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Copyright ООО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»
The Ministry of education and science of the Russian Federation

Kazan National Research Technological University
L. Kashafutdinova
BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT FOOD

AND WINEMAKING
Methods handbook
Kazan
KNRTU Press
2017
UDK 664(075)
LBC 65.9(2)304.25я7
Published by the decision of the Editorial Committee

of the Kazan National Research Technological University
Reviewers:
D. Educ., Assoc. Prof. A. R. Baranova
D. Litt., Assoc. Prof. D. R. Kochemasova
Kashafutdinova L.
Basic knowledge about food and winemaking : methods handbook /
L. Kashafutdinova; The Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian
Federation, Kazan National Research Technological University. – Kazan :
KNRTU Press, 2017. – 104 p.
ISBN 978-5-7882-2152-6
The study aid presents texts and assignments on food industry, gives
information about winemaking process, its history and traditions. Aimed at
forming and improving the skills of reading, translating, speaking and writing on
the basis of working with thematic texts on the future specialty.
Intended for classroom and extracurricular work of the Bachelors getting
education on 19.03.02 ("Technology of Fermentation Productions and
Winemaking") in the Food Engineering Faculty.
Prepared at the Department of Foreign Languages for Professional
Communication.
UDK 664(075)
LBC 65.9(2)304.25я7
ISBN 978-5-7882-2152-6 © Kashafutdinova L., 2017

© Kazan National Research Technological
University, 2017
2
INTRODUCTION
Food industry is a complex of food producing brunches that

satisfies the key needs of the population. According to the statistics,
about 37.4 thousand people are engaged in this industry in our
republic, spirit industry being one of the major ones.
Thus, actuality of mastering fermentation technologies
remains changeless. Herewith, exchanging experience and
information with foreign specialists makes unquestionable
contribution to the development of winemaking industry (and food
industry on the whole).
This study aid is intended for the Bachelors of the Faculty of
the Food Industry, studying on 19.03.02 ("Technology of
Fermentation Productions and Winemaking"). It is compiled in
accordance with the requirements of the English language program
and the state standard of this specialty.
The study aid contains two parts (Part I. "Basic knowledge
about food" and Part II. "Winemaking"), each of which has the
following structure: 1) text material and exercises aimed at
developing skills and working with foreign language text; 2) lexical
and grammatical exercises; 3) exercises for the development of skills
and skills of speaking. When selecting the texts, the main criteria
were informative value, their accessibility for understanding and
conformity to the interests of students.
The series of exercises developed for the texts provides for
the repeated frequency of the vocabulary necessary for mastering the
active and passive vocabulary. Pre-textual exercises are aimed at
recognizing and correct interpreting of foreign words, and
developing skills in using the dictionary. After-text exercises help to
control the reading comprehension and prepare the learner to
reproduce the newly read material in the form of a short message,
etc. Among the above-mentioned tasks the following are offered:
asking/answering, close (заполнение пропусков), matching,
predicting и т.д.
3
The section Home reading promotes the development of the

learner's ability to read, understand the material read without
translation, and improvement of lexical skills. This section is
recommended for extracurricular reading, and can also be used for
classroom independent work with the dictionary.
Besides, this work offers a grammar section (Grammar),
acquainted with which students are given the opportunity to study a
particular grammatical phenomenon independently, and then confirm
the formed skills in a series of exercises after the texts.
Therefore, the purpose of the study aid is forming and
improving the skills of reading, translating, speaking and writing on
the basis of working with thematic texts on the future specialty.
Thus, the study aid contains a large set of methods for working with
text, allowing the student audience to master the skills that meet the
most modern requirements.
4
PART I. BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT FOOD
UNIT 1
A. Look through the text given below and pay attention to

the italicized words. Do you know their meanings? Can you guess
them from the context?
FOOD. FOOD SOURCES

Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional
support for the body. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and
contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and
assimilated by the organism's cells in an effort to produce energy,
maintain life, or stimulate growth.
Historically, people secured food through two methods:
hunting and gathering, and agriculture. Today, most of the food
energy consumed by the world population is supplied by the food
industry.
Almost all foods are of plant or animal origin. Cereal grain is
a staple food that provides more food energy worldwide than any
other type of crop. Maize, wheat, and rice - in all of their varieties -
account for 87% of all grain production worldwide.
Other foods not from animal or plant sources include various
edible fungi, especially mushrooms. Fungi and ambient bacteria are
used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened
bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt.
Inorganic substances such as baking soda are also used to chemically
alter an ingredient.
PLANT SOURCE FOOD
Many plants or plant parts are eaten as food. There are around
2,000 plant species which are cultivated for food, and many have
several distinct kinds. Seeds of plants are a good source of food for
animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients
necessary for the plant's initial growth, including many healthful fats,
5
such as Omega fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by

human beings are seed-based foods. Edible seeds include cereals
(maize, wheat, rice, et cetera), legumes (beans, peas, lentils, et
cetera), and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils -
sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, et cetera.
Seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in
moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are
edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking
hazard, while seeds from apples and cherries contain a poison
(cyanide).
Many plants have evolved fruits that are attractive as a food
source to animals, so that animals will eat the fruits and excrete the
seeds some distance away. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant
part of the diets of most cultures. Some botanical fruits, such as
tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables.
Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that is
commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables (potatoes and
carrots), leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce), stem vegetables
(bamboo shoots and asparagus), and inflorescence vegetables (globe
artichokes and broccoli).
ANIMAL SOURCE FOOD
Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the
products they produce. Meat is an example of a direct product taken
from an animal, which comes from muscle systems or from organs.
Food products produced by animals include milk produced by
mammary glands, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into
dairy products (cheese, butter, et cetera). In addition, birds and other
animals lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce honey, a
reduced nectar from flowers, which is a popular sweetener in many
cultures. Some cultures consume blood, sometimes in the form of
blood sausage.
Some cultures and people do not consume meat or animal
food products for cultural, dietary, health, ethical, or ideological
reasons. Vegetarians do not consume meat. Vegans do not consume
any foods that are or contain ingredients from an animal source.
(URL:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food)
6
B. Find the sentences in the text to prove the following

statements:
1. There is no life without food.
2. Cereal grain is one of the most important sources of food.
3. Plant source food is healthful.
4. Meat as an animal source product is not consumed
everywhere and by everyone.
C. Match the names of different plants with their “basis”:

1 sunflower oil a) cereals
2 lentils b) stem vegetable
3 rice c) oilseed
4 eggplant d) root vegetable
5 asparagus e) legumes
6 potatoes f) botanical fruit
D. Find the examples of using Passive Voice in the text and

try to translate them properly (Grammar, p. 79 – 80)
E. Translate the following sentences into English:

1. Пища, которая потребляется человеком, несомненно
важна для поддержания жизни.
2. Многие растения и их части используются в качестве
еды.
3. Огромное количество полезных веществ содержится в
злаковых.
4. Сыр и масло являются молочными продуктами и
производятся во многих регионах.
5. Некоторые фрукты, такие как помидоры и тыква,
ошибочно считаются овощами.
6. Благодаря пище растительного и животного
происхождения, наш организм снабжается необходимыми
питательными веществами.
F. What is your attitude to vegetarianism? Do you think

people who stopped eating meat are mistaken? What advantages of
7
vegetarianism can you single out? Do you have vegetarians in your

group? Make up dialogues, where one of you consumes meat and
the other one doesn’t.
UNIT 2
A. Look through the titles and guess what this unit is about.
What do you know about vitamins? Are they really necessary for
our organism’s activity?
VITAMINS
Vitamins are substances that your body needs to grow and
develop normally. There are 13 vitamins your body needs. They are
vitamins A, C, D, E, K and the B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin,
niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, vitamin B-6, vitamin B-12 and
folate). You can usually get all your vitamins from the foods you eat.
Your body can also make vitamins D and K. People who eat a
vegetarian diet may need to take a vitamin B12 supplement.
Each vitamin has specific jobs. If you have low levels of
certain vitamins, you may develop a deficiency disease. For example,
if you don't get enough vitamin D, you could develop rickets. Some
vitamins may help prevent medical problems. Vitamin A prevents
night blindness.
The best way to get enough vitamins is to eat a balanced diet
with a variety of foods. In some cases, you may need to take a daily
multivitamin for optimal health. However, high doses of some
vitamins can make you sick.
ANTIOXIDANTS
Antioxidants are substances that may protect your cells
against the effects of free radicals. Free radicals are molecules
produced when your body breaks down food, or by environmental
exposures like tobacco smoke and radiation. Free radicals can
damage cells, and may play a role in heart disease, cancer and other
diseases.
8
Antioxidant substances include Beta-carotene, Lutein,

Lycopene, Selenium, Vitamin A, Vitamin C, and Vitamin E.
Antioxidants are found in many foods. These include fruits and
vegetables, nuts, grains, and some meats, poultry and fish.
B VITAMINS
The B vitamins are B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), B5
(pantothenic acid), B6, B7 (biotin), B12, Folic acid. These vitamins
help the process your body uses to get or make energy from the food
you eat. They also help form red blood cells. You can get B vitamins
from proteins such as fish, poultry, meat, eggs, and dairy products.
Leafy green vegetables, beans, and peas also have B vitamins. Many
cereals and some breads have added B vitamins. Not getting enough
of certain B vitamins can cause diseases. A lack of B12 or B6 can
cause anemia, that is desease connected with the lack of oxygen in an
organism.
MINERALS
Minerals are important for your body to stay healthy. Your
body uses minerals for many different jobs, including building bones,
making hormones and regulating your heartbeat. There are two kinds
of minerals: macrominerals and trace minerals. Macrominerals are
minerals your body needs in larger amounts. They include calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride and sulfur.
Your body needs just small amounts of trace minerals. These include
iron, manganese, copper, iodine, zinc, cobalt, fluoride and selenium.
The best way to get the minerals your body needs is by eating a wide
variety of foods. In some cases, your doctor may recommend a
mineral supplement.
CALCIUM
You have more calcium in your body than any other mineral.
Calcium has many important jobs. The body stores more than 99
percent of its calcium in the bones and teeth to help make and keep
them strong. The rest is throughout the body in blood, muscle and the
fluid between cells. Your body needs calcium to help muscles and
9
blood vessels contract and expand, to secrete hormones and enzymes

and to send messages through the nervous system. It is important to
get plenty of calcium in the foods you eat. Foods rich in calcium
include dairy products such as milk, cheese and yogurt, and leafy,
green vegetables. The exact amount of calcium you need depends on
your age and other factors. Growing children and teenagers need
more calcium than young adults. Older women need plenty of
calcium to prevent osteoporosis. People who do not eat enough high-
calcium foods should take a calcium supplement.
(URL:http://www.fda.com/fdamd/vitamins.htm
http://www.healthcaremagic.com/articles/Antioxidants/220
http://www.medications.com/minerals)
B. Answer the questions:

1. What are vitamins? minerals?
2. What is a deficiency disease?
3. Are high doses of vitamins dangerous?
4. Do free radicals lead to diseases? In what way?
5. What are B vitamins responsible for?
6. What is the difference between macrominerals and trace elements?
7. Name 3-4 elements we call macrominerals; trace elements.
8. What is the role of calcium in a body?
C. Finish the sentences:
1. People get necessary vitamins from…
2. Vitamin A’s deficiency can cause…
3. Antioxidants are…
4. B vitamins can be found in…
5. Our body needs minerals to…
D. Paraphrase the following phrases referring to the text.

Make up sentences of your own with them:
sometimes; the shortage of; to result in; to be necessary for; a great
deal of; the optimal solution
10
E. Find in the text the sentences containing conditionals.

