International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12008-024-01868-1

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

A simulation-based optimization evaluating process and feed system

effect in plastic injection molding
Joshua M. Onyiego1 · James M. Wakiru1 · James N. Keraita1

Received: 21 December 2023 / Accepted: 27 April 2024

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag France SAS, part of Springer Nature 2024

Abstract
Although technological advancements have brought about the inventions of hot runner injection molding machines, cold
runner injection molding machines are still in application and are subject to many defects associated with filling such as
short shots and sink marks. Many studies have, therefore, been carried out in an attempt to optimize and minimize defects.
These studies have, however, not studied several combinations of input parameters and their effects on sink marks and
short shots. The highlighted inadequacies of previous studies have led this research to investigate the effect of variation of
feed system features and process parameters on short shot and sink mark defects. Through Computer Aided Engineering
(CAE), Design of Experiments (DoE), and data analysis the study determined the effects of variation of process param-
eters, runner and gate shapes on the selected performance measures. A Taguchi L27 orthogonal array was undertaken for
optimization based on three levels of runner shape, gate shape, melt temperature, injection pressure limit and filling time
and the responses in short shot possibility and sink marks determined at each input combination based on DIX-SI grade
polystyrene material. Parameters found to have the most critical effect on short shot defects included melt temperature,
injection pressure, and runner shape, whereas those with the most critical effect on sink marks were fill time, gate shape
and runner shape.

Keywords Runner design · Gate design · Short shots · Sink marks · Injection molding

1 Introduction a small cross-section and length is important to minimize

The injection molding feed system components include the
runner and the gate, among other components [1]. The size
and geometry of these two key components largely influence
the mold product’s characteristics. Where gates are under-
sized, the flow of the molten plastic is restricted. The effect
of flow restriction is an introduction of residual stresses in
the final molded part [2]. More enormous gates fill the mold
cavity faster and have lesser associated residual stresses in
the final molded part [3]. Selecting a runner system with
Joshua M. Onyiego
joshuabrian26@gmail.com
James M. Wakiru
james.wakiru@dkut.ac.ke
James N. Keraita
james.keraita@dkut.ac.ke
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dedan Kimathi
University of Technology, Nyeri, Kenya
scrap rate [4]. The exploration of elliptical runner systems
aims to optimize the favorable qualities the round runner
system offers.
Commonly, existing edge gates have corners that cause
turbulence in the polymer melt as it leaves the runner sys-
tem and enters the mold cavity. The turbulence caused by
the corners of the edge gates leads to defects that may be
internal or external. Corners in the rectangular edge gates
also make it difficult to remove the solidified scrap from
the gate after degating to give way for the injection of the
new part [5]. Design of edge gates with rounded corners
(elliptical) to eliminate the corner will therefore be impor-
tant towards reducing turbulence, reducing internal and
external defects on the molded parts, and making it easier to
remove the scrap from the gate system [6]. Edge gates with
rounded corners will also be more accessible to degate, and
the resulting blemish on the surface of the molded part will
be less visible. Rounded edge gates will also lead to a reduc-
tion in the scrap rate produced in each injection cycle. Due

