Research

Methodology I
Module II
Saumya Dhiman
Visiting Faculty, AIBAS
 Syllabus

● Meaning and types of Variables

● Identification of Research Problems, Defining and Delimiting
research problem
● Research Questions: Meaning and Steps for Identification of
good research questions
● Formulation of hypothesis: Meaning, Steps and Types of
Hypotheses (null and alternative).
 What is a Variable?
Research questions in
psychology are about
01 variables. 02
Variable means something
that is not fixed.
03 Kerliner defines it as,
“Property that takes on a
04
different value.”
A variable in research simply refers to a
person, place, thing, or phenomenon
that you are trying to measure in some
way.
Variables can be classified as Quantitative
or Qualitative based on characteristics.
Quantitative: On a continuum i.e.
ordered on magnitude.
Qualitative: Not expressed in magnitude.
E.g. Gender, Religion. Also called
categorical.
Types of variable: Based on role in the
study

Independent Dependent
An IV means under control of the researcher. These are the measured outcomes.
It is capable of bringing a change in the DV. The influence of IV is studied on them.
It is either manipulated or selected. Not manipulated.
A study can have more than 1 IV. Remember it depends on IV.
IV at least has to have 2 levels. E.g if your study
is attempting to study effects of music (rock,
classical, pop) on sleeping quality.
Extraneous
● Those variables which are not of interest (undesirable) to researcher but might
influence the behaviour being studied if not controlled properly and become
confounding.

● Any variable outside of independent and dependent variable.

● Let’s take an example:

A researcher devises a new learning strategy and examines its effectiveness in learning. He
approaches participants and divides them into two groups- 1) one group uses new strategy and
2) other uses strategy of their choice for 30 minutes both. They then appear for the test.
● Identify IV, and DV.
● What do you think will be EV?
●
Remember: All confounding variables are extraneous variables but not all extraneous variables are confounding
variables.
HW: Read and come how Extraneous variables are controlled.
Situational Environmental aspects Noise, Temperature, Lighting conditions Should be same for
all participants- standardized procedures.

Controlled through: Counterbalancing

Participants Individual differences in participants Mood, Intelligence, Anxiety, Attention. The

experimental design chosen can have an affect on participant variables.

Controlled through: Randomization

Experimenter The experimenter unconsciously conveys to participants how they should behave -
effects this is called experimenter bias. Giving unintentional cues to participants.
The personal attributes (e.g. age, gender, accent, manner etc.) of the experiment can
affect the behavior of the participants.

Demand All the clues in an experiment which convey to the participant the purpose of the
Characteristics research. Can change the results of an experiment if participants change their
behavior to conform to expectations.
Confounding
● It is an extraneous variable which researchers failed to control.
● It ‘‘covaries’’ with the independent variable and could provide an alternative explanation of the
results.
● That is, it changes at the same time the independent variable changes and consequently, can not
be separated from the effect of the independent variable.
● Let’s take an example.
● Does yoga lower anger levels in high school students?
● Identify IV, DV and EV here.
 EV Controlling
● Technique of Elimination: Simplest way to control EV is to eliminate it completely from the
experimental situations. However, it is too simple and thus, cannot be used to control many EV
like age, sex, intelligence.
● Constancy of Conditions: Holding EVs values constant for all participants in all conditions.
This can be done through holding the time of the day constant for all, constant lighting
conditions, similar instructions to all. To control orgasmic variables sich as sex, age or intelligence-
choose only homogenous participants i.e. same age, sex and IQ.
● Balancing:
1) researcher is unable to identify EV- Here, give equal treatment to all participants.
Consequently, wherever, the EVs operate influence both Experimental and Control Group in
equal manner. Therefore, effect is balanced.
2) Readily identified and special steps taken to control them. Researcher in such case divides
participants equally according to classification in both the groups.
 EV Controlling
● Counterbalancing: To control EV of amount of practice and fatigue. In some studies participants
are required to perform more than one tasks or under different experimental conditions this can lead
to either 1) practice effect or 2) fatigue. Counterbalancing technique is used to distribute these
practice and fatigue effects called order effects, equally all over conditions. Therefore, whatever their
effects, they tend to influence behaviour under each condition equally as each condition must occur
an equal number of times of times at each practice session. Besides, each condition must precede and
follow all other condition an equal number of times. It is used when each subject receives more than
one treatment and thus, an attempt is made to equally distribute practice and fatigue effects.
● Randomization: Each member has an equal chance of representation. It is used when experimenter
assumes some EV operates but cannot specify them and thus cannot use other methods of
controlling EVs. Random EVs distribution over control and experimental group equally across
different conditions. Randomization is most effective technique to control the attribute/organismic
relevant variables.
Balancing
Research Problem
➔ A research problem is the problem or issue that leads
to the need for a study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
➔ The problem comes from a void in the literature, and
conflict in research results in the literature, topics that
have been neglected in the literature; a need to lift up
the voice of marginalized participants; and “real-life”
problems found in the workplace, the home, the
community, and so forth.
➔ It is going to dictate your research design.
 What is a good problem? (Kerlinger,
1993)
● It should express a relationship between two or more variables.
● The problem should be stated clearly and unambiguously in
question form.
● Statement of a problem must be such to imply possibilities of
empirical testing.
Considerations in selecting a research
problem