Prove your choice. (Grammar, p. 80 – 82)
F. Choose one of the vitamins mentioned in the text. Find

the information about it at home. Get ready to speak out next
lesson.
UNIT 3
A. Here is the extract devoted to food preservation methods.
Give a quick look at them and say which of them is more often used
in your family. Is it possible to store food without making use of
these methods?
FOOD PRESERVATION
The nutrients that give us energy and help us maintain good
health also cause our food to spoil. There are innumerable micro-
organisms in the atmosphere that derive their nutrition from these
nutrients by breaking them into simpler forms. As these minute life
forms start disintegrating the nutrients, they set off the process of
food spoilage. With the knowledge of the role that micro-organisms
play in spoiling food, a number of methods of food preservation have
been developed by man. All these methods work by altering
conditions like temperature, availability of water or oxygen in the
food, or in the environment in which the food is stored. Changing or
altering these factors hinders the growth of these minute organisms,
and hence prevents food spoilage.
DRYING
Drying is a method of food preservation that works by
removing water from the food, which inhibits the growth of
microorganisms. Open air drying using sun and wind has been
practiced since ancient times to preserve food. A solar or electric
food dehydrator can greatly speed the drying process and ensure
more-consistent results. Water is usually removed by evaporation (air
drying, sun drying, smoking or wind drying) but, in the case of
11
freeze-drying, food is first frozen and then the water is removed by

sublimation. Bacteria, yeasts and molds need the water in the food to
grow, and drying effectively prevents them from surviving in the
food.
SMOKING
Smoking is used to lengthen the shelf life of perishable food
items. This effect is achieved by exposing the food to smoke from
burning plant materials such as wood. Most commonly subjected to
this method of food preservation are meats and fish that have
undergone curing. Fruits and vegetables like paprika, cheeses, spices,
and ingredients for making drinks such as malt and tea leaves are
also smoked, but mainly for cooking or flavoring them. It is one of
the oldest food preservation methods, which probably arose after the
development of cooking with fire.
REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration preserves food by slowing down the growth and
reproduction of micro-organisms and the action of enzymes which
cause food to rot. The introduction of commercial and domestic
refrigerators drastically improved the diets of many in the Western
world by allowing foods such as fresh fruit, salads and dairy products
to be stored safely for longer periods, particularly during warm
weather.
FREEZING
Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes
commercially and domestically for preserving a very wide range of
food including prepared food stuffs which would not have required
freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles are
stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark
place to ensure many months' storage. Cold stores provide large
volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of
national emergency in many countries.
SAULTING
Salting or curing draws moisture from the meat through a
process of osmosis. Meat is cured with salt or sugar, or a
combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are also often used to
cure meat and contribute the characteristic pink color.
12
SUGARING
Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such
as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, plums or in crystallized form
where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of
crystallisation and the resultant product is then stored dry. This
method is used for the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica
and ginger.. The use of sugar is often combined with alcohol for
preservation of luxury products such as fruit in brandy or other spirits.
CANNING
Canning is a method of preserving food in which the food
contents are processed and sealed in an airtight container. Canning
provides a typical shelf life ranging from one to five years, although
under specific circumstances a freeze-dried canned product, such as
canned, dried lentils, can last as long as 30 years in an edible state.
CHEMICAL PRESERVATIVES
The use of chemical preservatives is regulated by maximum
permitted levels. These amounts vary between countries. Processors
should check with their local authorities for the local regulations and
for the regulations in the country of sale.
Chemical preservatives cannot be used to cover up for poor quality
raw materials. They are only added as a precaution to extend the
shelf life of products by inhibiting microbial spoilage.
Some chemical preservatives can taint the flavour of fruit juices if
the recommended level is exceeded. Some consumers prefer to
consume fruit juices with no chemical additives. They may be
prepared to pay a premium for these products.
FOOD IRRADIATION
Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to ionizing
radiation to destroy microorganisms, bacteria, viruses, or insects that
might be present in the food. Further applications include sprout
inhibition, delay of ripening, increase of juice yield, and
improvement of re-hydration. Irradiated food does not become
radioactive, but in some cases there may be subtle chemical changes.
(URL:http://www.buzzle.com/articles/food-preservation-methods-of-
preserving-food.html)
13
B. Say if the following statements are true or false, and if

they are false, correct them.
1. Food preservation helps to prevent food from spoiling.
2. Fire is used in none of processes of food preservation.
3. A method of preserving food in which the food is sealed in
an airtight container is called food radiation.
4. Dairy products are stored safely for longer periods,
particularly during warm weather, thanks to refrigeration.
5. Chemical preservatives stand for chemical additives, which
help to to extend the shelf life of products.
6. Irradiation process makes the food become radioactive and
dangerous substances appear in the foods.
7. Refrigiration and freezing can be called one and the same
process.
C. Find English equivalents of the phrases given below in the text:

испарение, допустимый уровень, молочные продукты,
придавать цвет, вызывать гниение, тёмное прохладное место,
скоропортящийся, копчение, химические добавки, пригодный в
пищу, герметичная ёмкость, срок хранения, сохранить здоровье,
задерживать рост, подвергаться, придавать привкус, мера
предосторожности.
D. Fill in the gaps with the necessary prepositions or

adverbial particles (Grammar, p. 90 – 95):
1. Canning helps to store food_____ one_____ five years.
2. Meat is cured_____ salt or sugar, or a combination _____
the two.
3. Cold stores will provide long-term storage______strategic
food _____case_____national emergency.
4. Some kinds of canned products, such as canned lentils, can
be kept ______30 years______an edible state.
5. The use______ sugar is often combined_______ alcohol
for preservation ______fruit ______brandy or other spirits.
14
6. Smoking is one______ the oldest food preservation

methods, which arose______ the development ______
cooking______ fire.
7. Salting draws moisture______ the meat_______ a
process______ osmosis.
E. Find modal verbs in the paragraph about chemical

preservatives. What is the difference in their meaning and use?
What other modal verbs do you remember?(Grammar, p. 82 – 84)
F. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of each food

preservation method in groups. Check up yourselves (see the table
given below).
FOOD PRESERVATION METHODS
Method Advantages Disadvantages

Drying (e.g. Produces concentrated form of Can cause loss of
freeze- food. some nutrients,
drying, particularly
spray- Inhibits microbial growth & thiamin &
drying, sun- autolytic enzymes. vitamin C.
drying)
Retains most nutrients. Sulphur dioxide is
sometimes added
to dried fruits to
retain vitamin C,
but some
individuals are
sensitive to this
substance.
15
Smoking Preserve partly by drying, partly Eating a lot of

by incorporation of substances smoked foods has
from smoke. been linked with
some cancers in
some parts of the
world.
Refrigeration Slows microbial multiplication. Slow loss of some
nutrients with
Slows autolysis by enzymes time
Freezing Prevents microbial growth by Blanching of
low temperature & vegetables prior
unavailability of water. to freezing causes
loss of some B-
Generally good retention of Group vitamins
nutrients. and vitamin C.
Unintended
thawing can
reduce product
quality.
Adding salt Makes water unavailable for Increases salt and
or sugar microbial growth. sugar content of
food.
Process does not destroy
nutrients.
Canning Destroys microorganisms & Water-soluble
(involves autolytic enzymes. nutrients can be
high heat lost into liquid in
processing) can.
Chemical Prevent microbial growth Some people are
preservatives sensitive to some
No loss of nutrient. chemical
preservatives.
16
Ionizing Sterilizes foods (such as spices) Longer shelf life

radiation whose flavour would change of fresh foods can
(food with heating. lead to greater
irradiation) nutrient losses
Inhibits sprouting potatoes than if eaten
sooner after
Extends shelf life of harvesting.
strawberries and mushrooms
UNIT 4
A. Do you know what taboo food is? What reasons are there
for some food being forbidden? Read the text given below and
check if you are right.
B. Fill in the gaps with the words which the text lacks.
Choose among the following ones: cloven; consumption; between;
holy; exported; beverages; kill; ecological.
TABOO FOOD
Taboo food is food and 1___________ which people abstain
from consuming for religious, cultural or hygienic reasons. Many
food taboos forbid the meat of a particular animal, including
mammals, rodents, reptiles, amphibians, and crustaceans. Some
taboos are specific to a particular part or excretion of an animal,
while other taboos forgo the 2__________ of plants, fungi, or insects.
The origins of these prohibitions and commandments are varied. In
some cases, these taboos are a result of health considerations or other
practical reasons. In others, they are a result of human symbolic
systems. Some foods may be prohibited during certain festivals, at
certain times of life (e.g., pregnancy), or to certain classes of people
(e.g., priests).
CATTLE
Many Hindus, particularly Brahmins, are vegetarian,
abstaining from eating meat. Those Hindus who do eat meat abstain
from the consumption of beef, as the cow holds a sacred place in
17
Hinduism. Consumption of beef is taboo out of respect for the cow.

Dairy products such as milk, yogurt and particularly ghee are highly
revered and used in 3___________ ceremonies. Cow milk was the
nearest substitute of mother's milk for orphaned new-born babies
before the advent of modern medicine, when many pregnant women
would die in the birthing process. Also, cow dung (which in Indian
climate quickly dries out hard) is applied as antiseptic floor covering,
and it is a natural fertilizer for farmland and also used as fuel. Cow
urine is used for its medicinal properties in Ayurveda (traditional
Indian medicine).
Some ethnic Chinese may also refrain from eating cow meat,
because many of them feel that it is wrong to eat an animal that was
so useful in agriculture. Some Chinese Buddhists discourage the
consumption of beef, although it is not considered taboo. A similar
taboo can be seen among Sinhalese Buddhists, who consider it to be
ungrateful to 4__________ the animal whose milk and labour
provides livelihoods to many Sinhalese people.
HORSES
Horse meat is part of the cuisine of countries as widespread as
Italy with 900 g per person per year, Netherlands, Belgium, France,
Switzerland, where horse meat is common in supermarkets, Germany
with only 50 g per person per year, Polynesia, Serbia, Slovenia and
Kazakhstan, but is taboo in some religions and many countries. It is
forbidden by Jewish law, because the horse is not a ruminant, nor
does it have 5___________ hooves.
Horse meat is forbidden by some sects of Christianity.
Horsemeat is still popular in Iceland and is sold and consumed in the
same way as beef, lamb and pork.
In Islam, opinions vary as to the permissibility of horse meat.
Some cite a hadith forbidding it to Muslims, but others doubt its
validity and authority. Various Muslim cultures have differed in the
attitude in eating the meat. Historically, Turks and Persians have
eaten the meat while in North Africa this is rare.
18
In Canada, horse meat is legal, but there is only really a

market in the French-speaking province of Quebec, and in a few
(mostly French) restaurants elsewhere. Most Canadian horse meat is
6____________ to Continental Europe or Japan. In the United States,
sale and consumption of horse meat is illegal in California and
Illinois. However, it was sold in the US during WW II, since beef
was expensive, rationed and destined for the troops. In the UK, this
strong taboo includes banning horse meat from commercial pet food.
Horse meat is also avoided in the Balkans, though not
Slovenia, as horse is considered to be a noble animal, or because
eating horse meat is associated with war-time famine.
PIGS
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) data reports
pork as the most widely eaten meat in the world. Consumption of
pigs is forbidden among Muslims, Jews, certain Christian
denominations, such as Seventh-day Adventists, and some others.
There are various hypotheses concerning the origins of this taboo, but
none have been universally accepted.
In the 19th century some people attributed the pig taboo in the
Middle East to the danger of the parasite trichina. Marvin Harris
posited that pigs are not suited for being kept in the Middle East on
an 7____________ and socio-economical level; for example, pigs are
not suited to living in arid climates and thus require far more water
than other animals to keep them cool, and instead of grazing they
compete with humans for foods such as grains. As such, raising pigs
was seen as a wasteful and decadent practice.
A common explanation to the fact that pigs are widely
considered unclean in the Middle East is that they are omnivorous,
not discerning 8___________ meat or vegetation in their natural
dietary habits. The willingness to consume meat sets them apart from
most other domesticated animals which are commonly eaten (cattle,
horses, goats, etc.) who would naturally eat only plants.
(URL:http://www.thefullwiki.org/Dietary_laws)
19
C. Prove that
1. There is much taboo food all around the world.
2. People give up consuming some kinds of food for several
absolutely different reasons.
3. The cow is a sacred animal for Hindus.
4. Sale and consumption of horse meat is illegal in some
countries.
5. Pork is thought to be unclean in the Middle East.
D. Find italicized words and phrases in the text. Explain

their meanings in English.
E. Match the words given in the frame with their definitions
danger noble attitude require origin

arid compete abstain climate
1) an expression of favor or disfavor toward a person, place, thing, or

event;
2) the statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind,
and other meteorological elemental measurements in a given region
over long periods;
3) something from which anything arises or is derived; source; the
first stage of existence; beginning;
4) being without moisture; extremely dry;
5) a situation in which harm, death, damage, or destruction is
possible;
6) to deliberately avoid doing something that is enjoyable but that
may not be healthy, safe, or morally right;
7) to have as a need; to call for as obligatory or appropriate; demand;
8) to try to get something that other people also want to have;
9) behaving in an honest and brave way that other people admire;
belonging to the highest social class.
20
F. What is the difference between Participle I and Gerund?

