Polymers are made mostly by combining the element carbon with one or

more elements such as oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, and

nitrogen.

A Polymer is a large molecule containing hundreds or thousands of atoms

formed by joining two or more kinds of small repeating units called
monomers into chain or networked structures.

A long molecule made up from lots of small molecules called monomers.

Polymer molecules are very large: macromolecules

Most polymers consist of long and flexible chains with a string of C atoms as
a backbone.
When all the monomers are the same, the molecule is called a
homopolymer.
When there is more than one type of monomer present, the molecule is called
a copolymer.

1. Linear polymers
Linear polymers are those in which the repeat units are joined together end to end in
single chains. These long chains are flexible and may be thought of as a mass of
spaghetti. . Examples:
polyethylene, nylon.

2.Branched polymers:
It consists of branches of similar monomers or different monomers that
are branched along the main chain. Chain packing efficiency is reduced compared to
linear polymers - lower density
 2. Cross-linked polymers:

 Chains are connected by covalent bonds.

 Often achieved by adding atoms or molecules that form covalent links
between chains.
 Many rubbers (elastomers) have this structure.

3. Network polymers:
Multifunctional monomers forming three or more active covalent bonds, making a 3D
network. Examples: epoxies (used in paints, glues, fiberglass reinforcement, coatings
to prevent rusting)

Co-polymers
See diagrams in lectures
(a) Regular co-polymer
(b) Random co-polymer
(c) Block co-polymer

Plastics
Polymers are rarely used individually.
They are most often modified or mixed with additives (including colours) to form useful
materials.
The compounded product is generally termed as plastic.

Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular mass, and may contain other substances
to improve performance and/or reduce production
costs.

Monomers of plastic are either natural or synthetic organic compounds

which has become competitive enough to substitute metal or glass.
Natural ‘plastic products’ occur in things such as :
Animals horns - Casein (glue)
Animals milk - Formaldehyde (glue)
Insects - Shellac (French polishing)
Plants - Cellulose (table tennis balls), Cellulose acetate (cloth, photographic
film, handles),Cellophane (wrapping), Bitumen (roads, flat roofs)
Trees - Latex (rubber)

 The main source of synthetic plastics is crude oil.

 Coal and natural gas are also used.
 Petrol, paraffin, lubricating oils and high petroleum gases are by-products, produced during
the refining of crude oil.
 These gases are broken down into monomers.
 Monomers are chemical substances consisting of a
single molecule.

A process called Polymerisation occurs when thousands

of monomers are linked together.
Classification of polymers(plastics)

1.Thermoplastics
Chemical structure remains unchanged during heating and shaping
There are a wide range of thermoplastics, some that are rigid and
some that are extremely flexible.

The molecules of thermoplastics are in lines or long chains with very few
entanglements.
When heat is applied the molecules move apart, which increases the distance
between them,causing them to become untangle.
This allows them to become soft when heated so that they can be bent into all sorts
of shapes.
When they are left to cool the chains of molecules, take their former position and the
plastic becomes stiff and hard again.
The process of heating, shaping, reheating and reforming can be repeated many
times.

Each time a thermoplastic is reheated, it will try and return to its original shape, unless it has been
damaged due to overheating or overstretching. This property is called plastic memory.
This is why a shape formed in thermoplastic becomes flat when reheated.

Thermosetting plastics
The molecules in thermoplastics sit end-to-end and side-by-side.
 Although they soften when heated the first time, which allows them to be shaped they become
permanently stiff and solid and cannot be reshaped.
 Thermoplastics remain rigid and non-flexible even at high temperatures. Such a polymer does not
melt on heating, but chars and decomposes in a process called degradation and
are not usable.
 Polyester resin and melamine are examples of thermosetting plastics.

Expanded polystyrene
This is used for disposable food packaging, disposablecups, heat insulation and protective packaging
for electrical equipment.

Protective packaging
Nylon
 Nylon is hard, tough, self-lubricating, has a high melting point and has very good resistance to wear
and tear.
 It has been used to make clothing and bearings
 Image: A nylon castor (wheel).

PVC
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 The rigid type is used to make pipes, guttering and roofing. It is very lightweight and is resistant to
acids and alkalis.
 The plasticised type is used for electrical wiring and floor coverings.
 Image: plumbing U-bend

Elastomers
 These are virtually the same as thermosetting but they have a very high
degree of elasticity- that is they return to their original length after being stretched
repeatedly to twice its length.
 Exhibit extreme elastic extensibility under low mechanical stresses.
 The elastomer has a coiled structure and rubber like characteristics (elastic coiling
and uncoiling of molecules).

Plasticisers
 Plasticisers are small molecules which are inserted in between the tangles of
long- chain polymers and cause them to move apart, thus decreasing the force of
attraction between them. A crystalline or amorphous polymer can be made
more flexible by the addition of a foreign material of low molecular weight which
can infiltrate between the polymer molecules and reduce the attraction forces
between them.Organic solvents, resins and even water can be used as
plasticisers.

Strengthening of plastics

1. Crystallisation
This applies to thermoplastic materials formed
from addition polymerization that do not have
cross links.

2. Cross – linking
Cross linking of chains by vulcanisation with sulphur yields hand rubbers.
The same principle can be applied to thermosetting resins such as
polyesters and compounds of formaldehyde(ethanol) with urea, melanine
and phenol.

Increasing the rigidity of the carbon backbone (chain) by attaching bulky

groups to the chain to reduce bending. Eg polystyrene, polymethyl and
polyesters.

Mixing monomers to form co-polymers

Strengthening thermoplastics by the introduction of oxygen and nitrogen
atom in the main carbon chain.

1.Specific gravity : 0.90 – 2.2

2. Strength:Tensile strength ratios are comparable/lighter than those of
most metals.

3. Behaviour at elevated temperatures

Creep and degradation are more rapid at higher temperatures and strength properties
are reduced.

4. Behaviour in fire
All plastics are combustible and “spread of flame” over the surface of some plastics is high.

5. Thermal conductivity:Considerably lower values of thermal

conductivity.
6. Electrical properties:Plastics are excellent insulators.

7. Thermal expansion of plastic is generally several times more than that of steel.

8. Moisture movement :Absorbs very little water

9. Durability
High durability. This will vary with:
a) Type and grade of polymer
b) Compounding ingredients used
c) Exposure condition such as dirt
d) Temperature

Plastics have long durability. Sunlight, particularly the UV component, is the most
significant factor responsible for the breakdown of plastics.

UV radiation initiates the chemical reactions by which plastics are oxidised and
degraded. These
are often chain reactions which are accelerated by
conditions of warmth, oxygen and moisture.