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to the reduced turbulence with the new gate design, short
shots will be reduced [7].
Optimization of process parameters and injection mold
feed system design have been the central theme of most
injection molding research. Previous studies have shown
that applying elliptical runner systems reduces the rate
scrap rate and cycle time [8]. Studies have also been car-
ried out on the application of rounded (elliptical) gates and
have shown that elliptical gates have advantages, including
reduced defects on the injected parts. Work in feed system
design is extensive but is primarily concerned with either
the elliptical runner or elliptical gates in cold runner injec-
tion mold separately. However, growing evidence shows
that integrating the elliptical runners and gates simultane-
ously in a cold runner injection mold could provide robust
decision support towards reduced defects and maintenance
costs. This is because integration of both elliptical runners
and gates provides the opportunity to tap the desirable quali-
ties of both the elliptical runners and gates.
Therefore, this study aims to determine the effects of
integrating the elliptical runner and the elliptical gate to see
its overall performance. Unlike previous studies where a
generally elliptical shape was studied compared to a circular
one, this study established the implication of different aspect
ratios of the ellipse shape on the injection molding output.
Ellipses with aspect ratios of 0.6 and 0.8 were considered
and compared to the circular runners and gates. We will be
able to achieve this aim through part design guided by lit-
erature review, followed by selection of process parameter,
then design of the simulation model, the identification of the
critical input parameters then finally optimization.
2 Relevant literature
Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) modelling has revo-
lutionized manufacturing processes as it has facilitated
the off-line study and optimization of the manufacturing
process. In plastic injection molding, the application CAE
packages has necessitated the modelling of polymer melt
flow and changes in its properties throughout the molding
period [9]. Tracking the polymer melt property changes has
necessitated in-depth study and process optimization for
defect control [10]. CAE has thus become an essential tool
for plastic injection molding research.
Studies have shown that plastic injection molding
defects are majorly caused by process parameter settings,
mold design features, part geometry and polymer material
composition [11]. Mold design features that influence a
molded part quality include the cavity layout, feed system
design, cooling system design and ejection system. Since
feed system is one of the most critical mold systems, much
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International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)
research has been carried out on feed system optimization
for process improvement. Plastic injection molding is a
complex process dependent on a combination of many pro-
cess parameters [12]. Each of these parameters have specific
contribution to the molded product defects. The complexity
of the process arises from the fact that the process parame-
ters have varying degrees of influence to each defect; hence,
the optimization of process parameters to control one defect
may end up encouraging another defect. Melt temperature,
mold temperature, injection rate, injection pressure, packing
pressure, packing duration, and cooling time are some of
the main process variables that affect the part’s quality [12].
Regarding injection molding process optimization, Tagu-
chi optimization has been widely used due to its ability to
generate maximum information from a minimum num-
ber of experimental runs. Taguchi states that two primary
tools must be utilized to accomplish any quality objective
or create any robust design. The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N
ratio) measures one quality at a time, and orthogonal arrays,
used to examine several factors simultaneously, are the two
components in question [13]. Taguchi used the S/N ratio to
measure the degree to which a quality feature deviates from
the desired value. Taguchi uses average values, which are
then used to convert the test results into feasible values in
evaluating the optimum parameter combination [14]. One of
the objectives of this research is to minimize the short shot
and sink marks in the injection molding process. The quality
characteristic used is the smaller, the better [15]. The pro-
posed technique allows calculating the optimal output level
corresponding to optimal inputs.
Various studies have made significant strides on optimiz-
ing feed system shapes for defect minimization. This has
been majorly on investigating the performance of elliptical
shaped gates and elliptical runners separately in an injec-
tion molding system. A study by Moayyedian, Abhary &
Marian [8] introduced a new injection mold elliptical run-
ner cross section design for short shot defect minimization.
This study investigated the effects of the utilization of a feed
system comprising an elliptical runner and semi-round gates
on the short-shot defects. Moayyedian, Abhary & Marian
[16] then studied the effects of introducing a modified edge
gate to short shot defect possibility using round runners
and rounded edge gates. The available studies have studies
elliptical runners and gates separately. A gap therefore exists
to study the combination of elliptical runners and elliptical
gate and to assess their effects on defects such as short shots
and sink marks. This study will not only select study ellipti-
cal runners and gates it will also vary the aspect ratio of the
elliptical runners to see its effects on the selected perfor-
mance measures.
International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