Find examples of using both of them in the text. (Grammar, p. 84 –
86)
G. Pay attention to the use of proper names in the text. Read

the grammar and try to explain their usage.(Grammar, p. 86 – 87)
E. Divide into several groups. Imagine that each of the

groups of students doesn’t consume some particular food, for
example fish, insects, vegetables, etc. Think of a reason due to
which you would give up eating it. Speak out on this point using no
less than 7-8 sentences.
21
UNIT 5
A. Now you are going to read some curious information
about food. Some of these facts you will be aware of and some
other ones will seem to you incredible. Use your dictionary to find
the words you don’t know.
INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT FOOD

A peanut is not a nut. It is a legume.
1 apple adds 5 minutes to a person's life.
Strawberries have more vitamin C in them than oranges.
Coca-cola (or any other cola soda) is good for cleaning the
poles on car batteries.
There are more than 1,00 chemicals in a cup of coffee.
Cacao, the main ingredient of chocolate is the most pest-
ridden tree in the jungle.
You can make edible cheese from the milk of 24 different
mammals.
The avocado has the most calories of any fruit.
The typical American eats 263 eggs a year.
America's best selling ice cream flavour is vanilla.
Honey is the only food that does not spoil. Honey found in
the tombs of Egyptian pharaohs has been tasted by archaeologists
and found edible.
Eating a packet of crisps a day is equivalent to drinking five
liters of cooking oil a year.
Apples, not caffeine, are more efficient at waking you up in
the morning.
Non-dairy creamer is flammable.
Chewing gum while peeling onions will keep you from crying.
Bubble gum contains rubber.
Almonds are a member of the peach family.
Botanically speaking, the banana is a herb and the tomato is a
fruit.
To make one kilo of honey bees have to visit 4 million
flowers, traveling a distance equal to 4 times around the earth.
22
The scientific term for the common tomato is lycopersicon

lycopersicum, which means "wolf peach."
Of the more than $50 billion worth of diet products sold every
year, almost $20 billion are spent on imitation fats and sugar
substitutes.
Wine is sold in tinted bottles because wine spoils when
exposed to light.
Approximately one billion snails are served in restaurants
annually.
Vitamin A is known to prevent "night blindness," and carrots
are loaded with Vitamin A. One carrot provides more than 200% of
recommended daily intake of Vitamin A.
Carrots have zero fat content.
The tea bag was introduced in 1908 by Thomas Sullivan of
New York.
An onion, apple and potato all have the same taste. The
differences in flavour are caused by their smell.
Watermelons are 97% water, lettuce 97%, tomatoes 95%,
carrots 90%, and bread 30%.
In the United States, a pound of potato chips costs two
hundred times more than a pound of potatoes.
Since Hindus don't eat beef, the MacDonald's in New Delhi
makes its burgers with mutton.
More dairy products are consumed in America than any other
country on the face of the earth. The country has one of the highest
rates of osteoporosis and obesity.
Refined sugar is incredibly toxic to the body and is one of the
primary contributors to obesity.
Cabbage is 91% water.
Chewing gum stimulates signals in the learning center of the
brain and thus help save memory as you age.
Fish consumption may be more than brain food but also help
protect your eyes from age-related macular degeneration, a potential
cause of blindness.
Lemons contain more sugar than strawberries.
23
Lettuce is the only vegetable or fruit which is never sold

frozen, canned, processed, cooked, or in any other form but fresh.
Mayonnaise will kill lice and also condition your hair.
Onion is named after a Latin word meaning “large pearl”.
Pineapple is the international symbol of hospitality.
White shelled eggs are produced by hens with white feathers
and earlobes while brown eggs are produced by hens with red
feathers and earlobes; the colour has no relationship to the nutritional
quality or taste of the eggs.
Apple seeds are poisonous! They contain cyanide.
Eggs will age more in one day at room temperature than in
one week in the refrigerator.
On average, a person will spend about five years eating
during his or her lifetime.
Peanuts are one of the ingredients in dynamite.
Pilgrims did not eat with forks. They only used spoons,
knives and their fingers.
Smelling bananas and/or green apples (smelling, not eating)
can help you lose weight!
The average American eats at McDonalds more than 1,800
times in their life.
There is a giant mushroom in Oregon that is over 2,400 years
old, covers 3.4 square miles of land, and is still growing!
Bananas are a great source of potassium. Potassium helps to
build muscle power and keeps your body fluids in balance.
Noodles got their start in China, not Italy as many people
might think.
Pumpkins were once recommended for removing freckles and
curing snake bites!
The smaller the berry, the sweeter it is.
(URL:http://www.studfiles.ru/preview/5424351/page:10/)
B. Say what you’ve got to know about various fruit; honey;

chocolate; dairy products; food consumption on the whole.
24
C. Divide all the information into positive, negative and

neutral one and fill it in the table. Three examples have been
already given.
Positive fact Negative fact Neutral fact

1 apple adds 5 The USA has one of A peanut is not a
minutes to a person's the highest rates of nut. It is a legume.
life. osteoporosis and
obesity.
D. Match the words from the text with their translation.

Remember in what context these words are used.
1 poisonous a) веснушки
2 blindness b) ожирение
3 white-shelled c) ядовитый
4 obesity d) ежегодно
5 freckles e) слепота
6 almonds f) удалять
7 remove g) с белой скорлупой
8 annually h) миндаль
E. What grammatical tense is used in most of the above-

mentioned sentences? Explain why it happens so. Make up your
own ones using the same tense.(Grammar, p. 88 – 90)
F. What facts were you surprised at? Choose two-three of

them and try to convince your neighbour that they are wrong.
25
PART II. WINEMAKING
UNIT 1
A. Read the text below and match the headings a – i

with paragraphs 1 – 9 in the text.
a Better Off Dead
b Some Wine with Your Water?
c You Taste My Wine, I'll Taste Yours
d Hot Toddies
e Some Wine with Your Wine?
f Conquering Catholics
g Wish They All Could Be California
h One for My Homies
i Portuguese Wine
WINE TRADITIONS ALL OVER THE WORLD
That wine is a traditional drink with a rich cultural history is

common knowledge. We've all heard of wine festivals where folks
clamber into barrels and perform grape-stomping jigs with bare feet.
But wine traditions go beyond crushing fruit with naked tootsies.
Check out this list of other fascinating wine traditions from around
the world.
1_________
We tend not to get too aggressive when we clink glasses these
days, but back when goblets and flagons were made of wood and
metal, vigorous collisions were the object. This lively jostling caused
the contents of glasses to spill over and intermix, signifying a trust
that neither companion had slipped the other a mickey.
26
2_________
The next time you're invited to dinner in Portugal, don't show
up with a bottle of Bordeaux. Portuguese wine tradition dates back to
the ancient days of the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans, and the
Portuguese wear this wine making history like a badge of honor.
Procuring anything other than Portuguese wine upon arrival is
considered an affront to both host and country.
3__________
Everyone chills white wine, but who warms their reds?
Mulled wine has a rich tradition in many European countries and it is
usually served hot. Scandinavia's glogg, for example, has an ideal
temperature of around 70 degrees F. These belly-warming spiced
wines are relished during the cold months of winter.
4_________
In Moldova, wine was once eaten as often as it was drunk.
The writings of the Roman poet Ovid from the time when he was
exiled there contain accounts of the local habit of concentrating wine
by freezing it for consumption at a later date.
5_________
Thousands of years ago, throughout the Middle East and
Mediterranean, wines were consumed when people were still quite
young. This resulted in a wealth of traditional recipes for masking
the green flavors of premature wine with potent additives such as
honey and cloves. Another common practice was to water down wine
to dampen the flavor and reduce the amount of alcohol consumed.
6_________
If you think the best way to get European wines into
California is through customs, think again. Thanks to rich soil and
ideal climate conditions, California vintners have successfully grown
virtually every variety of grape found elsewhere in the world. Once
upon a time this involved drastic measures such as cutting vines in
27
France, sticking the cuttings into potatoes to survive the voyage, and
finally re-planting them in California, where they eventually
flourished. Golden State vintners have also created exciting new
wine-grape varieties by grafting foreign vines onto the existing stalks
in their vineyards.
7_________
Even in death, royals in ancient Egypt enjoyed a higher
standard of living than most commoners. As provisions for the
afterlife, it was prescribed that five large jars containing the different
wines of the region be included in every royal tomb.
8_________
Grapes came to the New World with Spanish conquistadors in
a variety known as Mission grapes. The Catholic celebration of the
Eucharist in Spanish missions and elsewhere required wine, which
was to be converted into the blood of Christ. In order to carry out the
sacred tradition on this side of the Atlantic, the Spanish had to bring
their vines with them.
9__________
Hip-hop culture might want to take credit for giving up a few
sips from their 40s in remembrance of fallen friends, but the
Georgian tradition of spilling a few drops onto the ground to toast
beloved deceased has been around for centuries.
B. Say if the following statements are true or false, and if

they are false, correct them.
1. Many years ago wine vessels were made of wood.
2. A bottle of Bordeaux shown in Portugal is like a badge of
honor.
3. According to the tradition, only white wine can be chilled.
4. In Moldova the wine could be both drunk and eaten.
5. Thousands of years ago, throughout the Middle East and
Mediterranean, the wine was mixed with honey or water to reduce
the amount of alcohol contained.
28
6. The climate in California is not favourable for planting

grapes.
7. The representatives of the royal family in Egypt were
buried in tombs with wine barrels included there.
8. Grapes brought to the New World with Spanish
conquistadors served for the preparing of the wine symbolizing the
blood of Christ.
9. Spilling a few drops onto the ground to toast beloved
deceased is a particularly dead tradition.
C. Find in the text English equivalents of the phrases given

below:
быть склонным к чему-либо, кубки и бутыли, знак почёта,
глинтвейн, заметки о местном обычае, изобилие традиционных
рецептов, сократить количество потребляемого алкоголя,
радикальные меры, загробная жизнь, соблюсти священную
традицию, в память о павших друзьях.
D. Explain the usage of the modal verbs WAS TO and HAD

TO in the paragraph 8. (Grammar, p.82 – 84) Translate the
following sentences into English:
1. Им предстояло собрать хороший урожай. Однако не
каждый верил в благополучный исход.
2. Мы вынуждены были остаться ухаживать за
виноградником, хотя были изрядно измотаны.
3. Эта великая традиция должна была продолжиться.
4. Виноделам снова предстояла нелегкая работа.
E. Read the grammar devoted to the phrases WOULD and