Interest Magnitude
Very important. Narrow the topic down to something
Research is time consuming manageable, specific and clear.
which can be exhaustive. Consider the feasibility of your topic
carefully.
Considerations in selecting a research
problem

Measurement of
Level of Expertise
Concepts
Be clear about the concepts and how Make sure you have an adequate level of
you are going to measure them. expertise for the task you are proposing.
Do not use concepts in your research
problem that you are not sure how to
measure.
Considerations in selecting a research
problem
Relevance
Your study should have relevance to
the field of study, adds to literature
or can be of use to Policy making
decisions.
Availability of data
If your topic entails collection of information from
secondary sources (office records, client records,
census or other already-published reports, etc.) make
sure that this data is available and in the format you
want before finalising your topic
Considerations in selecting a research
problem

Ethical issues
In the course of conducting a research study, the study population may be adversely
affected by some of the questions (directly or indirectly); deprived of an intervention;
expected to share sensitive and private information; or expected to be simply
experimental ‘guinea pigs’.

How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical problems can be
overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem-formulation stage.
Identification of Research Problem
The understanding of the
known theories, facts and
ideas in the field of
researcher's interest
structures his/ her problem
searching domain. The
research focus is sharpened
by what he already knows,
what researches in his field
have been conducted and
what needs to be discovered.
A problem situation of
research may emerge from
the researcher's curiosity
about something shared,
seen, felt or wondered
about or through the
natural interest of a
researcher.
 Identification of Research Problem

Life situations, relationships A survey of suggestions for

New knowledge in the
established by related
field of researcher's interest
researchers and implications
coming through the new
advanced by technological
& rivals of books, journal
advancements constitute the
and researches extend a
problem situation.
situation for research.
further research given at the end
of research reports and reviews of
research projects, the gaps which
are there in a particular field of
educational research are helpful in
keeping the researcher informed
about what researches are going
on in the field in which he has the
competence and deeper
understanding.
 Defining a Research Problem

● After a problem has been selected, the next task for you is to
define it in a form amenable to research.
● The definition of a problem amounts to specifying it in detail
and narrowing it down to workable size
● This includes 3 steps: a) Statement of the Problem b)
Operationalization of Variables c) Evaluation of the problem