Fig. 1 Conceptual framework of

the study

3 Methods Table 1 Polymer material properties

The methodology of this study will be discussed in this sec-
tion as we explain the steps taken towards the generation of
the research data.
3.1 Study design
The study followed a conceptual design framework as
shown in the Fig. 1 below. This was achieved through three
main phases of part design, numerical simulations and opti-
mization as illustrated on Fig. 1. In the conceptual frame-
work, a five-step methodology is adopted. The first part
of the five-step methodology is the design of the part to
be injected and the design of the feed system. The process
parameters are then selected based on the properties of the
selected material and the injection molding machine to be
used [17]. A simulation is then created which will be run at
each input combination to obtain unique responses for each
combination. ANOVA, Pareto charts and main effects will
then be used to determine the critical variables for outputs.
Optimization is the final step of the five-step conceptual
framework (Figure 1).
3.2 Governing equations
The injection molding process was modelled through CAE
and the polymer melt flow was governed by generalizations
of conservation of mass, momentum and energy Eqs. 1–3
[18].
Dρ
Dt
= −ρ∇ · u (1)
ρ ∂v = ρg − ∇p + ∇ · ηD − ρv · ∇v (2)
∂t
ρCp
 ∂T
+ v · ∇T = βT ∂P
+ v · ∇P + η γ̇ 2 + k∇2T (3)

∂t ∂t
Polymer Polystyrene
Grade name DIX-SI
Ejection temperature 120 °C
Transition temperature 100 °C
Young modulus 3000 MPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.38
Max. shear rate 39,900 1/s
Max. shear stress 0.252 MPa
Fiber percentage Not available
Where t is the time, ρ is the density, v is the specific vol-
ume, u is the speed vector, P is the hydrostatic pressure, T
is the temperature, Cp is the specific heat, g is the gravita-
tional, γ̇ is the shear rate.
Boundary and initial conditions applied included speci-
fication of the melt injection location, mold wall tempera-
ture, initial melt temperature and pressure. The polymer
melt flow was assumed to be laminar and gravity and inertia
forces neglected [19]. The solver was based on the finite ele-
ment method, and a mesh size of 0.6 mm was selected upon
a series of mesh refinement processes.
3.3 Part and feed system design
To ensure that simulation only shows defects and outputs
that are a function of the selected flow system, the part
design was undertaken in such a manner that minimized
defects that may have occurred as a result of part design.
Part features that may have resulted in defects included
sharp corners and thinness in the range of fractions of a mil-
limeter [20]. To ensure that such defects are minimized, a
simplified molded part design was selected.
The polymer material selected for this study was DIX-
SI grade polystyrene that Mitsubishi Chemical Japan pro-
duces, with major properties illustrated in Table 1.

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 International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

Fig. 2 Developed circular section

feed system

This study specified a two-plate mold, and the feed sys- Table 2 Inputs and levels
tem comprised gates, primary runners, and a sprue. The Factor Levels
selection of three runners was done to carry other compari- Runner shape Elliptical Circular Ellipti-
sons of the different types of proposed runner systems. A 0.8 cal 0.6
Gate shape Elliptical Circular Rect-
circular and two elliptical runners (AR of 0.8 and 0.6) were
0.8 angular
designed. The gates selected for this study took three forms: Fill time (s) 1.5 2.0 2.5
a circular pinpoint gate, a rectangular edge gate, and an Injection pressure setting 80 100 120
elliptical gate were combined with other inputs to determine (MPa)
the best combination of runners and gates. A gating appro- Melt temperature (°C) 210 230 250
priateness test was run on the planned part, and the most
appropriate gate location was selected. Figure 2 illustrates 3.4 Taguchi optimization
the developed feed system configuration.
In a study on predicting the presence of short shots, the Five factors were selected, namely: the shape of the runner
cavity pressure after the experimental run was used to indi- (A), the shape of the gate (B), filling time (C), Injection pres-
cate the presence of short shots [16]. A high ratio of points sure limit (D), and melt temperature (E). The factors were
towards point towards indicates a higher likelihood of short evaluated on a three-level basis while applying the Taguchi
shots in an experimental run. The short shot possibility fac- analysis method as illustrated on Table 2. The three-factor
tors are then calculated for all the experimental runs, and the level was selected over the two-factor level due to an intent
results are tabulated as shown in the table below. The sink to achieve higher accuracy in the output [21].
mark values per experimental run were provided in millime- Taguchi S/N ratios were utilized for optimization. As a
ters after every run in the simulation study. result of the fact that the purpose of this study was to reduce
the sink mark depth and short shot defects, the quality