USED TO. What differences in their usage can you single out?
Which of them would you use, speaking about wine traditions of
the past? Why? Give the examples (Grammar, p. 98 – 99).
F. Speak about wine traditions spread in your country.
29
UNIT 2
A. Read the text given below and say what facts from the
history of wine you have been aware of.
HISTORY OF WINE
The history of wine spans thousands of years and is closely
intertwined with the history of agriculture, cuisine, civilization and
humanity itself. Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest
wine production came from sites in Georgia and Iran, dating from
6000 to 5000 BC. The archaeological evidence becomes clearer and
points to domestication of grapevine in Early Bronze Age sites of the
Near East, Sumer and Egypt from around the third millennium BC.
Evidence of the earliest European wine production has been
uncovered at archaeological sites in Macedonia, dated to 6,500 years
ago. These same sites also contain remnants of the world’s earliest
evidence of crushed grapes. In Egypt, wine became a part of
recorded history, playing an important role in ancient ceremonial life.
Traces of wild wine dating from the second and first millennium BC
have also been found in China.
Wine was common in classical Greece and Rome and many
of the major wine producing regions of Western Europe today were
established with Phoenician and later Roman plantations. Wine
making technology, such as the wine press, improved considerably
during the time of the Roman Empire; many grape varieties and
cultivation techniques were known and barrels were developed for
storing and shipping wine.
In medieval Europe, following the decline of Rome and
therefore of widespread wine production, the Christian Church
became a supporter of the wine necessary for celebration of the
Catholic Mass. Whereas wine was also forbidden in medieval
Islamic cultures, Geber and other Muslim chemists pioneered the
distillation of wine for medicinal purposes and its use in Christian
libation was widely tolerated. Wine production gradually increased
and its consumption became popularized from the 15th century
onwards, eventually establishing growing regions throughout the
world.
30
ANCIENT GREECE
Much modern wine culture derives from the practices of the
ancient Greeks. While the exact arrival of wine in Greek territory is
unknown, it was certainly known to both the Minoan and Mycenaean
cultures. Many of the grapes grown in modern Greece are grown
there exclusively and are similar or identical to varieties grown in
ancient times. Indeed, the popular modern Greek wine, retsina, is
believed to be a carryover from when wine jugs were lined with tree
resin, which imparted a distinct flavour to the wine.
Evidence from archaeological sites in Greece, in the form of
6,500 year-old grape remnants, represents the earliest known
appearance of wine production in Europe. Several ancient sources,
such as the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, describe the ancient Greek
method of using partly dehydrated gypsum before fermentation, and
some type of lime after fermentation, to reduce acidity. The Greek
writer Theophrastus provides the oldest known description of this
aspect of Greek wine making.
Greek wine was widely known and exported throughout the
Mediterranean basin, and was most likely the origin of the first
appearance of wine in ancient Egypt. The Greeks introduced the
Vitis vinifera vine and made wine in their numerous colonies in
modern-day Italy, Sicily, southern France, and Spain.
ANCIENT EGYPT
In Egypt, wine played an important role in ancient ceremonial
life. A thriving royal winemaking industry was established in the
Nile Delta following the introduction of grape cultivation from the
Levant to Egypt c. 3000 BC. The industry was most likely the result
of trade between Egypt and Canaan during the Early Bronze Age.
Winemaking scenes on tomb walls, and the offering lists that
accompanied them, included wine that was definitely produced at the
deltaic vineyards. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five wines, all
probably produced in the Delta, constitute a canonical set of
provisions, or fixed "menu," for the afterlife.
Much superstition surrounded wine-drinking in early
Egyptian times, largely due to its resemblance to blood. In Plutarch's
31
Moralia he mentions that the ancient Kings did not drink wine, "nor
use it in libation as something dear to the gods, thinking it to be the
blood of those who had once battled against the gods and from whom,
when they had fallen and had become commingled with the earth,
they believed vines to have sprung." This was considered to be the
reason why drunkenness "drives men out of their senses and crazes
them, inasmuch as they are then filled with the blood of their
forbears."
ANCIENT ROME
The Roman Empire had an immense impact on the
development of viticulture and oenology. Wine was an integral part
of the Roman diet and wine making became a precise business. As
the Roman Empire expanded, wine production in the provinces grew
to the point where the provinces were competing with Roman wines.
Virtually all of the major wine producing regions of Western Europe
today were established by the Romans.
Wine making technology improved considerably during the
time of the Roman Empire. Many grape varieties and cultivation
techniques were developed and barrels, invented by the Gauls, and
later glass bottles, invented by the Syrians, began to compete with
terracotta amphorae for storing and shipping wine.
Wine, perhaps mixed with herbs and minerals, was assumed
to serve medicinal purposes. During Roman times the upper classes
might dissolve pearls in wine for better health. Cleopatra created her
own legend by promising Mark Antony she would "drink the value
of a province" in one cup of wine, after which she drank an
expensive pearl with a cup of wine. When the Western Roman
Empire fell around 500 AD, Europe went into a period of invasions
and social turmoil, with the Roman Catholic Church as the only
stable social structure. Through the Church, grape growing and wine
making technology, essential for the Mass, were preserved.
(URL:http://www.thefullwiki.org/History_of_wine)
B. Read the extracts about the ancient countries and decide

which of them mentions information 1 – 10.
32
1. Wine, mixed with herbs and minerals, was assumed to

serve medicinal purposes.
2. Wine played an important role in ancient ceremonial life.
3. Grapes were preserved thanks to the Church.
4. The popular modern wine is called retsina.
5. Glass bottles began to compete with terracotta amphorae
for storing and shipping wine.
6. The industry was likely the result of trade during the Early
Bronze Age.
7. The upper classes might dissolve pearls in wine for better
health.
8. Method of using partly dehydrated gypsum before
fermentation was used.
9. Wine was an integral part of the diet.
10. Five wines constitute fixed "menu" for the afterlife.
C. Match the beginning 1 – 6 of these sentences with their

endings a – f.
1. Many grape varieties and cultivation techniques were
known and barrels
2. Wine, perhaps mixed with herbs and minerals,
3. These same sites also contain remnants of
4. A thriving royal winemaking industry was established in
the Nile Delta
5. As the Roman Empire expanded, wine production in the
provinces
6. Much superstition surrounded wine-drinking in early
Egyptian times, largely due to
a) following the introduction of grape cultivation from the
Levant to Egypt c. 3000 BC.
b) was assumed to serve medicinal purposes.
c) its resemblance to blood.
d) were developed for storing and shipping wine.
e) grew to the point where the provinces were competing with
Roman wines.
33
f) the world’s earliest evidence of crushed grapes.
D. Fill in the gaps with the prepositions in, against, with, of,
between (Grammar, p. 90 – 95).
1. Actually all_____the wine producing regions_____
Western Europe today were established by the Romans.
2. ____Egypt wine played an important role____ ceremonial
life.
3. They thought the wine was the symbol_____ the
blood_____ those who had battled______ the gods.
4. Resin, _____which wine jigs were lined, gave a special
flavour to the wine contained there.
5. The winemaking industry was mainly the result of
trade______ Egypt and Canaan.
D. Make a summary of the text using as many linking words

as possible (Grammar, p.95 – 98).
UNIT 3
A. Read the texts given bellow and find the definitions to the
following words: mead, vinification, vintner, oenology, harvest.
WINEMAKING
Winemaking, or vinification, is the production of wine,
starting with selection of the grapes or other produce and ending with
bottling the finished wine. Although most wine is made from grapes,
it may also be made from other fruit or non-toxic plant material.
Mead is a wine that is made with honey being the primary ingredient
after water.
Winemaking can be divided into two general categories: still
wine production (without carbonation) and sparkling wine
production (with carbonation).
34
The science of wine and winemaking is known as oenology

(in American English, enology).
Traditionally known as a vintner, a winemaker is a person
engaged in making wine. They are generally employed by wineries
or wine companies.
PROCESS
Grapes are usually harvested from the vineyard from early
September until the beginning of November in the northern
hemisphere, or the middle of February until the beginning of March
in the southern hemisphere. In some cool areas in the southern
hemisphere, for example Tasmania, Australia, harvest extends into
the month of May.
The quality of the grapes determines the quality of the wine
more than any other factor. Grape quality is affected by variety as
well as weather during the growing season, soil minerals and acidity,
time of harvest, and pruning method. The combination of these
effects is often referred to as the grape's terroir. The most common
species of wine grape is Vitis vinifera, which includes nearly all
varieties of European origin.
Harvest is the picking of the grapes and in many ways the
first step in wine production. Grapes are either harvested
mechanically or by hand.
After the harvest, the grapes are crushed and allowed to
ferment. Red wine is made from the must (pulp) of red or black
grapes that undergo fermentation together with the grape skins, while
white wine is usually made by fermenting juice pressed from white
grapes, but can also be made from must extracted from red grapes
with minimal contact with the grapes' skins. Rosé wines are made
from red grapes where the juice is allowed to stay in contact with the
dark skins long enough to pick up a pinkish color, but little of the
tannins contained in the skins.
During this primary fermentation, which often takes between
one and two weeks, yeast converts most of the sugars in the grape
juice into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide. After the primary
fermentation, the liquid is transferred to vessels for the secondary
35
fermentation. Here, the remaining sugars are slowly converted into

alcohol and the wine becomes clear. Some wines are then allowed to
age in oak barrels before bottling, which add extra aromas to the
wine, while others are bottled directly. Still others may be aged in
stainless steel tanks or glass carboys. The time from harvest to
drinking can vary from a few months to over twenty years for top
wines. However, only about 10% of all red and 5% of white wine
will taste better after five years than it will after just one year.
Variations on the above procedure exist. With sparkling
wines such as Champagne, an additional fermentation takes place
inside the bottle, trapping carbon dioxide and creating the
characteristic bubbles. Sweet wines are made by ensuring that some
residual sugar remained after fermentation is completed. This can be
done by harvesting late (late harvest wine), freezing the grapes to
concentrate the sugar (ice wine), or adding a substance to kill the
remaining yeast before fermentation is completed; for example, high
proof brandy is added when making port wine. In other cases the
winemaker may choose to hold back some of the sweet grape juice
and add it to the wine after the fermentation is done.
The process produces wastewater, pomace, and lees that require
collection, treatment, and disposal or beneficial use.
(URL:http://www.thefullwiki.org/winemaking)
B. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the main factor determining the quality of the wine
2. What constituents does the French term grape’s terroir
concern?
3. How do grape skins influence the colour of the wine during
the process of fermentation?
4. How much time does the primary fermentation take?
5. What process does the wine undergo during the second
fermentation?
6. Is it true that top wines claim much time of ageing?
36
7. What additional procedures are necessary for preparing

some kinds of wine?
C. Find the words in the text which have similar meanings

to the following ones:
1. regulates
2. usual
3. stage
4. included
5. transforms into
6. left
7. profitable
D. Find in the texts the sentences containing Passive Voice

and translate them into Russian (Grammar, p. 79 – 80). For
example:
After the harvest, the grapes are crushed and allowed to
ferment.
После сбора урожая, виноград подвергается
раздавливанию и допускается к брожению.
Е. Fill in the gaps with suitable prepositions.