HW: 1) Read about the importance of defining a research problem

Statement of Operationalizat Evaluation of the
the Problem ion of Variables Problem
● Restrict the scope ● Remember, your research ● Is the problem
of your problem has to be specific researchable?
problem/question. enough to be studied but ● Is the problem new?
● Describe the not narrowed that it ● Is the problem
background, becomes trivial. significant?
theoretical ● Define your variables in ● Is the problem feasible
underpinnings,
operational terms. for the particular
make a hypothesis
which is workable, ● For instance, if your researcher?
and specific. research question looks at ● Refer to considerations
effectiveness of a drug, of RP
operationalize what does
effectiveness mean here.
 Delimiting a Research Problem
Delimitations define the scope of the study. That is, they set the boundaries of the study.
For instance, the how many treatment conditions are going to be there, what will be the
measurements, participants to be included, equipments to be used etc.
Steps in Delimiting a research problem:
● Limited in terms of variables
● Limited to the area of level.
● Limited in sample size.
● Method of research
● Measuring instrument
● Techniques of research (methods of analyzing data)
● Limitations to vary from problem to problem.
 Research
Questions
A research question is a way of expressing your interest
in a problem or phenomenon (Kumar, 2011).
 Qualitative RP
● A qualitative RQ is not concerned
with objectives, or hypothesis
formation. They begin with what
or how.
● “What is it like for a mother to live
with a teenage child who is dying of
cancer?”
● Avoid using directional words.
● Research Question can change
during the study.
Quantitative RP
● Objectives, hypothesis, variables are central.
● Quantitative research questions inquire
about the relationships among variables that
the investigator seeks to know.
● Words like affect, influence, impact,
determine, cause, and relate.
● Would students in classrooms of teachers
receiving professional development in early
literacy skills show greater gains in cognitive
development when compared to those in
control classrooms (Landry, Swank, Smith,
Assel, & Gunnewig, 2006)?
The pattern of arriving at research question is:
Topic- Research Problem- Purpose Statement-
Research Questions

E.g. Distance Learning- Lack of students in distance

education classes- To study why students do not attend
distance education classes at a community college- Does the
use of Web site technology in the classroom deter students
from enrolling in a distance education class?

H.W: Search for Criteria of good research questions

Steps in Research Question
Identification
 Hypothesis
“Students who receive counselling will show a greater increase in creativity than
students not receiving counselling”

“The relationships among gender identity, religiosity, and social actions are
weaker among Arab women than among Jewish women.”

“There will be no difference in end of year reading assessments for students who
do participate in the literacy intervention as compared to those who do not.”
 Meaning
A hypothesis is a tentative statement which is testable and
Characteristics of a hypothesis:
describes a relationship between two or more variables.
1) Clear and concise.
“A hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be
2) Capable of being tested.
proven or disproven by valid and reliable data – it is in
3) Should state relationship between the variables.
order to obtain these data that we perform our study”
4) Should be limited in scope and be specific.
(Grinnell, 1988).
5) Simple language.
The importance of hypotheses lies in their ability to bring 6) Be consistent with the existing literature.
direction, specificity and focus to a research study. 7) Hypothesis should be amenable to testing
within a reasonable time.
Is based on rationale. 8) Hypothesis must actually explain what it claims
to explain; it should have empirical reference.
 Steps in Hypothesis Formulation
Step 1: Identify your variables of interest. For Points to consider while formulating the
instance, you might be interested in hypothesis:
understanding the role of openness to
experience in prosocial behavior of young 1) Expected relationship or differences
adults. between the variables.
2) Operational definition of variable
Step 2: Next, translate your suspicion about the 3) Hypotheses are formulated following the
relationship between the two into a testable review of literature.
research hypothesis based on your readings.

“Those high on openness to experiences will

score higher on prosocial behavior than those
who are not high on openness to experiences.”

Step 3: Test it.

HW: Read about why hypothesis is important.
 Hypothesis and types
Null (HO)
● No relationship or difference between
the variables exist.
● “There is no difference between the
learned optimism scores of males and
females.”
● Also called non-directional.
● The proponents of null hypothesis
emphasize that the researcher must
remain unbiased throughout his/her
research efforts.
● It assumes that observed difference is
attributable by sampling error and
true difference is zero
Alternate (H1/Ha)
● Represents all other possibilities and
it indicates the nature of relationship.
● Can be directional and
non-directional.
● “There is a difference between learned
optimism scores of males and
females”
● “The learned optimism scores of
females will be higher than males”
 References
Creswell J.W. & Creswell J.D. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed
Methods Approaches (5th ed.). Sage Publications Ltd.
Kumar R. (2011). Research Methodology: A step by step guide for beginners (3rd ed.). Sage
Publication.
Singh A.K. (2017). Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences. Bharati
Bhawan
Singh Y.K. (2006). Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics. New Age International
(P) Ltd., Publishers