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International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)
feature of “the smaller, the better” was utilized [22]. This
was determined based on Eq. 4.
η = −10log (MSD) (4)
Where MSD refers to the output characteristic’s mean-
square deviation. The following equation can be used to
determine MSD for the quality feature: the smaller the bet-
ter [23].
N
MSD = 1
N i=1 Yi
2
(5)
Where Yi is the sink mark depth for the i-th test, and N is the
total number of data points.
In this study, short shot possibility factor was calculated
based on the maximum cavity pressure and the specified
injection pressure limit [16]. A high ratio points towards a
higher likelihood of short shots in an experimental run.
4 Results and discussions
4.1 Part and feed system design
A two-cavity injection mold was developed as a finite ele-
ment model, and the feed system design was validated
through a fill analysis. Figure 3 shows a gate contribution
test from fill analysis.
The similarity of the flow patterns in the two cavities
suggests a balanced flow, which is crucial for multi-cavity
injection molds. The gate contribution finding, as shown
Fig. 3 Gate contribution test from fill analysis
in Fig. 3 above, which indicates that each gate contributes
50% to melt flow into the cavities, further confirms this.
The mold cavity can have lower and more consistent melt
pressures thanks to even filling. In identical part molding,
balancing the feed system has three main goals: balancing
the fill time into the cavities, the shear rates, and the packing
pressure inside the cavities.
4.2 CAE simulation results
Table 3 illustrates an excerpt of the results obtained from
numerical simulations. From the excerpt, we can see the
combination of inputs for in five of the twenty-seven experi-
mental runs that were carried out.
4.3 Critical operating variables
A two-way ANOVA was carried out at 95% confidence inter-
val (α = 0.05) for the defects. Pareto charts were constructed
to visualize the significance of the input parameters on the
defects. For the output response sink marks, the Pareto chart
as shown in Fig. 4 was developed.
Table 4 shows ANOVA results for sink mark depth.
P-Values less than 0.05 indicated significant inputs which
include gate shape, filling time, runner shape and gate shape
interaction, and gate shape and filling time interaction.
The interaction of gate shape and filling time has the most
significant effect on the formation of sink marks. Gate shape
and filling time both influence the pressure characteristics
of the molding system and critically the mold. This means
that the effect of gate shape on the sink mark is accelerated
by the level of filling time, and the effect of filling time on
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 International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

Table 3 Excerpt of the results of sink marks and short shots from the simulations
Run Shape of runner Shape of gate Filling time Injection Melt Temp. Max cavity Short shot pos- Sink
(s) pressure limit (°C) pressure sibility factor mark
(MPa) (MPa) depth
(mm)
3 Elliptical 0.8 Elliptical 0.8 2 100 250 33.57 0.336 0.1252
4 Elliptical 0.8 Circular 1.5 80 230 41.85 0.523 0.1204
11 Circular Elliptical 0.8 1.5 120 210 51.20 0.427 0.1277
22 Elliptical 0.6 Circular 2 120 230 45.35 0.378 0.1089
27 Elliptical 0.6 Rectangular 1.5 100 250 36.06 0.361 0.1132

Fig. 4 Pareto chart of sink mark defect

the sink mark is accelerated by the shape of the sink mark
accelerated by the level of filling time, and, the effect of
filling time on the sink mark is accelerated by the shape of
the gate used.
The gate affects pressure characteristic of the molding
system by determining the resistance with which the melt
flow is met with [24]. Gates that allow for smoother flow of
melt into the mold such as the circular, and elliptical, allow
for smooth pressures in the mold system and a coincident
reduction in sink mark occurrence [16]. Gates with sharp
points in their geometry such as rectangular gates cause
sharp pressure transitions in the flow and greater possibility
for sink marks.
One critical aspect of the flowing plastic is the flow distri-
bution and flow patterns imposed on the flow by the conduit
geometry. Since the gate is the immediate part preceding the
mold cavity, its effect on flow distribution within the mold is
more significant. As such, its effect on sink mark formation
is significant [25]. Nevertheless, the gate receives polymer
melt with a particular flow distribution imposed by the run-
ner. Therefore, to optimize flow distribution in the mold and
consequently the product sink marks using gate geometry
requires a consideration of the runner geometry too.
The interaction between gate shape and runner shape is
significant to the formation of sink marks in injection mold-
ing products. This conclusion is reached from observation