1. The harvest was poor, because it was affected ____ the
constant draught.
2. The water contained ____ the bottle wasn’t suitable for
drinking.
3. What activity are you engaged ____?
4. The process of harvesting is directly referred ____
winemaking.
5. A vintner can decide if the sweet grape juice should be
added ____ the wine.
6. Usually wine is aged ____ stainless steel tanks.
37
7. Wine is divided ____ red, rose and white ones.
F. Imagine that you are a winemaker and your neighbour is

a journalist. Act out the interview based on the way “the vintner”
shares his experience in winemaking.
UNIT 4
A. The texts given below contain the information on

winemaking in detail. Read them and say what processes haven’t
been mentioned in the previous text.
HARVESTING
The decision to harvest grapes is typically made by the
winemaker. Herewith the level of sugar (called °Brix), acid (TA or
Titratable Acidity as expressed by tartaric acid equivalents) and pH
of the grapes play a very important role. Other considerations include
phenological ripeness, berry flavour, tannin development (seed
colour and taste). Overall disposition of the grapevine and weather
forecasts are taken into account.
Mechanical harvesters are large tractors that straddle
grapevine trellises and, using firm plastic or rubber rods, strike the
fruiting zone of the grapevine to dislodge the grapes from the rachis.
Mechanical harvesters have the advantage of being able to cover a
large area of vineyard land in a relatively short period of time, and
with a minimum investment of manpower per harvested ton. A
disadvantage of mechanical harvesting is the indiscriminate
inclusion of foreign non-grape material in the product, especially leaf
stems and leaves, but also, depending on the trellis system and
grapevine canopy management, may include moldy grapes, canes,
metal debris, rocks and even small animals and bird nests. Some
winemakers remove leaves and loose debris from the grapevine
before mechanical harvesting to avoid such material being included
in the harvested fruit. In the United States mechanical harvesting is
seldom used for premium winemaking because of the indiscriminate
38
picking and increased oxidation of the grape juice. In other countries

(such as Australia and New Zealand), mechanical harvesting of
premium winegrapes is more common because of general labor
shortages.
Manual harvesting is the hand-picking of grape clusters from
the grapevines. In the United States, grapes are traditionally picked
into 30 pound boxes, and in many cases these boxes are consolidated
into ½ ton bins or two-ton bins for transport to the winery. Manual
harvesting has the advantage of using knowledgeable labor to not
only pick the ripe clusters but also to leave behind the clusters that
are not ripe or contain bunch rot or other defects. This can be an
effective first line of defense to prevent inferior quality fruit from
contaminating a lot or tank of wine.
DESTEMMING
Destemming is the process of separating stems from the
grapes. Depending on the winemaking procedure, this process may
be undertaken before crushing with the purpose of lowering the
development of tannins and vegetal flavors in the resulting wine.
Single berry harvesting avoids this step altogether with the grapes
being individually selected.
CRUSHING
Crushing is the process of gently squeezing the berries and
breaking the skins to start to liberate the contents of the berries. In
traditional and smaller-scale wine making, the harvested grapes are
sometimes crushed by trampling them barefoot or by the use of
inexpensive small scale crushers. These can also destem at the same
time. However, in larger wineries, a mechanical crusher/destemmer
is used.
Most red wines derive their color from grape skins and
therefore contact between the juice and skins is essential for color
extraction. Red wines are produced by destemming and crushing the
grapes into a tank and leaving the skins in contact with the juice
throughout the fermentation (maceration). It is possible to produce
white (colorless) wines from red grapes by the fastidious pressing of
39
uncrushed fruit. This minimizes contact between grape juice and

skins.
Most white wines are processed without destemming or
crushing and are transferred from picking bins directly to the press.
In some circumstances winemakers choose to crush white grapes for
a short period of skin contact, usually for three to 24 hours. This
serves to extract flavor and tannin from the skins.
In the case of rosé wines, the fruit is crushed and the dark
skins are left in contact with the juice just long enough to extract the
color that the winemaker desires. The must is then pressed, and
fermentation continues as if the wine maker was making a white
wine.
(URL: http://www.thefullwiki.org/winemaking)
B. Choose the right answer referring to the text:

1. The process of harvesting depends on:
a) the weather forecast;
b) the level of sugar;
c) pH of the grapes;
d) all above-mentioned factors.
2. Mechanical harvesters are:
a) people who quickly pick grape clusters into boxes;
b) special machines for dislodging the grapes the rachis;
c) an apparatus for destemming the grapes.
3. The main purpose of destemming is:
a) picking the grapes;
b) squeezing the berries;
c) separating stems from the grapes;
d) pressing the berries.
4. Which of the wines are processed without destemming or
crushing?
a) red
b) white
c) rosé
d) none of them.
40
C. Match the words from the text with their opposites a-f.
1 foreign a) often
2 continue b) roughly
3 seldom c) native
4 important d) profound
5 gently e) insignificant
6 shortage f) stop
D. Find the examples of using Direct Object in the text

(Grammar, p. 87 – 88). For example:
Most red wines derive their color from grape skins and
therefore contact between the juice and skins is essential for color
extraction.
Make up your own sentences containing Direct Object.
E. Divide your group into two ones. Imagine that one group
consists of winemakers who use mechanical harvesters and the
other one prefers manual harvesting. Prove the opponents that
your way of harvesting is better basing on the text.
UNIT 5
A. Read the text and say what processes are followed during
primary and secondary fermentations.
PRIMARY FERMENTATION
During the primary fermentation, the yeast cells feed on the
sugars in the must and multiply, producing carbon dioxide gas and
alcohol. The temperature during the fermentation affects both the
taste of the end product, as well as the speed of the fermentation. For
red wines, the temperature is typically 22 to 25 °C, and for white
wines 15 to 18 °C. For every gram of sugar that is converted, about
half a gram of alcohol is produced, so to achieve a 12% alcohol
concentration, the must should contain about 24% sugars. The sugar
percentage of the must is calculated from the measured density, the
41
must weight, with the help of a saccharometer. If the sugar content of

the grapes is too low to obtain the desired alcohol percentage, sugar
can be added (chaptalization).
PRESSING
Pressing is the act of applying pressure to grapes or pomace
in order to separate juice or wine from grapes and grape skins.
Presses act by positioning the grape skins or whole grape clusters
between a rigid surface and a moveable surface and slowly decrease
the volume between the two surfaces.
Before the advent of modern winemaking, most presses were
basket presses made of wood and operated manually. Basket presses
are composed of a cylinder of wooden slats on top of a fixed plate,
with a moveable plate that can be forced downward. The press
operator would load the grapes or pomace into the wooden cylinder,
put the top plate in place and lower it until juice flowed from the
wooden slats. As the juice flow decreased, the plate was ratcheted
down again. This process continued until the press operator
determined that the quality of the pressed juice or wine was below
standard, or all liquids had been pressed.
Since the early 1990s, modern mechanical basket presses
have been revived through higher-end producers seeking to replicate
the gentle pressing of the historical basket presses.
As for red wines, the must is pressed after primary
fermentation, which separates the skins and other solid matter from
the liquid. With white wine, the liquid is separated from the must
before fermentation. With rose, the skins may be kept in contact for a
shorter period to give color to the wine, in that case the must may be
pressed as well. After a period in which the wine stands or ages, the
wine is separated from the dead yeast and any solids that remained
(called lees), and transferred to a new container where any additional
fermentation may take place.
COLD AND HEAT STABILIZATION
Cold stabilization is a process used in winemaking to reduce
tartrate crystals (generally potassium bitartrate) in wine. These
tartrate crystals look like grains of clear sand, and are also known as
42
"wine crystals" or "wine diamonds". They may appear to be a

sediment in the wine, but they are not. During the cold stabilizing
process after fermentation, the temperature of the wine is dropped to
close to freezing for 1–2 weeks. This will cause the crystals to
separate from the wine and stick to the sides of the holding vessel.
When the wine is drained from the vessels, the tartrates are left
behind.
During "heat stabilization", unstable proteins are removed by
adsorption onto bentonite, preventing them from precipitating in the
bottled wine.
SECONDARY FERMENTATION AND BULK AGEING
During the secondary fermentation and ageing process, which
takes three to six months, the fermentation continues very slowly.
The wine is kept under an airlock to protect the wine from oxidation.
Proteins from the grape are broken down and the remaining yeast
cells and other fine particles from the grapes are allowed to settle.
Potassium bitartrate will also precipitate, a process which can be
enhanced by cold stabilization to prevent the appearance of (harmless)
tartrate crystals after bottling.
The secondary fermentation usually takes place in either large
stainless steel vessels with a volume of several cubic meters, or oak
barrels, depending on the goals of the winemakers. Unoaked wine is
fermented in a barrel made of stainless steel or other material having
no influence in the final taste of the wine. Depending on the desired
taste, it could be fermented mainly in stainless steel to be briefly put
in oak, or have the complete fermentation done in stainless steel. Oak
could be added as chips used with a non-wooden barrel instead of a
fully wooden barrel. This process is mainly used in cheaper wine.
Amateur winemakers often use glass carboys in the
production of their wine. The kind of vessel used depends on the
amount of wine that is being made, the grapes being used, and the
intentions of the winemaker.
MALOLACTIC FERMENTATION
Malolactic fermentation is carried out by bacteria which
metabolize malic acid and produce lactic acid and carbon dioxide.
43
The resultant wine is softer in taste and has greater complexity. The
process is used in most red wines and is discretionary for white
wines.
(URL:http://www.thefullwiki.org/winemaking)
B. Answer the following questions:

1. What chemical substances are produced during the primary
fermentation?
2. Is the temperature important for the process? Why?
3. What is chaptalization?
4. How was the early basket press composed?
5. Are all kinds of wine pressed after the primary
fermentation?
6. What are “wine diamonds”?
7. How can they be got rid of?
8. What is the difference between cold and heat stabilizations?
9. What vessels does the secondary fermentation take place in?
10. Malolactic fermentation is used predominately in red
wines, isn’t it?
C. Find in the text:

a) adjectives which are formed by the suffixes -able, -al, -
less;
b) verbs which are composed with the help of the
prefixes re-, de-;
c) nouns with the suffixes -tion, -er.
What meaning do the affixes have? Give your own examples
of the words with the above-mentioned affixes.
D. Explain the prevailing usage of Present Simple in the

text (Grammar, p. 88 – 90). Find the sentences in which other
tenses are used and explain their usage.
E. Speak on the topics referring to the text. Choose one you

like most of all.
44
1. Why does the wine claim fermentation?

