more economically viable for Portugal.

• 1488 – Bartholomew Diaz reached the tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope
In 1488, Portuguese navigator Bartholomew Diaz accomplished a significant feat by
reaching the tip of Africa, known as the Cape of Good Hope. As he navigated
southward, he observed the land curving away to the north, marking the apparent end
of Africa. However, instead of continuing his journey eastward, Diaz hesitated. The
Portuguese, at this point, were not eager to engage in extensive trade and had
reservations about the potential challenges and costs involved in pursuing further
voyages. Consequently, Bartholomew Diaz returned without making substantial
progress, leaving an impression of uncertainty about the viability of further exploration.

• 1497-98 – Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape & sailed on to India da Gama returned w/
a cargo worth 60 times the cost of the voyage
In 1497-98, Vasco da Gama, another Portuguese explorer, embarked on a subsequent
voyage with the determination to reach India. Sailing around the Cape of Good Hope,
he successfully navigated to India and returned with a valuable cargo that was 60 times
the cost of the entire voyage. Unlike Bartholomew Diaz, da Gama's journey was
economically fruitful, and the profits from the trade encouraged further overseas
voyages by the Portuguese.

This successful venture marked a turning point, demonstrating the potential for
lucrative trade routes and establishing a precedent for subsequent explorations. Vasco
da Gama's achievement not only contributed to the economic motivation behind
European expansion but also set the stage for Portugal to become a dominant player in
the emerging global trade network. The profits gained from da Gama's expedition laid
the foundation for continued European exploration and expansion during the
Commercial Revolution.

Spain
Financed two significant
expeditions
1. Christopher Columbus- 1492
a. Genoese
b. Planned to reach East by sailing westward across Atlantic
c. He failed. Why?
d. His way was blocked by two continents hitherto unknown to Europeans
e. He thought that he had reached islands off the coast of Asia
f. This “new world” was publicized by Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci,
hence “America”

Early expeditions set the stage for the journey undertaken by Christopher Columbus in
1492. At the time, Columbus, a Genoese explorer, secured financing from the Spaniards
for his ambitious plan to reach the East by sailing westward across the Atlantic.

Columbus believed, as did most educated individuals of his time, that the Earth was
round. However, some Europeans still held onto the outdated notion of a flat Earth. By
the Renaissance, a growing number of educated people had discarded this idea in light
of the evidence supporting a round Earth.

Columbus assumed that by sailing west, he would eventually reach the Far East and
land on what was then called Cathay or what we now know as Japan. However, his
understanding of the Earth's size was flawed. He believed that after sailing west, he
would come across a landmass connected to Asia. This misconception led him to
embark on his first voyage, intending to find a westward route to Asia.

In his first voyage, Columbus encountered islands, initially thinking he had reached the
outskirts of Asia. Throughout his life, he maintained this misconception, persistently
believing that if he continued westward, he would eventually find the Asian mainland.
His subsequent voyages aimed at achieving this goal, but he never realized that he had
not discovered Asia.

Traditionally credited with "discovering America," Columbus unknowingly encountered

two continents unknown to the europeans. However, due to his lack of awareness about
his discovery, he did not give them a name. Interestingly, Columbus died in 1506
without realizing the magnitude of his contribution to world geography.

Despite his discoveries in the new world, Columbus faced challenges and conflicts with
Spanish authorities. Accusations of mismanagement and fraud led to his imprisonment.
Traditionally credited with "discovering America," Columbus, from a European
standpoint, introduced the entire New World to Europe.

Although, upon his death in 1506, Columbus remained unaware of his discovery.
Another Italian explorer, Amerigo Vespucci, involved in various explorations, was
credited with the discovery on a map drawn up in 1507, a year after Columbus's death.
The continents were named after Amerigo Vespucci, and Columbus did not receive the
recognition he might have expected.

Columbus, responsible for bringing two continents into the European worldview, was
not aware that, in 1492, Europeans were largely ignorant of their existence. While some
Scandinavians had visited the area of Newfoundland earlier, the memory of those
settlements had faded. Columbus's voyages marked a turning point, introducing the
continents of North and South America to the European consciousness.

2. Ferdinand Magellan - 1519

a. Portuguese
b. rounded southern tip of South America & crossed the Pacific
c. killed in Philippine Islands
d. 1522 – one ship of the several that set out arrived in Spain
e. first circumnavigation of the world
f. 44,000 mile journey proved conclusively that the world was round

Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer, led a significant expedition financed by

Spain in 1519. Under his command, five ships were dispatched to explore a new route
to Asia, as the existing options along the coast of Africa were already claimed by the
Portuguese. Magellan aimed to discover a westward route, following the footsteps of
Christopher Columbus.
The Europeans, including Magellan, were aware of the vastness of the world, realizing
that it was more extensive than initially thought. The expedition faced challenges, as the
ships were not designed for extended periods at sea, and they required maintenance
along the way.