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International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

Table 4 ANOVA for sink mark defect (runner and gate) geometry and the filling time affect the
Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-value P-value formation of sink marks significantly.
Regression 12 0.003808 0.000317 6.95 0.001
The Pareto chart in Fig. 5 was constructed to visualize the
Runner shape 1 0.000031 0.000031 0.67 0.426
significant and the insignificant input parameters for short
*Gate shape 1 0.001271 0.001271 27.84 0.000
shots. Table 5 shows the ANOVA results for short shots.
*Filling time 1 0.000239 0.000239 5.24 0.038
Injection pressure 1 0.000052 0.000052 1.14 0.303 Melt temperature is the most significant parameter for
Melt temperature 1 0.000014 0.000014 0.31 0.588 the occurrence of short shot due to its influence on the flow
*Runner 1 0.000504 0.000504 11.05 0.005 characteristics of the polymer melt. Higher melt tempera-
shape*gate shape tures translate to reduced viscosity of the polymer melt [28].
Runner 1 0.000080 0.000080 1.75 0.207 This reduction in viscosity causes an easier advancement
shape*filling time of the melted polymer in the mold and hence the mold gets
Runner shape*melt 1 0.000009 0.000009 0.20 0.661
filled well [26]. Therefore, at higher polymer melt tempera-
temperature
*Gate shape*filling 1 0.002578 0.002578 56.48 0.000
ture, the occurrence of short shot is less probable. The oppo-
time site is true for lower polymer melt temperatures because the
Gate shape*melt 1 0.000002 0.000002 0.04 0.850 viscosity of the polymer melt increases with the reduction of
temperature the melt temperature. The plastic does not, therefore, reach
Filling time*melt 1 0.000001 0.000001 0.01 0.910 all sections of the mold completely, resulting in a short shot.
temperature
The effect of injection pressure on short shot is signifi-
Injection 1 0.000000 0.000000 0.00 0.970
pressure*melt cant, as observed from the Pareto chart. Injection pressure
temperature is a significant parameter in the context of short shot occur-
Error 14 0.000639 0.000046 rence since it determines the amount of force with which the
Total 26 0.004447 plastic melt is advanced forwards through the runners and
gates and into the mold cavity [29]. The occurrence of short
of the results of the Pareto Chart of standardized effects. shot is to a significant extent the consequence of insufficient
This significant interaction arises from the conjoined nature force to propel the polymer melt into the furthest ends of
of the runner and the gate regarding their geometrical posi- the mold. The injection pressure also needs to push the melt
tioning [26]. The runner’s shape affects the molten plastic’s sufficiently quickly to avoid solidification before covering
flow characteristics as it advances towards the gate. There- the entire mold cavity.
fore, any improvements to flow characteristics through gate Along the conduit of its flow, the flow energy of the flow-
geometry adjustment must be augmented by improvements ing polymer melt is dissipated through the conduit walls
in the runner design. Optimization of both component geom- (runner and gate walls). The flow of the polymer in the
etries is the surest way to improve the flow parameters of the mold is also subject to these flow losses. These wall friction
molten plastic before its introduction to the mold cavity. losses, as well as those in flow transition areas such as bends
Filling time also significantly affects the formation of in the runner, must be overcome by adequate injection pres-
sink marks, as shown in the analysis. A short filling time sure. Another area where significant flow losses might occur
translates to rapid filling of the mold, which causes pres- are the flow cross section changes between runner, gate, and
sure effects in the mold cavity. Very rapid filling of the mold mold cavity. Therefore, the injection pressure is a critical
and cooling of the polymer melt under these pressure effects factor affecting the occurrence of short shot as can be con-
increases the probability of sink marks resulting. Uneven firmed from the occurrence of short shots, as can be con-
cooling is also an effect of rapid mold filling, resulting in firmed by the results in the Pareto chart.
sink marks. Greater filling time allows the polymer melt to The interaction between runner shape and gate shape is
flow smoother into the mold cavity reducing the probabil- another critically influential interaction for occurrence of
ity of pressure dependent sink marks [27]. Uniform cooling short shot. The geometrical transition of cross section along
also results from a greater filling time reducing even further a flow conduit result in significant pressure effects charac-
the amount of sink marks in a molding process’ output. terized by loss of flow pressure [30]. Therefore, it is critical
The effect of melt temperature and injection pressure that the runner and gate cross sections be as similar as pos-
on the formation of sink marks is deduced to be insignifi- sible to avoid a huge transition in flow geometry since flow
cant from the Pareto Chart of standardized effects. Neither pressure loss is proportionate to the sharpness of flow area
parameter significantly affected sink marks individually or transition. This interaction means that to optimize against
in interaction with any other input parameters. Therefore, short shot in an injection molding process, both the runner
from the five input parameters tested, only the conduit and the gate geometries must be optimized. Individual opti-
mization of the runner or the gate cross section might not