2. "Wine diamonds". Where can one seek for them?
3. The best vessel material for the secondary fermentation.
UNIT 6
A. Look through the text and say what stages is the final
step in the process of winemaking.
LABORATORY TESTS
Whether the wine is ageing in tanks or barrels, tests are run
periodically in a laboratory to check the status of the wine. Common
tests include °Brix, pH, titratable acidity, residual sugar, free or
available sulfur, total sulfur, volatile acidity and percent alcohol.
These tests are often performed throughout the making of the wine as
well as prior to bottling. In response to the results, a winemaker can
then decide if more sulfur needs to be added or other slight
adjustments before it is bottled.
BLENDING AND FINING
Different batches of wine can be mixed before bottling in
order to achieve the desired taste. The winemaker can correct
perceived inadequacies by mixing wines from different grapes and
batches that were produced under different conditions. These
adjustments can be as simple as adjusting acid or tannin levels, to as
complex as blending different varieties or vintages to achieve a
consistent taste.
Fining agents are used during winemaking to remove tannins,
reduce astringency and remove microscopic particles that could
cloud the wines. The winemakers decide on which fining agents are
used and these may vary from product to product and even batch to
batch (usually depending on the grapes of that particular year).
Gelatin has been used in winemaking for centuries and is
recognized as a traditional method for wine fining, or clarifying.
Generally no gelatin remains in the wine because it reacts with the
45
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vessel in a state of even greater unpreparedness, had the
deficiencies in her armour made good with heavy wooden beams.
The Italians had two hundred and seventy-six rifled cannon to one
hundred and twenty-one on the Austrian ships.
The Austrian Admiral, Tegethoff, was a man who left nothing to
chance. He knew what he had to do, and he had that genius for
command which enables a man to do his best with the materials at
his disposal. Great though he knew the discrepancy to be between
his own fleet and that of the Italians, it is a remarkable testimony to
his organising power that he was able at the first glimpse he had of
the Italian fleet to understand the extraordinary lack of cohesion that
characterised it from first to last, and to prepare to meet it with every
expectation of victory. He placed his fleet in wedge formation with
the intention of breaking the enemy’s line of ironclads with his own
ironclads, so as to avoid subjecting his weaker vessels to the fire of
the heavier Italian vessels, as might have been done had he
attacked the Italian line near or beyond its centre. He also intended
to ram the Italian ships whenever he had a chance, but though the
chances later were numerous, the ram proved a less effective
weapon than had been expected. The duty of the Austrian smaller
vessels was to rake with their guns the Italian ships after the heavier
Austrian ships should have thrown them into confusion, for owing to
the longer range of the Italian guns and the heavier weight of their
projectiles, the Italians had a superiority at long-range fighting which
the Austrian commander was by no means disposed to allow them to
turn to their advantage.
The ships on both sides were slow, those of the Austrians being
worse even than those of the Italians. This may to some extent
explain the comparative ineffectiveness of the ram, the blow being of
not sufficient force to inflict much harm. The Austrian ships were to
“ram everything grey,” the Italian fleet having been painted a
conspicuous light grey which made them easily distinguishable;
whereas the Austrian ships were black, but their funnels were
differently painted, so that any one of them could be identified in a
moment. The shock when the Ferdinand Maximilian rammed the Re
d’Italia was not very violent, but, possibly on account of the
weakness of construction of the hull, the ram did its work. A gaping
wound was formed in its side through which the water rushed, and
the great ship, after giving a couple of rolls, like some ocean
leviathan in agony, heeled heavily over and went down, the first sea-
going ironclad to be lost in this manner. The Austrians were appalled
for the moment at the result of the experiment, for such, indeed, it
was. Disablement had been expected, but that such a powerful ship
should be sent under the waves in a few moments by a single blow
was a result that had not been anticipated. The Austrian ship
rammed three Italian vessels, but this was the only one of her victims
to succumb. The Re di Portogallo received a similar attention from
the Kaiser, but the blow, though delivered with all the force of which
the ship was capable, did herself as much harm as the other, for she
lost her bowsprit and foremast, and left her figurehead in the gap
formed in the side where it was wrenched off by the blow. The Kaiser
had previously passed three of the Italian ships, but thanks to her
armour the few shots which struck her caused no damage. The Re di
Portogallo was little the worse for the ramming, and when it had the
Austrian ship at its mercy a moment later, lost, by delay and
incompetence, the opportunity to pour in a broadside.
The Kaiser was not built to be used to ram heavy vessels, or else
her designers had underestimated the resistance she would have to
encounter in striking another ship, the iron plates forming her bows
being carried rather forward so that she had really a blunt projecting
nose under water. Curiously enough, the only damage she sustained
was a few plates started from the bows under the water-line.
As to the results of the fighting, the armour fully justified its use. The
Austrian ships were struck several times by the heavy Italian shot
and shells, but not once did the Italian projectiles penetrate both the
armour and the backing, while for the most part the injuries caused
by them were insignificant. The Italians lost two ironclads, and a
third, the Affondatore, went down a few days afterwards as the result
of the knocking about the Austrians gave her. But the injuries which
caused the loss of these three Italian vessels were received below
the water-line. Their armour was badly battered, but the ships
themselves were little the worse. The 4-inch armour of one of the
Italian ships was penetrated, but the backing prevented the shot
going farther. The Austrians did not lose one ship, and on their
armoured ships they had only three men killed, while on the wooden
ships they lost thirty-eight killed and one hundred and thirty-eight
wounded. The Italian losses are unknown, as a number of men were
drowned when the two ironclads went under.
Even after the Italians were defeated they were still as strong as
their opponents, but dared not attack them; while the Austrian
commander deemed discretion the better part of rashness, and,
contenting himself with having compelled the Italians to retire from
Lissa, was confident that they would not attempt to attack him after
the losses they had sustained, which had rendered them even more
hopelessly disorganised than before the battle, if that were possible.
The Italians, in spite of the vainglorious boasting in which they were
pleased to indulge, were in no mood for another sea-fight. They were
short now of ammunition, and their sailors were completely
disheartened. Some of the commanders and all the crews showed
extraordinary bravery in maintaining the fight when the
circumstances, though not the odds, were against them, but the
other commanders were remarkable for incompetence and some of
them for cowardice, for they had no plan of action, one at least fled
as soon as the shooting began, and one or two others were careful
to keep out of harm’s way. The main lessons drawn from this
engagement were that armour was indispensable in protecting a ship
from the effects of hostile shot, and that the gun must remain the
chief weapon of naval warfare. The advantage given to a numerically
weaker side by superiority in organisation and efficiency had been
too often demonstrated in previous engagements in the world’s
history to render attractive a repetition of the lesson, but it is to be
feared that the need of such lessons at frequent intervals has not yet
passed. It also showed that big ships and gigantic guns are not of
much account if the men who are to use them are untrained, and
that no matter how heavy the guns and far-reaching their range they
are of little use if the gunners miss nearly every time. The Austrian
concentration of fire upon a given spot, even though the firing were
only maintained by comparatively small guns, told its own tale.
Ramming only sent one ship down as the immediate result of the
blow, but the moral effect of the fear of being rammed was very
great, as no crew, seeing an enemy making straight for their ship,
could foresee the result. In any case, the damage was sure to be
considerable. Yet the Italian Admiral, when he had two splendid
opportunities of ramming his opponents with his most powerful
vessel, the Affondatore, deliberately turned his ship aside and
shrank from delivering the blows. The battle was noteworthy for its
demonstration of the importance of accurate gunnery; nearly all the
Italian projectiles passed over the Austrian ships, and the Italian
gunners were heedless whether they fired when their vessels were
on the upward or the downward roll. The trained Austrian gunners
fired to hit.
Such lessons as the battle of Lissa was regarded as having
presented were accepted, more or less, in the ironclads constructed
in the five years immediately subsequent to that engagement.
The Hercules, begun in 1866, launched in 1868, and completed in
1869, was intended to combine the best features of the Black Prince
and Minotaur. She was built entirely of iron, was 325 feet long
between perpendiculars, 55 feet beam, and drew 34 feet 6 inches.
The ram, a solid forging, weighed 5 tons, the armour plate was 8 to 9
inches thick, and weighed 1,145 tons; the weight of the bolts, nuts,
and washers used in securing the armour plates was 73 tons, and
there were also 91 tons of armour plates for the bulkheads, and 4
tons of bolts to secure them. The bulwarks were of wood, but below
them were two iron strakes 6 inches thick, next a strake of 8-inch
armour covering the lower portion of the main deck or central box
battery, then two strakes of 6-inch plates, and then a belt of armour
with a maximum thickness of 9 inches extending the length of the
ship and amply protecting her some distance above and below the
water-line; under this was another strake of 6-inch plates resting on
the double skin of the hull itself. The 9-inch plates were backed by
10 inches of teak, inside which was an iron skin 1½ inches thick
supported by vertical frames 10 inches deep and 2 feet apart, further
stiffened by other beams. From the lower deck downwards the wing
passages were strengthened with 18 to 20 inches of teak, and
backed by a ¾-inch iron skin, which was also most substantially
supported. The rest of the armour was backed by 10 or 12 inches of
teak fastened to an iron skin 1½ inches thick, with a similar
strengthening of vertical and longitudinal frames. She carried eight
10-inch 18-ton guns, four on either broadside, the two foremost and
the two hindmost training through embrasures at the ends of the
thwartship bulkheads and through recesses in the iron-clad sides.
These four guns were established on what was known as Captain
Scott’s turn-table and racers. Two 12½-ton guns were in protected
batteries on the same deck, one at the bow and the other at the
stern; three portholes were provided for each of these guns, so that it
could be fired either in line of keel or on either side as necessary.
Their weight made her pitch deeply and recover slowly, thereby
impeding her speed and lessening the value of her gun-fire. She also
carried some 6½-ton guns on her upper deck. Special attention was
paid to the protection of the rudder head and steering apparatus,
events at the battle of Lissa having showed the imperative necessity
of doing so. It was contended on behalf of the Hercules that her
armour could not be penetrated by the guns of any ship afloat. The
18-ton guns were the heaviest ever worked in an ocean-going vessel
up to that time, and were only 1½ tons lighter than the famous 15-
inch Rodman guns, which were the heaviest that the American
monitors had managed to work with success. Although the immense
guns of the Hercules were muzzle-loaders, and discharged 400 lb.
shots, it was found possible to fire the gun a second time in 1 minute
15 seconds after it had been fired once, but naturally this rate of
firing could not be kept up for long owing to the overheating of the
gun.
In the same year the Monarch, a full-rigged, double-turreted, ocean-
going ship, was launched, with a displacement of 8,320 tons. Her
turrets had 10-inch armour, while that of her belt and bulkheads was
7 inches. Her engines were of 7,840 indicated h.p., and she had a
speed of about fourteen knots. The Monarch was intended to have
all the advantages of a turreted vessel combined with the freeboard
of a sea-going ship. Her armament included four 25-ton 10-inch
muzzle-loading guns, and some lighter weapons under her raised
poop and forecastle, she being the first of the turreted vessels to
have a secondary armament. The raised poop and forecastle were
added to increase her seaworthiness, but though they accomplished
this they only did so at the expense of her direct fire ahead and
astern from her turret guns.
The adherents of the low freeboard sea-going turreted ship, as
advocated by Captain Coles, pinned their faith to the Captain, which
was launched at Birkenhead in 1869, and was of 6,950 tons register.
Probably no warship’s designs were ever more bitterly criticised and
condemned by one party and upheld by another than those of the
Captain. This ship had several features to recommend her, and
several others which more than counterbalanced the conditions she
was supposed to embody. The believers in the Captain argued that
she represented what a sea-going turret ship should be, being
powerfully armed, of good speed, well armoured, powerfully engined,
and able to use extensive sail power if necessary. That she
possessed all these qualities is unquestionable. Her engines of 900
h.p. nominal gave her a speed of thirteen knots. Her heaviest gun
was the 25-ton 12-inch muzzle-loader. Her freeboard as designed
was 8 feet 6 inches, but when she was in sea-going trim it was found
that her actual freeboard was 6 feet 8 inches, through some error in
the calculations, and this, added to the fact that she carried a large
spread of canvas, caused many misgivings as to her stability. In two
cruises in the Channel she gave every satisfaction, and it was
contended that she really had solved the problem of a low freeboard
ship carrying canvas and turrets, and able to go to sea. Her third
cruise, in company with the Channel fleet, marked the end of her
career and of all the theories she was supposed to represent with
such conspicuous success, for during a squall at night she rolled
over and went to the bottom, taking nearly all on board with her,
among the lost being Captain Coles. The exact circumstances of the
disaster were never established; all that is known is that with her low
freeboard and small margin of stability she rolled beyond the point at
which recovery was possible.
As a reply to the Monarch the Captain was a failure, and the high
freeboard turret ship was a success. Whether the Captain would
have done better under steam alone it is impossible to say; perhaps
she would, though she was under shortened sail at the time of the
disaster. Some professed to believe that the hull would have been
stable had it carried only one mast for signalling purposes, and
suggested that another vessel should be constructed to take her
place, but the experiment was never made. The Captain was too
heavy for her size, and therefore lacked buoyancy; her weight was
too much distributed, and she had not the power to throw off quickly
the water she took on board, but “lay down under it,” to use a
seaman’s expression.
Some six months before the Captain was lost a ship was launched
which introduced another and most successful type, yet she was
rather an improvement on certain earlier vessels than an entirely
modern conception. This was the Devastation, and she was at once
recognised as the most powerful ship of war in the world. The
Glatton, a single turret ship, launched in 1869, may in some respects
be regarded as the forerunner of the Devastation. The Glatton was a
low freeboard coast-defence monitor, modified to suit the conditions
prevailing on the English side of the Channel; but the Devastation,
while still being of comparatively low freeboard, was a sea-going
ship, mastless, so far as sails were concerned, and double turreted.
The Devastation was the historical reply of the British naval
constructors to the much-vaunted American monitors, and also the
Admiralty’s reply to the Captain. She was so unlike anything else
afloat, that the writers of those days had difficulty in finding anything
to which they could compare her. One describes her as like an
“impregnable piece of Vauban fortification with bastions mounted
upon a fighting coal mine.” As a mastless turret ship or fighting
machine, she possessed powers of offence, defence, and
manœuvring greater than those of any other ship in the world. This
ship, which was built at Portsmouth, and the Thunderer, built at
Pembroke, were the pioneers of this class of vessel, and were the
first to embody in their construction the most perfect examples of the
turret principle as at that time understood, applied to a sea-going
ship.[42] They were superior to any others built or building as fighting
machines, and in their coal-carrying capacity. They were of 4,406
tons burden under the old system of measurement. They were given
12 inches of rolled armour plating on a teak backing built into an
immensely strong framing, 18 inches in thickness, which was further
backed with an iron skin 1½ inches thick. There was not only the
increased thickness of the armour, but also its quality to be taken
into consideration in comparing these vessels with the Warrior and
Minotaur, for the resistance offered by the rolled armour of the new
ships increased very nearly as the square of the thickness, so that
the sides of the Devastation and the Thunderer were, all things
considered, about seven times as strong as those of the Warrior.
The thickest armour carried in the French navy was that of the
peculiar rams of the “Taureau” or “Bélier” type, mentioned on another
page, viz. 8¼ inches, while that of the American monitors was 6
inches of plating on a system of armour stringers. The two English
ships by reason of their higher freeboard were better sea-boats than
any monitors built on the American principle could ever hope to be.
The American turrets leaked badly whenever it was necessary to
place their weight on the spindles to enable them to revolve, and
their low sides allowed almost every other wave to wash over their
decks. The turrets of the Devastation and Thunderer were worked on
Captain Coles’s system of rollers fixed at the circumference of the
base of the turret and centring at the central cylindrical spindle, but
their base rested upon the upper deck within the breastwork.
In measurements these vessels were considerably smaller than the
Warrior or Minotaur classes. The Warrior’s 4½-inch hammered
plates would have offered little more resistance than so much glass
to the heavy blows which the Devastation’s guns could inflict, nor
would the Minotaur’s rolled plates have had much more defensive
effect. Even when the Devastation was built, it was contended that
the Hercules armour was practically impenetrable to the heaviest of
British guns afloat yet, and that of the Devastation was three inches
thicker still. One reason why this vessel was so strongly constructed
was that she was built on an improvement of the bracketed frame
system first introduced by the Admiralty in the Bellerophon. These
improvements enabled a lighter framework to be constructed without
reducing the strength, and the weight thus saved was put into the
defensive armour. The Devastation’s upper deck when the ship was
in sea-going order was about 4½ feet above water, except at the
bows, where a sunk forecastle raised the height to 9 feet, and
increased her capacities for going head to sea. The turret ports were
13 feet above the water, so that the guns were carried higher than
those of any broadside-armed ironclad afloat. Those of the Hercules,
for instance, were 11 feet above the water.
As at first designed, the Devastation would have had a less
freeboard than the Captain, but after that disaster the plans of the
Devastation were altered considerably, and the Admiralty committee
decided that it would be safer and wiser to increase the freeboard
amidships. This was done with iron plates raised to a level with the
walls of the armoured breastwork, the freeboard for about half the
ship’s length being as much as 12 feet.
The turrets were placed one at each end of this breastwork, with the
funnels, ventilators, and so on, between them. The breastwork deck,
as it was called, was strongly plated as compared with the main-
deck plating of all existing ironclads, and the protective plating of the
upper deck was from two to three inches thick. Above the turrets was
the usual hurricane deck. She carried two 30-ton guns in each turret,
the guns being of an Armstrong type improved upon at Woolwich,
and throwing projectiles weighing 600 lb., and of the Palliser pointed
type. Her two turrets gave her an absolutely all-round fire, a
consummation which was impossible with any vessel depending at
all upon sails. Her engines, which constituted her sole motive power,
were the largest which had yet been applied to working twin screws
and were each of 800 h.p. nominal, and gave her a speed of twelve
and a half knots.
H.M.S. “DEVASTATION.”
Photograph by Symonds & Co. Portsmouth.
She was 285 feet in length between perpendiculars, with an inside