The journey began by sailing along the South American coast to find a passage around
the continent. Magellan's expedition ventured south, encountering difficulties such as
treacherous weather conditions near the tip of South America, now known as Cape
Horn. The crew faced the challenge of navigating the vast Pacific Ocean, which proved
to be far from easy due to unpredictable weather and typhoons.

After reaching the Philippines in 1521, Magellan's decision to involve himself in a local
conflict led to his unfortunate death. Only one ship out of the five managed to
complete the circumnavigation. The survivors, comprising 18 men, faced extreme
hardships during their journey across the Pacific, enduring scarcity of food and adverse
weather conditions.

Antonio Pigafetta, one of the survivors, documented the difficulties they faced,
providing a firsthand account of the challenging conditions. Despite the hardships, the
expedition contributed to a groundbreaking discovery—the realization that the Earth
was much larger than previously believed, with a total journey spanning approximately
44,000 miles.

Upon returning, the expedition's findings debunked the notion of a flat Earth,
reinforcing the understanding that the world is round. This revelation had a profound
impact on European navigation techniques and confirmed the feasibility of
circumnavigating the globe.

In conclusion, Ferdinand Magellan's expedition, financed by Spain, not only aimed to

find a new route to Asia but also played a crucial role in expanding the understanding
of the Earth's size and shape, ultimately reshaping European perspectives on global
navigation.

European Explorations, 15th-18th Centuries

•Goals of Western European explorers
1. find a “northwest passage” through or around North America to the Far East
2. secure gold, silver, gems, & other valuable products
3. convert native peoples to Christianity
4. establish claims to new lands
5. establish trading posts and settlements
•European colonial empires established (16th-18th centuries)
1. Asia
a. Portugal – est’d important trading post at Goa in India, as well as others
b. Spain – annexed Philippine Islands
c. France – est’d trading posts in India (e.g., Pondicherry)
d. Holland – eventually won control of East Indies by capturing Portuguese posts
& est’ing others e. England
i) est’d trading posts in India at Bombay, Madras, & Calcutta
ii) gained dominance over India in major war against France (1763)
iii) settled Australia
2. The “New World”
a. Portugal – settled Brazil
b. Spain – settled the West Indies, Florida, Texas, California, Mexico, Central America,
& South America (except Brazil) c. Holland
i) founded New Netherland in North America
ii) eventually seized Swedish colony of Delaware d. France
i) settled Canada along the St. Lawrence River, founding Quebec &
Montreal
ii) settled Great Lakes & Mississippi River regions, founding Detroit,
St. Louis, & New Orleans
e. England
i) settled ten colonies along Atlantic coast of North America
ii) eventually seized Delaware & New Netherland from Holland
iii) acquired Canada from France in major war
(1763)

Results of European Expansion: The Commercial

Revolution
•Expanded World Trade
1. goods imported to Europe helped improve European living standards
2. incr’d precious metals in European economies led to inflation
3. incr’d domestic & overseas demand for textiles led to the adoption of the domestic
system (home-based manufacturing) &, eventually, the factory system in order to
keep up w/ demand (circumventing old guild system)
4. development of insurance in order to reduce risk of loss of ships & goods from storm,
fire, & piracy (e.g., Lloyd’s of London, founded in 17th cent.)
•Shifted Economic Power
1. Europe’s major trade routes shifted from the Mediterranean & Baltic to the Atlantic
a. Western European nations, bordering Atlantic, incr’d their commerce, wealth,
& power
b. Italian city-states & north German cities declined in importance
2. Europe’s middle class – merchants, bankers, capitalists – grew in number & economic
power; they were not content, however, because: a. considered
inferior to landowning nobility
b. ruled by absolute monarchs (except in England)
c. lacked social status & political power
•Adopted Mercantilism – mercantilists argued that a nation must:
1. attract the max. amount of gold & silver, since wealth is measured in these metals
2. export more than it imports & receive payment for the difference in gold & silver
3. incr. exports by stimulating domestic industries w/ bounties (subsidies)
4. discourage imports of foreign manufactures by levying tariffs
5. acquire colonies to assure markets for manufactured goods & to guarantee sources of
raw materials
6. restrict colonial manufacturing, and
7. forbid colonies to trade w/ any country except the mother country (colonies exist for
the benefit of the mother country)