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 International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM)

Fig. 5 Pareto chart for short shot

Table 5 ANOVA for short shot

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value result in optimal reduction of short shot. It is important to
Regression 12 0.417267 0.034772 53.31 0.000 also note that runner shape or gate shape do not individually
Runner shape 1 0.001686 0.001686 2.59 0.130 significantly affect short shots but the interaction between
Gate shape 1 0.002136 0.002136 3.27 0.092 these two input parameters affects short shots defects
Filling time 1 0.001005 0.001005 1.54 0.235 significantly.
*Injection pressure 1 0.011378 0.011378 17.44 0.001 The interaction between melt temperature and injection
*Melt temperature 1 0.011641 0.011641 17.85 0.001 pressure significantly influences the occurrence of short
*Runner 1 0.006850 0.006850 10.50 0.004 shot. This significance is because differently heated poly-
shape*gate shape
mers require different amounts of pressure to push through
Runner 1 0.000984 0.000984 1.51 0.240
shape*filling time the flow conduit and successfully push into the mold cavity.
Runner shape*melt 1 0.000065 0.000065 0.10 0.756 The higher the temperature of the polymer melt, the lesser
temperature the amount of pressure it requires to push into the mold
Gate shape*filling 1 0.001687 0.001687 2.59 0.130 cavity [29]. This interaction between melt temperature and
time injection pressure is caused by the influence of viscosity on
Gate shape*melt 1 0.000014 0.000014 0.02 0.885
the flow characteristics of a fluid. Viscosity is analogous to
temperature
Filling time*melt 1 0.000021 0.000021 0.03 0.859 friction and it dissipates the flow energy of the fluid requir-
temperature ing a greater injection pressure to overcome. To overcome
*Injection 1 0.006627 0.006627 10.16 0.005 short shot therefore, melt temperature and injection pressure
pressure*melt must be well balanced and jointly optimized. A higher melt
temperature
temperature will be more costly to attain due to the associ-
Error 14 0.009132 0.000652
ated heat energy input. Conversely, a hotter polymer melt
Total 26 0.426399
will require lesser injection pressure and therefore lower
injection pressure costs.