beam amidships of 58 feet, and an extreme beam of 62 feet 3
inches, with an average draught of 26 feet. The depth from the
midship portion of the covering-in deck to the top of the keel was 18
feet. The double bottom contained the water-tanks, and above these
were a series of watertight compartments containing the engines and
so on, and above these again were another series of watertight
compartments used as coal bunkers and lockers, and another
series, formed of watertight bulkheads, enclosed the officers’
accommodation. They were said to be as strongly constructed as the
strong room of a bank.
The Devastation was probably the first ship in which a built-up keel
of steel was introduced. The plates of steel were ⅝-inch in thickness,
and the depth of the keel was 4 feet 6 inches, and it was
strengthened by an angle-iron 1 inch thick. The stem was a solid
forging, the upper deck part being 9 inches thick, and the lower part
which formed the ram was 36 inches thick. This immense prow was
strengthened by longitudinal iron frames. The stern-post was also
forged solid, and was 26 feet in length and weighed 15 tons, and
measured 12 inches deep by 8 inches thick. Steel plates riveted
vertically over the transverse frames and running longitudinally and
crossed by vertical fixed iron plating formed the double bottom. The
interior of the hull was divided both longitudinally and transversely
into a great number of watertight compartments. The two magazines,
one near each end of the ship, were protected from a dropping fire
by a bulkhead covered with 5-inch armour plating, and above the
magazines again was a strongly constructed deck 4 feet 6 inches
below the load water-line. The armoured belt was 9 feet 6 inches
broad amidships, but tapered off gradually towards the ends. The
armour-plating was 18 inches thick amidships, and gradually
reduced to 9 inches towards the extremities. The breastworks or
armoured walls built up from the upper deck near the forecastle, and
extending to a wall behind the after turret, were 7 feet high, 74 feet
long, and had an interior breadth of 50 feet. Their armour-plating
varied from 10 to 12 inches, with the usual backing of wood and iron
frames, and an inner iron skin. The deck was 2 inches of iron
covered with 4 inches of oak. The turrets, which stood at either end
of the breastwork, were 31 feet 3 inches in exterior diameter, and 24
feet 1 inch interior diameter; they were built up as follows: Outside, 9
inches of iron plating, then 9 inches of Italian oak set in iron frames,
then 6 inches of iron plating, then 6 inches of Italian oak set in iron
frames, then two thicknesses of iron plating each ¾-inch thick, to
form the inner skin, then iron frames 10 inches in depth, and finally a
series of rope mantlets, or nets, to protect the men working the guns
from injury through fragments of rivets or bolts being driven in by a
shot striking the outside of the turret in battle.
The military mast was introduced in the sea-going turret ships like
the Devastation, and a few years later all such masts were given
fighting-tops or platforms upon which machine guns or small quick-
firing guns were mounted, or were equipped with search-lights.
These masts were of steel and hollow, and in some ships the tops
could be reached by ratlines and shrouds in the old-fashioned way,
and in others by means of internal or external ladders affixed to the
masts themselves. Conning-towers were introduced later, but to
meet the wishes of naval officers alternative places of control are
also provided in all large ships, for use in case the conning-tower
should be made the target for the concentration of the fire of a
hostile ship.
The experiments with the Glatton’s turret proved the unsuitability of
turret armour being made with horizontal joints, as there is always
the chance that a projectile may strike the actual line of joining,
where the resistance would be less than at any other part. The
plates for the Devastation turrets were, therefore, rolled sufficiently
broad to cover the faces of the turrets from the breastwork deck to
the upper edge, and only vertical joints were exposed to fire. The
forward end of the ship was raised to form what was called a sunk
forecastle. This considerably added to the freeboard forward and to
the buoyancy at that end of the ship, and this was further augmented
by the armour belt being reduced as much as possible so as to avoid
unnecessary weight. Some critics of this design maintained that the
end was too weak, and that the advantage it was sought to gain in
sea-going qualities would not materialise; but when the vessel
afterwards went to sea and was tested in all sorts of weather, and
against heavy seas, in broadside seas, and in following seas, and in
seas running a few points off the bow, or on the quarter, she proved
herself an admirable sea-boat. An account of the sea trials in which
she was accompanied by the Agincourt and Sultan includes a
description written by a “scientific observer,” who was on board the
Devastation. Her sea trials took place during the summer of 1873.
The Sultan was one of the more modern ironclads carrying a two-
deck battery on a protected water-line, and the Agincourt was a five-
masted ship reminiscent of the steam frigate days.
The scientific observer states:—
“For purposes of comparison in pitching and lifting, etc., the Sultan
had the height of the Devastation’s upper deck at side painted on her
in a broad white stripe, so that the behaviour of the two ships might be
quickly appreciated apart from the records of instruments. The
lowness of the extremities of the Devastation gives a great deal of
interest to the pitching and lifting (really the longitudinal rolling) of the
vessel. Two trials were made, one on the 9th and the other on the
15th of September. On the first of these occasions, she was
accompanied by the Sultan only, and on the second she was
accompanied by the Agincourt only. The seas met with on the 9th of
September were lumpy and irregular, the wind having shifted
somewhat suddenly during the previous night. Having got well out to
sea, about forty miles off land, the wind was found to be blowing
rather north of west with a force of a moderate gale, its speed varying
from forty to forty-five miles per hour; and the largest of the waves
were found to vary from 300 to 350 feet in length from crest to crest,
occasionally reaching 400 feet—the greatest heights from hollow to
crest being 15 and 16 feet. Going head to sea, at from six to seven
knots, both vessels pitched considerably; the Devastation, however,
had the best of it, pitching through smaller angles than the Sultan. The
latter vessel was remarkably lively; at one moment she was to be
seen with her fore-foot completely out of water, and the next with her
bow dipped down to so great an extent that it was difficult to see from
the flying deck of the Devastation—although the ships were pretty
close together—whether the sea did not really break inboard; and this
notwithstanding that the bow of the Sultan rises forward some 30 feet
above the surface of the water. On the other hand, the forecastle deck
of the Devastation was repeatedly swept by the seas, to each of which
she rose with surprising readiness; indeed, it invariably happened that
the seas broke upon her during the upward journey of the bow, and
there is no doubt it is to this fact that her moderate pitching was
mainly due, as the weight of the water on the forecastle-deck during
the short period it remained there acted as a retarding force,
preventing the bow from lifting as high as it otherwise would, and this,
of course, limited the succeeding pitch, and so on. The maximum
angle pitched through on this occasion, i.e. the angle between the
extreme elevation and depression of the bow, was 7½ degrees. Each
vessel behaved extremely well when placed broadside on to the sea,
rolling very little. The trial of the ship on the 15th of September, in
company with the Agincourt, was by far the most severe of any. Early
in the morning the vessel got under weigh and steamed out to sea,
accompanied by the Agincourt. The wind was blowing with
considerable force from the north-west, while the sea was at times
very regular, long, and undulating; just the sort to test the rolling
propensities of a ship, but scarcely long enough to be most effective in
doing so, either in the case of the Devastation or Agincourt. The
largest waves ranged from 400 to 650 feet long, and from 20 to 26
feet high. The ships were tried in almost every position with regard to
the direction of the sea, and at various speeds, the result in point of
comparison being extremely interesting, and, so far as the
Devastation was concerned, very satisfactory. With the sea dead
ahead, and proceeding at about seven knots, the Devastation pitched
rather more than the Agincourt, although the great length of the latter
compared with that of the former caused her bow to rise and fall
through a much greater height, giving her the appearance of pitching
through a greater angle. The usual angles pitched through by the
Devastation, measuring the whole arc from out to out, were from 5
degrees to 8 degrees; the maximum angle pitched through was,
however, 11¾ degrees. The scene from the fore end of the frying deck
when the vessel was thus going head to sea was very imposing.
There was repeatedly a rush of water over the forecastle, the various
fittings, riding-bitts, capstan, anchors, etc., churning it up into a
beautiful cataract of foam; while occasionally a wall of water would
appear to rise up in front of the vessel and, dashing on board in the
most threatening style, as though it would carry all before it, rushed aft
against the fore turret with great violence, and, after throwing a cloud
of heavy spray off the turret into the air, dividing into two, pass
overboard on either side. All the hatchways leading below from the
upper deck were closed; it was not, however, thought necessary to
close the doors in the sides of the trunks leading from the main
hatchways to the flying deck, most of the men on deck preferring to
remain here under the overhang of the flying deck. It was quite the
exception for the water coming over the bow to get much abaft the
fore turret; but this, however, occurred occasionally. The foremost
turret makes a most perfect breakwater; it receives with impunity the
force of the water, which, after spending itself against it, glances off
overboard, leaving two-thirds of the deck seldom wetted. There was
one sea which came on board, while thus proceeding head to sea,
which was much heavier than any other; it rose in front of the vessel
some 10 or 12 feet above the forecastle, and broke on the deck with
great force, for the moment completely swamping the fore end of the
vessel. A mass of broken water swept up over the top of the fore
turret, and heavy volumes of spray extended the whole length of the
flying deck, some small portion of it even finding its way down the
funnel-hatchway—which had been left uncovered—into the fore
stokehole. It should be borne in mind that the angles pitched through,
given above, do not measure the inclination of the ship to the surface
of the water, but only her inclination to the true vertical. Pitching and
lifting are produced by the vessel endeavouring to follow the slope of
the waves, or, roughly speaking, to keep her displacement the same
as in still water, both as to volume and to longitudinal distribution.
“As to the depressing effect of the water on the bow, a layer of water
one foot deep over the entire forecastle exerts a pressure of 65 tons;
this will produce a change of trim of 11 inches, together with an
increase in the mean draught of 1¾ inches; i.e. the draught of water
forward will be increased by 7¼ inches, while that aft will be
diminished by 3¾ inches. A layer 2 feet deep will have double this
effect; one 3 feet thick will have treble this effect; and so on up to a
considerable angle. This follows from the fact that the front slope of
the longitudinal curve of stability, up to a considerable angle, is very
nearly straight. Hence the effect, even of a large body of water
passing over the forecastle, tending to make the vessel dive down
head foremost, is small, and of no importance. It modifies, however,
the transverse stability. When proceeding head to sea there was no
appreciable rolling motion. With the wind and sea on the bow she
pitched considerably less than when going head to sea, but rolled
through 5 degrees or 6 degrees. With the wind and sea abeam, lying
passively in the trough of the waves, the maximum angle rolled
through was 14 degrees from port to starboard, 6½ degrees to
windward, and 7½ degrees to leeward, and this without perceptible
pitching. When, however, proceeding at about seven and a half knots,
with the wind and sea on her quarter, she rolled through 27½ degrees
from port to starboard, 13 degrees off the perpendicular to windward,
and 14½ degrees off the perpendicular to leeward, besides also
pitching through some 4 or 5 degrees. This is by far the greatest angle
she has ever rolled through. It is the apparent period of the waves, i.e.
their period relatively to the ship, which operates in making a vessel
roll. The motions of the vessel, both as to pitching and lifting and to
rolling, were extremely easy. She, indeed, claims to have behaved
better than her companion, the Agincourt. Certainly, her rolling motion
was somewhat slower, and she rolled less deeply; when the Agincourt
was rolling 17 degrees from port to starboard, the Devastation was
only rolling 14 degrees. As to pitching, the Devastation may fairly
claim to have had the advantage, for, as we have seen, although the
Agincourt pitched rather less, her bow moved vertically through a
greater distance, so much so that while going head to sea at seven
knots she shipped a sea over her high forecastle, showing that she
could not be driven under the circumstances at a much higher speed
with at least anything like comfort.”[43]
THE OLD “DREADNOUGHT.”
Photograph by E. Sankey, Barrow.
THE BIG GUNS OF THE OLD “DREADNOUGHT.”
Photograph by E. Sankey, Barrow.
The Thunderer, a sister ship in some respects to the Devastation,
and the Fury, afterwards called the Dreadnought, followed, but each
one included improvements and modifications suggested by the
experience gained with the Devastation. Hydraulic machinery was
installed for working the 38-ton guns of the Woolwich rifle pattern,
but in the Thunderer the two 35-tons were worked by hand. Their
guns were by no means generally approved, many artillerists being
of opinion that Whitworth hexagonal guns would have been better.
The important feature in the Thunderer, and one which contributed
very materially to her safety, was the introduction of a longitudinal
watertight bulkhead between the two sets of engines and boilers, so
that if one set should be disabled from any cause, the vessel would
still have the other set to depend upon. The Dreadnought was
engined on the compound system, which gave her a better speed on
a proportionately less coal consumption.
It is an old saying that the speed of a fleet is that of its slowest ship.
When the situation was further complicated by the varying sailing
powers of the ships the difficulty of the admiral in command to keep
his fleet together must sometimes have been very great. Admiral
Yelverton, for instance, when in command of a Channel squadron, in
1866, consisting of the Caledonian, Lord Clyde, Bellerophon,
Achilles, Hector, Pallas, Ocean, Wyvern, Research, and Helicon,
reported that he “took every opportunity of trying them to their
utmost, always placing them in positions as to wind and sea most
likely to test their capabilities as sea-boats, without much regard to
the safety of their spars or the risk of shipping far more water than
under ordinary circumstances ships of war would be exposed to....
“The Pallas and Research were the only two ships that could not
keep company with the squadron. The Pallas appeared to plunge
heavily, and carried away her jib-boom, but took her place in the
squadron on the following morning. The Research, from her very
small steam power, was out of sight at sunset, and put into Plymouth
to fill up with coal. On the 23rd we reached the prescribed
rendezvous ... when steaming ceased for a while, and the trials of
sailing began.” The ships varied as much under sail as they did
under steam.
The Wyvern, which was not a good sea-boat, and her sister ship, the
Scorpion, were built for the Confederate States, in 1864, at
Birkenhead, and were bought by the British Admiralty. They were
220 feet by 42 feet, and of 1,827 tons, and had engines of 350
nominal h.p. Each had two turrets containing two 300-pounders.
They had ram bows, and, except on the poop and forecastle, the
bulwarks could be let down when the ships were cleared for action.
The Pallas, an armour-plated six-gun ship, and the Research were
given recessed ports, in order to increase their firing range, but the
ports were constructed angularly and did not allow the guns to be
sufficiently depressed to hit a small boat close at hand; thus the
weapons would have been no defence against a torpedo-boat
attack, if the latter got to close quarters. This fault was remedied in
the Venezuelan transport and cruiser Bolivar, in which the recessed
ports were fitted under the personal superintendence of their
inventor, Captain Symonds, and were slanted outside the gun ports
so that they would allow of a gun being depressed to strike a small
boat lying nearly alongside, while their wall was curved instead of flat
as in the British ships mentioned. Her sister ship, so far as
dimensions were concerned, the Mary, was devoted to the more
peaceful requirements of the cattle-trade between London and
Gothenburg. The Bolivar was a twin-screw vessel, and it is curious to
note that even then, when this method of propulsion had proved its
superiority, it was gravely stated concerning her trials that “To keep
time in all weathers and in all seasons nothing is superior to the
paddle, but in long voyages, especially where sails are occasionally
used, the screw may be employed with advantage.”[44]
Several vessels followed in rapid succession after the turret ships,
and an upper deck battery was added in the Sultan, a vessel which
otherwise much resembled the Hercules, and then followed a class
to which the Iron Duke and Vanguard belonged. The conditions
imposed in the construction of this class were that they should draw
22 feet 6 inches of water, that they should carry armour not less than
8 inches thick at the water-line and 6 inches elsewhere except at the
bow and stern, that they should have a speed of thirteen and a half
knots, and that their guns should be capable of firing in any direction.
This class was named after the Audacious, and proved fairly
successful. The principal event which distinguished the class was
the accidental ramming of the Vanguard by the Iron Duke, in
September, 1875, off the coast of Ireland. They were all broadside
ships, and the type was brought much nearer to perfection in the
Alexandra, which was then the largest masted ironclad that had ever
been designed; and though she was a central battery ship, four of
her twelve guns could fire right ahead, and two right astern, and four
to six guns could fire one either broadside. She carried two
Woolwich rifled muzzle-loading guns of 25 tons each, and ten 18-ton
guns. The two big guns were placed in the upper deck battery
forward. As a further protection, besides her armour, the main deck
battery between decks was divided in two by an armoured bulkhead.
She was the first cruising armoured broadside ship in the British
Navy to have engines on the compound system, and her twin screws
were each driven by an independent set of engines with an
aggregate indicated h.p. of 8,000. Her speed at her official trials was
about fifteen knots.
Yet another type of turret ship was the Temeraire, launched in 1876,
which marked a noteworthy combination of the central battery and
barbettes or turrets. Her upper-deck armament was in two fixed
turrets open at the top and pear-shaped instead of circular, and
placed, one near the stern and the other near the bow. These stood
about 6 feet above the deck, and measured about 33 feet by 21½
feet. They were placed with their length in the direction of the ship,
and the rounded end of each pear, if it may so be called, was
towards the nearer extremity of the vessel. Inside each of these
batteries was a turn-table, hydraulically worked, on which was
mounted a 25-ton gun borne on a carriage after the Moncrieff
principle. This permitted of the gun being loaded in the turret and
raised above it to be fired. The recoil caused it to sink into the turret
to be reloaded. An armoured tube or hoist communicated with the
ammunition chambers below, and the gun always had to be brought
back into the same position for reloading. It will thus be seen that the
guns were fired as barbette guns and loaded as turret guns, and
many were the discussions as to the category in which they ought to
be placed. The armour of the fore turret was 10 inches thick, and
that of the rear turret 8 inches. On the main deck was a divided
battery. The front portion had two 25-ton guns firing through ports at
the corners, which were provided with oblique armoured bulkheads,
and the guns were pivoted at the muzzle to allow of a fire from right
ahead to abeam. The other portion of the battery was given four 18-
ton guns to be fired on the broadside. She was preferred as a
fighting ship by many to the Alexandra, which preceded her, in which
the main armament was carried in a central battery. The Temeraire
was heavily armoured down to below the ram, to protect her from an
attempt to rake her bows when pitching, for it will be evident to
anyone that when the fore part of a vessel is on the crest of a wave
the bows are greatly exposed, sometimes nearly to the foot of the