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Table 6 S/N ratios for sink mark to the possibility of short shorts. To optimally reduce the
Level Runner Gate Filling Injection Melt likelihood of short shots in an injection molding process,
shape shape time pressure temper-
limit ature accurately identifying and setting the melt temperature and
1 0.1200 0.1227 0.1218 0.1238 0.1165 the injection pressure limit is important.
2 0.1381 0.1231 0.1218 0.1228 0.1227 The analysis yielded an optimum combination of circu-
3 0.1403 0.1326 0.1249 0.1218 0.1293 lar runner, elliptical gate (AR 0.8), fill time 1.5 s, injection
Delta 0.0278 0.0004 0.0031 0.0019 0.0128 pressure of 120 MPa and melt temperature of 250 °C. The
Rank 1 5 3 4 2 suggested optimum combination for the minimal short shot
was run, and the results produced gave the lowest short shot
The analysis identified that the runner’s shape made the possibility factor of 0.25 from a maximum cavity pressure
most significant contribution toward the formation of sink of 30.40 MPa.
marks. The melt temperature was the second most preva- This research has shown that caution should be taken
lent contributor to sink marks, followed by filling time. The during the design phase of injection molding machines. The
injection pressure limit also made some contribution, and interaction effects of different inputs should be considered
the input variable that was the least contributor to the forma- as they may have critical implications on the final products.
tion of sink marks was the shape of the gate. Therefore, dur- Depending on the specific requirements of an organization,
ing the design of the part and the mold system’s design, the input parameters can be tuned to ensure the most optimal
runner shape should be considered carefully to ensure that outputs. The selected input parameters can be applied to
the prevalence of sink marks is reduced in the molded part. other performance measures, such as scrap rate in injection
Other important input parameters to consider in the design molding.
phase include melt temperature, filling time and the injec-
tion pressure limit in this order.
5 Conclusions
4.4 Optimization
This study investigated the implication of integrating ellip-
Table 6 illustrates the computed S/N ratios for sink marks tical runners and gate in the injection molding process and
depth defect. Runner shape was the top-ranked parameter identified the critical role that runner and gate shape play in
affecting sink mark depth followed by melt temperature. the injection molding process. Based on this work, it was
From this work, the optimal sink mark depth would be found that sink mark defects are majorly influenced by varia-
achieved from an elliptical runner of 0.6 aspect ratio, rectan- tions in feed system parameters, whereas variations majorly
gular gate, fill time of 2.5 s, injection pressure of 100 MPa influence short shot defects in process parameters. The most
and melt temperature of 250 °C. A simulation carried out significant parameter affecting short shot defect is melt tem-
at these input combinations yielded a sink mark depth of perature, while the most important parameter affecting sink
0.1035. mark is gate shape. This study also approximated the effects
Table 7 show the response table for S/N ratios for short of parameter interactions to the defects and inferred that an
shot using a smaller-the-better approach. The signal-to- interaction between runner and gate shape largely influences
noise ratio analysis showed that melt temperature was the both sink mark and short shot defects, and therefore the two
most significant contributor to short shots among all the parameters should be studied concurrently. Therefore, this
input variables we had. The injection pressure limit was study has clearly shown that the integration of optimization
the second most prevalent contributor to the possibility of of both mold design features and process parameters pro-
short shorts. Among the selected inputs, melt temperature vides an effective defect minimization strategy. A limitation
and injection pressure limit were the significant contribu- of this study is that, the effects associated with variations in
tors to the possibility of short shots, with runner shape, gate polymer material properties and part geometry were held
shape and filling time having an insignificant contribution constant. The plastic injection molding process involves

Table 7 S/N ratios for short shot Level Runner shape Gate shape Filling time Injection Melt
pressure temp
1 6.867 7.249 7.356 5.097 4.822
2 7.424 7.247 7.903 7.229 6.960
3 6.636 6.460 6.667 8.601 9.144
Delta 0.788 0.787 0.689 3.504 4.323
Rank 3 4 5 2 1

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complex interactions among process parameters, part geom-
etry, mold design, and polymer material characteristics. The
impacts of a specific process parameter interaction may
have been dependent on part geometry or polymer material
qualities and, therefore, may not have been addressed in this
work. However, this study has clearly shown that interac-
tions among mold design features and process parameters
largely affect sink mark and short shot defects. Therefore,
this study forms a baseline for future studies which might
explore the effects of interactions among process parameter
variations, polymer material characteristics variations, part
geometry and mold design feature variations.
Author contributions Conceptualization: Joshua M. Onyiego; Meth-
odology: Joshua M. Onyiego; Formal analysis and investigation:
Joshua M. Onyiego, James M. Wakiru, James N. Keraita; Writing—
original draft preparation: Joshua M. Onyiego; Writing—review and
editing: James M. Wakiru, James N. Keraita; Supervision: James M.
Wakiru, James N. Keraita.
Funding This research received no external funding.
Data availability This paper has provided all the data obtained from
the study.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts
of interest.
Consent for publication The authors consented to this publication.
Funding This research received no external funding.
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