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BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT FOOD

AND WINEMAKING 1st Edition L.

Education and Knowledge Routledge Library Editions

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Harbinger 01 Storm and fury 1st Edition Jennifer L

The Ministry of education and science of the Russian Federation

BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT FOOD

Published by the decision of the Editorial Committee

ISBN 978-5-7882-2152-6 © Kashafutdinova L., 2017

Food industry is a complex of food producing brunches that

The section Home reading promotes the development of the

PART I. BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT FOOD

A. Look through the text given below and pay attention to

FOOD. FOOD SOURCES

such as Omega fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by

B. Find the sentences in the text to prove the following

C. Match the names of different plants with their “basis”:

D. Find the examples of using Passive Voice in the text and

E. Translate the following sentences into English:

F. What is your attitude to vegetarianism? Do you think

vegetarianism can you single out? Do you have vegetarians in your

Antioxidant substances include Beta-carotene, Lutein,

blood vessels contract and expand, to secrete hormones and enzymes

B. Answer the questions:

D. Paraphrase the following phrases referring to the text.

E. Find in the text the sentences containing conditionals.

F. Choose one of the vitamins mentioned in the text. Find

freeze-drying, food is first frozen and then the water is removed by

B. Say if the following statements are true or false, and if

C. Find English equivalents of the phrases given below in the text:

D. Fill in the gaps with the necessary prepositions or

6. Smoking is one______ the oldest food preservation

E. Find modal verbs in the paragraph about chemical

F. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of each food

FOOD PRESERVATION METHODS

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Smoking Preserve partly by drying, partly Eating a lot of

Ionizing Sterilizes foods (such as spices) Longer shelf life

Hinduism. Consumption of beef is taboo out of respect for the cow.

In Canada, horse meat is legal, but there is only really a

D. Find italicized words and phrases in the text. Explain

E. Match the words given in the frame with their definitions

danger noble attitude require origin

1) an expression of favor or disfavor toward a person, place, thing, or

F. What is the difference between Participle I and Gerund?

G. Pay attention to the use of proper names in the text. Read

E. Divide into several groups. Imagine that each of the

INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT FOOD

The scientific term for the common tomato is lycopersicon

Lettuce is the only vegetable or fruit which is never sold

B. Say what you’ve got to know about various fruit; honey;

C. Divide all the information into positive, negative and

Positive fact Negative fact Neutral fact